westerng gray whale advisory panel wgwap-18/inf.2 … · monitoring appended to the workshop report...

WESTERNG GRAY WHALE ADVISORY PANEL 18th meeting

WGWAP-18/INF.2-EN 15-17 November 2017

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Entanglement Risk to Western Gray Whales in Russian Far East Fisheries

Entanglement Risk to Western Gray Whales in Russian Far East FisheriesPrepared by Vladimir N. Burkanov, Lloyd F. Lowry, David W. Weller and Randall R. ReevesSubmitted to the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) for the Western Gray Whale Advisory Panel9 January 2017

Disclaimer: This is a working paper commissioned by IUCN and developed as part of the IUCN’s Western Gray Whale Advisory Panel process. It will be submitted to the International Whaling Commission (IWC) Scientific Committee (SC) for its annual meeting in May 2017. This working paper contains preliminary research, analysis, findings, and recommendations and is being circulated to stimulate timely discussion and critical feedback and to inform ongoing discussion on an emerging issue. It will eventually be submitted for journal publication - in another form and with its content revised to some extent. For more information, please contact the WGWAP Secretariat: [email protected].

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Contents

List of tables and figures ........................................................................................................................................................... 3

Acronyms ........................................................................................................................................................................................ 3

1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................................................... 4

1.1 State of knowledge of western gray whales ............................................................................................................... 4

1.2 Concerns about WGW-fishery interactions ................................................................................................................ 4

1.3 Objectives of this study ................................................................................................................................................... 5

2 Evidence of gray whale entanglement and entrapment in fishing gear ................................................... 6

2.1 Russian Far East ................................................................................................................................................................ 6

2.2 Other Asian waters ........................................................................................................................................................... 7

2.3 U.S. waters .......................................................................................................................................................................... 7

3 Distribution and movements of gray whales in the Russian Far East ....................................................... 8

4 Description of fisheries that may entangle or entrap WGWs in the RFE .................................................. 9

4.1 Materials and methods ................................................................................................................................................... 9

4.2 Coastal salmon trap fishery at Sakhalin Island ........................................................................................................11

4.3 Gillnet fisheries ................................................................................................................................................................13

4.4 Longline fisheries ............................................................................................................................................................16

4.5 Snurrewad fishery ..........................................................................................................................................................18

4.6 Demersal trap and pot fisheries .................................................................................................................................20

5 Likelihood of WGW entanglement or entrapment in RFE fisheries ..........................................................23

5.1 Coastal salmon trap fishery at Sakhalin Island ........................................................................................................24

5.2 Gillnet fisheries ................................................................................................................................................................24

5.3 Longline fisheries ............................................................................................................................................................25

5.4 Snurrewad fishery ..........................................................................................................................................................25

5.5 Demersal trap and pot fisheries .................................................................................................................................25

6 Conclusions and recommendations .....................................................................................................................26

7 Literature cited .............................................................................................................................................................28



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List of Tables and FiguresTable 1 FishingeffortforselectedmarinefisheriesinwesterngraywhalehabitatsintheRussianFarEast,

2010-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10Table 2 CommercialsalmondriftgillneteffortinwesterngraywhalehabitatsintheRussianFarEast,

2010-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .13Table 3 CommerciallonglinefisheryeffortinwesterngraywhalehabitatsinintheRussianFarEast,

2010-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16Table 4 CommercialsnurrewadfisheryeffortinwesterngraywhalehabitatsintheRussianFarEast,

2010-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Table 5 Commercialdemersaltrapandpotfisheryeffortinwesterngraywhalehabitatsinthe

RussianFarEast,2010-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Table 6 StructureofdemersaltrapfisheryeffortinwesterngraywhalehabitatsintheRussianFarEast,

2010-2014 (vessel-days). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20Table 7 Summary of the risk of entanglement or entrapment for western gray whales in Russian Far

Eastfisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27

Figure 1 FAOfishingzonesandvesseldailycatchreportlocationsforselectedfisheriesthatwereusedinanalysis ofinteractionsbetweenwesterngraywhalesandRussianFarEastfisheries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10

