when “just thinking” feels just right: the eudaemonic ......when “just thinking” feels just...

When “just thinking” feels just right: The eudaemonic benefits of autonomous solitude James N. Masciale, Connected Psychology, LLC Peter A. Caprariello, Stony Brook University Study 1 Outcome Measures o Happiness with the experience (3 items, 1-5 scale, alpha = .89) o Authenticity during the experience (5 items, 1-7 scale, alpha = .83) o Motivations for experiential buying (Zhang, Howell, & Caprariello, 2013) o Autonomous motivation (10 items, 1-7 scale, alpha = .89) o Controlled motivation (6 items, 1-7 scale, alpha = .86) Study 1: Recalling Chosen (vs. Not) Time Alone n = 87 undergraduates (51.7% male; ages 18-34, 57.5% single) - All participants asked to recall a time they spent alone. - Randomly assigned to 1 of 2 conditions: o Choice condition: “Think about a time you chose to do something alone.” o No choice condition: “Think about a time you did something alone, but not necessarily by choice.” The Challenges of the Disengaged Mind Recent research by Wilson, Reinhard, Westgate, Gilbert, Ellerbeck, Hahn, Brown, & Shaked (2014) suggests that the mind makes for a less-than-optimal stimulus. Without other people or distractions, individuals report spending time “just thinking” as a relatively aversive experience. There are two aspects of this study worth exploring in greater detail: 2. Defining Well-Being Researchers have begun broadening definitions of well- being to include eudaemonic forms , beyond pleasure and pain. Personal authenticity is defined as well-being from feeling that one is “in alignment with your true, genuine self” (Lenton, Bruder, Slabu, & Sedikides, 2013). When people feel free to consider their most important and self- relevant goals, to make plans without external input, and to think freely, personal authenticity is likely to arise. Hypothesis 2: Choosing to be alone should increase authenticity relative to being forced or to not having a choice. 1. The Potential Role of Motivation All participants in Wilson et al.’s (2014) research were forced to spend time alone. A large body of research shows that behaviors that are volitionally chosen – as opposed to enacted by force or perceived control – have positive effects on well- being in a variety of domains (see Deci & Ryan, 2000). Hypothesis 1: Choosing to be alone should be more valuable than being forced to be alone or to not having a choice. -0.44 0.34 -0.27 0.21 -0.42 0.32 0.02 -0.02 -0.60 -0.40 -0.20 0.00 0.20 0.40 No Choice Choice Happiness Authenticity Autonomous Controlled Indirect effect of condition through autonomous motivation on: Happiness, ab = .48, 95% CI = [.22, .83] [partially mediated direct effect] Authenticity, ab = .44, 95% CI = [.19, .81] [fully mediated direct effect] Study 2: Directly Extending the “Thinking Alone” Paradigm n = 74 undergraduates (48.6% male; ages 18-31, 51.4% single) - All participants came to the lab alone, and were told that they would be seated alone for an unspecified amount of time, between 10-15 minutes. - Randomly assigned to 1 of 3 conditions, in a yoked design: o Choice condition o No choice condition o Pressure condition Study 2, cont … - Before sitting alone, subjects in the Choice condition viewed: “Choose which experience interests you the most: A: Focus on your body B: Focus on your mind C: Focus on your thoughts D: Focus on your feelings” They then selected an option on how to spend their time. - Before sitting alone, subjects in the No Choice condition: Did not view the list of options. They were merely told to spend the time doing whatever was selected by a P from the choice condition - Before sitting alone, subjects in the Pressure condition: Viewed the list of options, made a choice, but were then denied. They were told to spend the time in the same way as above. 0.28 -0.1 -0.31 0.31 -0.22 -0.33 -0.09 -0.05 -0.12 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Choice No Choice Pressure Positive Affect Authenticity Interest *No evidence of mediation by intrinsic motivation in this study. Study 2 Outcome Measures o Happiness (PANAS, 6 items, 1-5 scale, alpha = .88) o Authenticity (4 items, 1-7 scale, alpha = .91) o Intrinsic Motivation Inventory (Ryan, 1982) o Interest/Enjoyment (7 items, 1-7 scale, alpha = .90) Conclusion We reliably found that autonomously motivated solitude promotes well-being, particularly in the form of personal authenticity.