Figure 2 LocationsofsalmoncoastaltrapfisheriesactivityaroundSakhalinIsland,2011-2015 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11Figure 3 Figure showing the general layout of a coastal salmon trap like those used on Sakhalin Island . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12Figure 4 Locationsofdrift(A)anddemersal(B)gillnetfisheriesintheRussianFarEastin2010-2014(vessel-days) . . . . .14Figure 5 SeasonalchangesinthesalmondriftgillnetfisheryintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Figure 6 SeasonalchangesinthedemersalsetgillnetfisheryintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15Figure 7 Locationsofdemersal(A)andvertical(B)longlinefishinggroundsintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014

(vessel-days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17Figure 8 SeasonalchangesinthedemersalspecieslonglinefisheryintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014(vessel-days) .18Figure 9 SeasonalchangesinthesquidverticallonglinefisheryintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014(vessel-days) . . . . . . .18Figure 10 LocationsofsnurrewadfishinggroundsintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014(vessel-days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Figure 11 SeasonalchangesinsnurrewadfisheryeffortintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014(vessel-days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19Figure 12 Locationsofdemersaltrapfishinggrounds(allfisheries)intheRussianFarEast,2010-2014(vessel-days) . . .21Figure 13 Locationsofcrabfisheriesusingstandardcone-shapepotsintheRussianFarEastin2010-2014

(vessel-days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22Figure 14 LocationsofcrabfisheriesusinglargeAmerican-stylerectangulartrapsintheRussianFarEastin

2010-2014 (vessel-days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22Figure 15 SeasonalchangesinthedemersaltrapandpotfisheryeffortintheRussianFarEast,2010-2014

(vessel-days) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23

Acronyms

DCR Daily Catch Report FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations ISRP IUCN’sIndependentScientificReviewPanel(thepredecessoroftheWGWAP)IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IWC International Whaling CommissionRFE Russian Far East SC ScientificCommitteeSEW Sakhalin Environment WatchSI/M Serious Injuries and MortalitiesWGW Western stock of the gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus),alsocalledWesternGrayWhalesWGWAP IUCN’sWesternGrayWhaleAdvisoryPanel



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1 Introduction

1.1 State of knowledge of western gray whales

Gray whales (Eschrichtius robustus)occurintheeasternandwesternNorthPacificandadjacentseas.TheeasternstockrangesfromBajaCaliforniatotheArcticOcean,andisabundantandnotassignedanyspecialprotectivestatus (Carretta et al.2015).Thesituationwiththewesternstock(hereafterWGWorWGWs)ismuchdifferent.Historical evidence indicates that graywhaleswere fairly numerous in thewestern Pacific prior tomoderncommercialwhaling.Whalinginthatregionbeganinthe1890sandtookabout2,000animals,mainlyinKoreanandJapanesewaters,duringthe20thcentury(KatoandKasuya2002,IWC2015a).AtthattimetheymigratedalongtheAsiancoastbetweeneasternRussiaandtheSouthChinaSea.However,sightingshadbecomeveryinfrequent by the middle of the 20thcentury,andsomeconsideredWGWstobeextinct(Bowen1974).Morerecent observationsmade off the east coast of Sakhalin Island and southern Kamchatka suggested that apopulationof around140WGWsolder than calves existed in 2012,with an increasing trend in abundance(Cooke et al. 2013). WGWs are listed as endangered in the Russian Red Data Book and as endangered under the U.S.EndangeredSpeciesAct,considereddepletedandstrategicundertheU.S.MarineMammalProtectionAct,andlistedascriticallyendangeredintheRedListofThreatenedAnimalsmaintainedbytheInternationalUnionfor Conservation of Nature (IUCN; Reilly et al.2008).Althoughgeneticsstudiesshowdifferencesbetweentheeastern and western populations (Lang et al.2011),telemetrictaggingstudies(Mateet al. 2015) and photographic andgeneticmatchingofanimalsseenintheeasternandwesternNorthPacific(Welleret al. 2012) indicate that some WGWs occur in coastal waters of western North America where their distribution overlaps that of the easternstock(seeIWC2015a,b).

1.2 Concerns about WGW-fishery interactions

Two international bodies – the InternationalWhaling Commission’s (IWC) Scientific Committee (SC) and theIUCN’sWesternGrayWhaleAdvisoryPanel(WGWAP)–havebeenmonitoringandcommentingregularlyoverthepastdecadeandahalfonrecordedinstancesofWGWentanglementorentrapmentinfishinggear.

In October 2002, the SC sponsored a workshop onWGW research andmonitoring. The workshop reportsummarized the sparse evidence of fishery interactions through 2002, consisting of only one instance ofapparent entanglement in Japan (IWC 2004). The recommendations and 10-year plan for research andmonitoringappendedtotheworkshopreportreferencedtheneedtoexamineWGWphotographsforevidenceofdisease,scarsfromkillerwhale(Orcinus orca)attacks,andhumaninteractions(e.g.,shipstrikesandfishinggear entanglements and entrapments).

Atits2005and2006annualmeetings,theSClearnedofWGWdeathsinsetnets(i.e.,trapnets)inJapanduring2005(Katoet al.2005,2007;IWC2006a,2007;seesection2.2below).TheSCconcluded(IWC2006b)thataneducationcampaignwasneededforfishermenandothersthroughouttheWGW’spotentialrange,focusedondocumentationofstrandedorbycaughtwhalesandtheneedforeffortstoreleaseincidentallycaughtwhales.Further, it recommended that all range states organize strandingnetworks and conduct aerial surveys andbeach surveys to search for stranded or bycaught gray whales.

ThereportofIUCN’sIndependentScientificReviewPanel(ISRP,thepredecessoroftheWGWAP)includesareviewof the evidence available at the time concerning bycatch (including all forms of entanglement and entrapment) of WGWsinfisheriesineastAsia,andfisherieswerecitedamongthefactorscontributingtocumulativeeffectsonthe population (Reeves et al.2005).ThisandotherlatereffortsbyIUCN-convenedpanelsfocusedonthepotentialimpactsofoilandgasdevelopmentactivitieswithlittleattentionpaidtofisheries.However,theindividual-andstage-based population model developed by Justin Cooke (initially presented in Reeves et al. 2005) provided an analytical framework for evaluating removal scenarios that could be applied to bycatch mortality.



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FisheryissuesappearedexplicitlyontheWGWAPagendainNovember2007whenitwasnotedthattheWGWwas not currently listed as a protected species in Japan and that therefore the products of individuals caught infishinggear(orotherwisekilledorfoundstranded)couldbesoldinmarkets(WGWAP-31). A legal listing that wouldprohibitsuchusewasconfirmedbytheJapanesedelegationatthe2008SCmeeting(IWC2009).Atits2007meetingtheWGWAPreviewedthefourrecentdeathsoffemaleWGWsinJapan(threedeathsin2005andone in 2007) and concluded that those cases should be treated as additional mortality in Cooke’s population model.ThePanelconcludedthatarange-wideconservationstrategywasneededandIUCNthereforeorganizedarange-wideWGWworkshopinOctober2008.TheworkshopledtothedraftConservationManagementPlanthathighlightsentrapmentandentanglementinfishinggearasthegreatestknownthreattoWGWs(Brownellet al. 2010).

AdeadgraywhalewasfoundintheintertidalzonenearChaivoLagoononSakhalinIslandonthemorningof5September2009.Thecauseofdeathcouldnotbedetermined,andatitsDecember2009meeting(WGWAP-7)theWGWAPmadeseveral recommendations to improve stranding response.Alsoat thatmeeting, SakhalinEnergyidentifiedseveraladditionalissuesanddescribedactionsthatithadtakeninresponsetothestranding.Littleprogresswassubsequentlymadeonthisissue,andinfactthePanelwasdisappointedtolearnin2010thatSakhalin Energy had decided to discontinue its dedicated aerial surveys of Sakhalin beaches to search for whale carcasses(WGWAP-9).ThissubjectwasrevisitedbythePanelat itsFebruary2012meetingatwhichitnotedtheneedtoensurethatanyfuturestrandedgraywhalebeexaminedindetailandthatthisrequiredatrainednecropsyteamoncallandavailabletorespondtothenextstranding(WGWAP-12).ThePanelhascontinuedto state its belief that Sakhalin Energy and other energy companies operating at Sakhalin have a useful and appropriateroletoplaywithregardtocarcassdetection,strandings,andnecropsies(WGWAP-12and14).Also,thePanelrecentlyexpandedthistoincludedisentanglementtrainingandcapacitybuildingtobecarriedoutunderIWCauspices(e.g.,WGWAP-14,WGWAP-16).