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Page 1: When “just thinking” feels just right: The eudaemonic ......When “just thinking” feels just right: The eudaemonic beneﬁts of autonomous solitude James N. Masciale, Connected

When“justthinking”feelsjustright:TheeudaemonicbenefitsofautonomoussolitudeJamesN.Masciale,ConnectedPsychology,LLCPeterA.Caprariello,StonyBrookUniversity

Study1OutcomeMeasureso  Happinesswiththeexperience(3items,1-5scale,alpha=.89)o  Authenticityduringtheexperience(5items,1-7scale,alpha=.83)o  Motivationsforexperientialbuying(Zhang,Howell,&Caprariello,2013)

o  Autonomousmotivation(10items,1-7scale,alpha=.89)o  Controlledmotivation(6items,1-7scale,alpha=.86)

Study1:RecallingChosen(vs.Not)TimeAlonen=87undergraduates(51.7%male;ages18-34,57.5%single)-Allparticipantsaskedtorecallatimetheyspentalone.-Randomlyassignedto1of2conditions:o Choicecondition:“Thinkaboutatimeyouchosetodosomethingalone.”o Nochoicecondition:“Thinkaboutatimeyoudidsomethingalone,butnotnecessarilybychoice.”

TheChallengesoftheDisengagedMindRecentresearchbyWilson,Reinhard,Westgate,Gilbert,Ellerbeck,Hahn,Brown,&Shaked(2014)suggeststhatthemindmakesforaless-than-optimalstimulus.Withoutotherpeopleordistractions,individualsreportspendingtime“justthinking”asarelativelyaversiveexperience.Therearetwoaspectsofthisstudyworthexploringingreaterdetail:

2.DefiningWell-BeingResearchershavebegunbroadeningdefinitionsofwell-beingtoincludeeudaemonicforms,beyondpleasureandpain.Personalauthenticityisdefinedaswell-beingfromfeelingthatoneis“inalignmentwithyourtrue,genuineself”(Lenton,Bruder,Slabu,&Sedikides,2013).Whenpeoplefeelfreetoconsidertheirmostimportantandself-relevantgoals,tomakeplanswithoutexternalinput,andtothinkfreely,personalauthenticityislikelytoarise.

Hypothesis2:Choosingtobealoneshouldincreaseauthenticityrelativetobeingforcedortonothavingachoice.

1.ThePotentialRoleofMotivationAllparticipantsinWilsonetal.’s(2014)researchwereforcedtospendtimealone.Alargebodyofresearchshowsthatbehaviorsthatarevolitionallychosen–asopposedtoenactedbyforceorperceivedcontrol–havepositiveeffectsonwell-beinginavarietyofdomains(seeDeci&Ryan,2000).

Hypothesis1:Choosingtobealoneshouldbemorevaluablethanbeingforcedtobealoneortonothavingachoice.

-0.44

0.34

-0.27

0.21

-0.42

0.32

0.02

-0.02

-0.60

-0.40

-0.20

0.00

0.20

0.40

NoChoice Choice

Happiness Authenticity Autonomous Controlled

Indirecteffectofconditionthroughautonomousmotivationon:Happiness,ab=.48,95%CI=[.22,.83][partiallymediateddirecteffect]Authenticity,ab=.44,95%CI=[.19,.81][fullymediateddirecteffect]

Study2:DirectlyExtendingthe“ThinkingAlone”Paradigmn=74undergraduates(48.6%male;ages18-31,51.4%single)

-Allparticipantscametothelabalone,andweretoldthattheywouldbeseatedaloneforanunspecifiedamountoftime,between10-15minutes.-Randomlyassignedto1of3conditions,inayokeddesign:

o  Choiceconditiono  Nochoiceconditiono  Pressurecondition

Study2,cont…-Beforesittingalone,subjectsintheChoiceconditionviewed:

“Choosewhichexperienceinterestsyouthemost:A:FocusonyourbodyB:FocusonyourmindC:FocusonyourthoughtsD:Focusonyourfeelings”

Theythenselectedanoptiononhowtospendtheirtime.-Beforesittingalone,subjectsintheNoChoicecondition:Didnotviewthelistofoptions.TheyweremerelytoldtospendthetimedoingwhateverwasselectedbyaPfromthechoicecondition-Beforesittingalone,subjectsinthePressurecondition:Viewedthelistofoptions,madeachoice,butwerethendenied.Theyweretoldtospendthetimeinthesamewayasabove.

0.28

-0.1

-0.31

0.31

-0.22

-0.33

-0.09 -0.05-0.12

-0.4-0.3-0.2-0.10

0.10.20.30.4

Choice NoChoice Pressure

PositiveAffect Authenticity Interest

*Noevidenceofmediationbyintrinsicmotivationinthisstudy.