Atits2015meetingtheWGWAPlearnedofagraywhalethathadbeenobservedentangledoffSakhalinin2013(seesection2.2below),andofopportunisticobservationsofsalmonfishingactivitiesnearPiltunLagooninJuly2015madebyGrigoriyTsidulko(WGWAP-16).ThePanelmadeacommitmenttoanalyzethefisheryinteractionissuefurther,andapreliminaryanalysiswaspublishedbyIUCNin2016asanannextoitsfirstPerformanceStandardsTaskForcemeeting(Lowry2016).

1.3 Objectives of this study

ObjectivesofthisstudywerediscussedandagreedataWGWAPmeetinginNovember2016(WGWAP-17),asfollows:

• SummarizeandmapallavailableevidenceofWGWentanglements,andreviewtheliteratureongeartypesknown to catch gray whales.

• Summarizethelegal/regulatorysituationinatleastSakhalinOblast,includingsalmonfishingaswellasotherfisherieswithpotentialriskofentanglingorentrappinggraywhales.

• Describeandmaptherelevantfisheriesandhowtheyoperate(forSakhalinandotherRussianFarEastfisheriesasfeasible).

• Identify gaps in knowledge and suggest ways to close them. • Suggest potential approaches to mitigation and consistent reporting and documentation.

1AllWGWAPmeetingreportsareavailableinEnglishandRussianathttps://www.iucn.org/western-gray-whale-advisory-panel/panel/meetings/glance-meeting-reports



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https://www.iucn.org/western-gray-whale-advisory-panel/panel/meetings/glance-meeting-reports

https://www.iucn.org/western-gray-whale-advisory-panel/panel/meetings/glance-meeting-reports

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2 Evidence of gray whale entanglement and entrapment in fishing gear

Becausetheygenerally feednearthebottom,often innearshoreareas,andgenerallyusecoastalmigratoryrouteswherefixedfishinggearisconcentrated,graywhaleshaveaparticularlyhighriskofentanglementandentrapment (Brownell et al.2010).Thereisclearevidencethatgraywhalescananddobecomeentrappedorentangledinfishinggear,particularlygillnetsandverticallinesusedforpotsortraps.Availableinformationonentrapments and entanglements of WGWs is presented below.

2.1 Russian Far East

BycatchisnotsystematicallymonitoredinmanyRussianFarEast(RFE)fisheriesanddataonwhaleentanglementsand entrapments are therefore very incomplete. Coastal regions are not systematically surveyed for beach-castanimalsandthereforecarcassesareonlydetectedopportunistically.Thosethataredetectedarerarelyexaminedcarefullyforpossibleevidenceofentanglementorothercausesofdeath.

LargewhalesareknowntobecomeentangledinsalmondriftnetsintheRFE(Kornev1994,Artyukhinet al. 2010). In1995-1999whenalargescaleJapanesesalmondriftnetfisheryoperatingintheRFEwasmonitoredbymarinemammalobserverseveryseason,therewererecordsofentanglementanddrowningoflargeunidentifiedwhales(BurkanovandNikulin2001,NikulinandBurkanov2001,Burkanovet al. 2007). Many observed entanglements occurredonthePacificsideofthenorthernKurilIslands.

As mentioned above, a dead 10m long male WGW was found stranded on northeastern Sakhalin IslandnearChaivoLagoonon5September2009.Thecarcasswasexaminedoverthenext fewdaysbypersonnelfromSakhalinEnergy, a local veterinarian, and representativesof relevant authorities (RosprirodnadzorandRosselkhoznadzor).Somesamplesandphotographsweretakenbuttherewasnoobviousevidenceofvesselstrikeorfishinggearentanglementandthecauseofdeathcouldnotbedetermined.Thecarcasswasburiedon18September.Photographsshowedscarringthatindicatedthewhalehadexperiencedapreviousnon-lethalentanglementinfishinggear(WGWAP-7report).

AweatheredWGWcarcasswasfoundonthesoutheasternshoreofSakhalinon10October2010.Thehunterwhofoundittookphotographsandestimatedittobe8mlong.Thephotographsshowedropeamongthebones,andexpertswhoexaminedthephotographsconcludedthatentanglementinfishinggearcouldnotberuledoutasacauseofdeath(WGWAP-16report).Alsoin2010,awhalecarcasswasobservedandphotographedinKronotskyStateReserveineasternKamchatka(WGWAP-9).Fromthephotographsitwasjudgedlikelytobeagray whale.

Apreviouslyphoto-identifiedWGWwasseenandphotographedoffnortheasternSakhalinon22August2013with rope around its caudal peduncle (Weller et al. 2014). A rope-related wound on the peduncle appeared relativelyfreshandtheropeitselflookedsimilar(i.e.,incolorandtype)tothatusedinthesalmontrapfisherythatwasoperatingnearby.Thewhalewasseenthenextyearwithouttheropeandwithnoevidenceofseriousinjuryapparent inphotographs (WGWAP-14report).This incidentrepresentedthefirstdocumentedentanglementofafree-ranginggraywhaleoffSakhalinIslandandcoincidedwiththefirstknowndeploymentofsalmontrapsdirectly in the feeding area at least since 1995 when annual research on gray whales in the region began (Weller et al. 2014).

In2014,fishermenreportedtoSakhalinEnvironmentWatch (SEW,a localnon-governmentalorganization inYuzhno-Sakhalinsk)thatalargewhale(reportedly>10mlongbutspeciesundetermined)hadbecomeentangledinasalmontrapsouthofPiltunLagoonandwasdeadwhenfound(WGWAP-14report).Graywhalesaretheonlywhalesofthissizethatarelikelytooccursoclosetoshoreinthisregion.



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On12September2016,aWGWinthePiltunareawasobservedtobeentangledbyalongropewithnumerousfloats on it. The line and floats were identified as part of a coastal salmon trap. The whale was seen andphotographedinlateafternoonandnotseenandreportedagainafterwards(Rе2016).TheentangledwhalewastentativelyidentifiedinoneoftheWGWphotocatalogues(WGWAP-17report).Itisimportanttonotethat2016 was a ‘low’ year for salmon runs on eastern Sakhalin Island and the nearest salmon traps were set 30 km northandmorethan40kmsouthofPiltunLagoon(Re2016).

Bradford et al.(2009)examinedphotographsofWGWs(alltakenoffSakhalin)forscarsindicatinganthropogenicinteractions.Theyfoundthat28of150individuals(18.7%)showedsignsofhavinginteractedwithfishinggearatleastonce.Unfortunately,inthistypeofanalysisthelocationswherewhalesencounteredthegearandthespecificfisheriesinvolvedarenotknown.

2.2 Other Asian waters

During2005-2007,fourgraywhalesdiedintrapnetsset alongthePacificcoastofHonshu,Japan(Welleret al. 2008,Katoet al.2013).ThefirstwasayoungfemalethatwasseenrepeatedlyinTokyoBayfrommid-ApriluntilearlyMay2005,whenitwasfounddeadinanet.Theninmid-July2005,amotherandherfemalecalfdiedinanetsetoffEnoshimaIsland.InJanuary2007,ayoungfemalewasentrappedinanetsetinYokahamaBay.Photographsweretakenofallfourwhalesbutonlythosefromonewhaleweresuitableforphoto-identification.ComparisonswiththeWGWphotocataloguerevealedthattheidentifiableindividualhadbeenphotographedandbiopsiedasacalfoffnortheasternSakhalininJulyandAugust2006whereitaccompaniedanadultfemale(Weller et al.2008). Itwouldhavebeenapproximatelyoneyearoldwhen itwasentrapped in thesetnet inJanuary 2007.

On5November2011,a13.1mfemalegraywhalediedfromentanglementinasetgillnetintheTaiwanStraitnear the mainland coast of China (Wang et al. 2015). Comparisons of photographs of that whale with the eastern andwesternNorthPacificcataloguesrevealednomatches.

2.3 U.S. waters

IWC(2015b)tabulatedknownentanglementsofgraywhalesintheeasternNorthPacific(notincludingAlaska)for the period 1978-2012. In this 35-year period there were 79 recorded deaths caused by entanglement in fishinggearand202injuries(degreeofinjurynotspecified).Thedocumentedbycatchrate(includingdeathsandinjuries) was about 8 whales per year for that region.

Carretta et al.(2015)reportedondocumentedbycatchofgraywhales,includingseriousinjuriesandmortalities(SI/M),alongthewestcoastoftheU.S.,includingAlaska,during2008-2012.Theaverageannualknownfishery-causedSI/Mwas4.4whalesperyear.IncidentswerereportedfromJanuarytoOctober,innets(8),potgear(7),lines/buoysonly(9),andtrawls(1).

During2012-2016,atotalof52entangledgraywhaleswerereportedalongtheU.S.westcoast.Inthe21caseswherethetypeoffishinggearwasconfirmedorsuspected,8involvednetsand13involvedpotgear.In11casesthegearwasidentifiedasoriginatingfromtheDungenesscrab(Cancer magister)fishery(LaurenSaez,personalcommunication).



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3 Distribution and movements of gray whales in the Russian Far East

GroupsofKoryaknatives(Kamentsy,ParentsyandItkantsy)livingalongthenortheasternshoresoftheOkhotskSeahuntedwhales,althoughtheparticularspecieskilledbytheseaboriginalwhalerswerenotwelldocumented(Krupnik, 1984); the author, however, believed that gray whales were hunted in this region until the early20thcentury.EuropeanandAmericanwhalersoperating inthewesternNorthPacific (mainly intheOkhotskSea)tookgraywhalesfromthelate1840stoatleastthemid-1880s(Henderson,1984,1990).

ThehistoricaldistributionandabundanceofgraywhalesintheOkhotskSeaoncegreatlyexceededwhatispresentlyobserved (Yablokov and Bogoslovskaya 1984). Reeves et al.(2008)plottedtheapproximatepositionsanddates(i.e.,months) of 160 kills and sightings of gray whales by American whalers in the Okhotsk Sea in the latter half of the 19thcentury.GraywhaleswereobservedconsistentlyinShelikhovBayandPenzhinskayaGulffromearlyMaytotheendofAugust.TheywerealsoseeninGizhiginskayaBay(NortheastGulf)betweenmid-MayandlateAugustandnear Magadan along the northcentral Okhotsk Sea coast from at least early June to early July and from mid-August tomid-orlateSeptember.AmericanwhalersapparentlydidnotvisitthecoastalwatersoffnortheasternSakhalinIslandwhere,sinceatleastthe1980s,WGWshaveassembledtofeedthroughoutthesummerandautumn.

Today, thenortheasternSakhalinshelf is themain feedinggroundforWGWs in theRFE (Welleret al. 1999). ThisfeedinggroundiscenterednearthemouthofPiltunLagoonandincludesanearshoreandanoffshorefeeding area (Demchenko et al.2016).Inagivenyear,approximately150whalesusetheseareas,withnumerousindividuals moving between them during the feeding season. Mothers and calves use only the nearshore feeding area,especiallytheshallowwatersveryclosetoshore.InadditiontothePiltunregion,occasionalsightingshavebeenreportedduringthesummerandfallinnearshorewatersbetweenCapeElizabethinnorthernSakhalinandVostochnyNatureReserveincentralSakhalin.Additionally,inthepastdecadeasummersightingwasreportedof several gray whales in Severny Bay in northwestern Sakhalin (SEIC 2011).

Numerousphoto-identifiedwhales,includingseveralreproductivefemalesandcalves,havebeendocumentedfeedingbothincoastalwatersoffSakhalinandoffthesouthernandeasterncoastsofKamchatka(Vertyankinet al.2004,Tyurnevaet al.2010).WatersoffsoutheasternKamchatka,particularlyOlgaBay,areapparentlyusedat leastoccasionally for feedingbysmallnumbersofgraywhales.AhighproportionofwhalesobservedoffKamchatkainagivenyeararelater(withinthesameseason)observedoffSakhalin.InadditiontosoutheasternKamchatka,occasionalsummersightingsofgraywhaleshavebeenreportedalongtheeastcoastasfarnorthasKaraginskyIsland(Tyurnevaet al.2010).GraywhaleshavealsobeenreportedoffsouthwesterntonorthwesternKamchatkainthesummerandautumn(Bradfordet al. 2010).

Therehavebeensporadic reportsofgraywhalesoffKekurnyBay,BabushkinBayandGizhiginskayaGulf inthenorthernOkhotskSea(SEIC2011,Filatovaet al.2016)aswellasofftheShantarIslandsinthefarwesternOkhotsk during the summer (Weller et al. 2003). A few of those sightings have been of whales matched to Sakhalin.Inthepastseveraldecades,graywhaleshavebeensightedoccasionallyoffthenorthernKurilIslands(ParamushirandShiashkotan)intheeasternOkhotskSea,andneartheCommanderIslands(MednyandBering)in the western Bering Sea (Weller et al. 2003).

ThemajorityofgraywhalesightingsintheRFEoccurincoastalwaters,oftenwithin5kmoftheshore,buttheyarealsoseenatsomelocationssuchastheoffshorefeedingareanearPiltunwhichis35-45kmfromthecoast.ThisdistributioninsightingsisinpartduetotheextensiveresearcheffortfocusedonthefeedingareasoffSakhalin.Results from a recent satellite-tracking study showed three whales departing the Piltun feeding area in lateNovember or early December and crossing open pelagic waters of the Okhotsk Sea as they moved eastbound to thecoastofsouthwesternKamchatka(Mateet al. 2015). All three whales then made long migrations eastward after leaving the RFE (see section 5 below).

WhenassessingtheriskoffisheriesintheRFEtograywhales,itisimportanttoconsiderthatbothcoastalandoffshorefishingoperationsareofconcern.Locationswherethethreatof interactionswithfishinggeararelikelytobemostpronouncedincludetheareasoffnortheasternSakhalinandsoutheasternKamchatka,wherewhales assemble in relatively large numbers to feed during the summer and fall.



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4 Description of fisheries that may entangle or entrap WGWs in the RFE

4.1 Materials and methods

CommercialfisheriesintheRFEusevarioustypesoffishinggearandvessels,someofwhichcanbedangeroustograywhales.BecauseverylittleinformationexistsonWGWbycatchandinteractionswithfishinggearintheRFE (seesection2.1above),wealsousedpublished informationon largewhaleentanglementsandentrap-mentselsewhere(HeyningandLewis1990,Bairdet al.2002,Gilmanet al.2006,Artukhinet al.2010,Reeveset al.2013,Werneret al.2015)toidentifypotentiallydangerousgeartypes.Theseincludedfisheriesthatuselongandlooseropesorcablesfordeploymentofgearsuchashooks,nets,ortraps.WeexcludedtrawlfisheriesandmostseinefisheriesfromouranalysisbecauseweconsideredthemoflowerconcerninregardtoWGWbycatch.Amongseinegeartypes,weincludedonlythesnurrewad(orDanishseine)whichisacommongeartypeintheRFEandisusedtocatchdemersalfishesontheshelf.Otherfisheriespreliminarilyidentifiedasbeingofprimaryconcernarecoastalsalmontraps;driftgillnetssetforsalmon;bottom-setgillnetsfordemersalfish;alltypesofcrabpotsandtraps,octopuspots,andwhelkpots;andverticallonglinessetforsquidandbottom-setlonglinesfordemersalfishes.

WeorganizedouranalysisbyFoodandAgriculturalOrganization (FAO)areas in theRFEwheregraywhalesregularlyoccurorwhere individualgraywhaleshavebeensighted (Fig.1below).Weusedadepersonalizeddailycatchreport(DCR)datasetobtainedfromtheRussiangovernment-financedinstitution“CentreofFisheryMonitoringandCommunications”for2010-2014.TheRussianFederationrequiresthateachfishingboatcapa-bleoffishingtripslastingover24hourssubmitresultsoffishingactivityelectronicallyattheendofeachday(i.e.,aDCR).TheDCRcontainsauniqueboatidentificationcode,thevessel’sposition(latitudeandlongitude)atthetimethereportissubmitted,fishinggearcode,numberandtotallengthoftimeoffishingoperationsthatday,fishcaughtbyspeciesinmetrictonsincludingtargetandnon-targetspecies,andthecodeforthezonewherefishingoccurred.Atotalof445,431DCRsexistinthe5-yeardatasetforalltypesofmarinefisheries;thisincludes312typesandmodificationsoffishinggear.Intotalweselectedandanalyzed238,735DCRrecords(Table1below)pertainingtothefisherieslistedabove.ThecoastalsalmontrapfisherydoesnotsubmitDCRs,soforitweusedpubliclyavailableinformationonsalmonfishingpermitsandrights,commercialsalmonfishingregulations,quotas,andcatchestoassesspotentialeffort.WealsousedinformationprovidedbyDmitryLisitsynandNikolayVorobiev(fromSEW)onactuallocationswheresalmontrapswereset,derivedfromhigh-resolutionsatellite imagery.



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Figure 1. FAO fishing zones and vessel daily catch report locations for selected fisheries that were used in analysis of interactions between western gray whales and Russian Far East fisheries

Fishing gear typesNumber of vessel-days with catch, per year

5-year total2010 2011 2012 2013 2014

Gill nets:

Bottom-set gillnet 1,035 1,025 1,086 1,112 916 5,174 Drift gill net 2,544 2,497 2,797 2,213 2,335 12,386

Longlines:

Demersal longline 5,862 6,627 6,730 6,389 5,648 31,256Pelagiclongline 455 - - - - 455 Vertical longline 3,669 4,946 5,305 8,356 7,458 29,734

Snurrewad:

Snurrewad 20,656 18,484 18,034 15,984 16,477 89,635

Demersal traps:

Crab cone traps 10,840 12,657 11,828 11,095 9,615 56,035 Crab trap large 712 725 658 763 722 3,580Demersalfishtrap 5 62 152 2 - 221 Octopus trap 583 433 554 317 332 2,219 Shrimp trap 729 683 621 738 744 3,515 Whelk trap 1,328 968 825 839 565 4,525Grand Total 48,418 49,107 48,590 47,808 44,812 238,735

Table 1. Fishing effort for selected marine fisheries in western gray whale habitats in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014



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4.2 Coastal salmon trap fishery at Sakhalin Island

Pacificsalmon(Oncorhynchusspp.) isahighlyvaluedfisheriesresourceoftheSakhalinregion.AllsixspeciesofPacificsalmon inhabitSakhalinriversandsurroundingseas,butonly twohavecommercialvalue,pink (O. gorbuscha) and chum (O. keta)salmon.Theannualcommercialcatchvariesgreatlydependingonthesizeoftheannualsalmonruns.During2011-2015,thecommercialcatchfluctuatedbetween75,000and220,000mt.SeeMRAG(2012)foradetaileddescriptionandanalysisofthepinksalmonfisheryinnortheasternSakhalinIsland.

The entire Sakhalin coast is a potential salmon fishing ground and it is divided into small sections that areassignedby theSakhalinGovernment to localprivatefishing companies fora20-yearperiod (Fig. 2below).Thefishingareaextendsoffshorefor2-3km.Therearetwosmallfishing-freezonesalongtheSakhalincoast.OnelocatedinthemiddleoftheeastcoastisVostochnyNatureReserveandthesecondalongtheTerpeniyaPeninsulaisanotherStatenaturepreserve(zapovednik)“Poronaysky”.Oncesalmonfishingrightsforanareaareassignedtoacompany,onlythatcompanyhastherighttofishsalmonthere,anditisresponsibleforallfishingoperations.Severalsectionscanbeassignedtoonefishingcompany.

Figure 2. Locations of salmon coastal trap fisheries activity around Sakhalin Island, 2011-2015

Panel A shows all of Sakhalin, panel B shows more detail of the western gray whale summer feeding grounds. White lines along the coast are salmon fishing parcels allotted to private companies and local communities. Red lines show actual coastal salmon trap locations along the Sakhalin coast in 2001-2015. Salmon fishing-free zones on east coast are Zakaznik “Vostochny” and “Poronaysky” State nature preserve.



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Thecoastalsalmontrapisalargestructureattachedtothebeachwithupto3kmof10mhighmeshedfence-linesetperpendiculartothecoast(Fig.3below).Thisfenceguidessalmonschoolsintooneormorefloatingtrapsattachedtoit.Manyropesandcablesareusedtoanchorthetraptotheseafloorandthoselinesextendfor up to several hundred meters from the trap.

Figure 3. Figure showing the general layout of a coastal salmon trap like those used on Sakhalin Island

1 – main meshed line that serves as a 2-3 km long fence; 2 – anchors or sand bags; 3 – salmon traps; 4 – anchor ropes; 5 – central buoy; 6 – coastline.

ThecommercialsalmonfishingseasonusuallystartsinearlyJulyandlastsabouttwomonthsuntilearlyormid-September.ExactdatesvaryslightlydependingontheregionandareestablishedannuallybyspecialActoftheSakhalinGovernment.ThisActallowsfishingcompaniestosetupcoastalsalmontrapsnotmorethan30daysbeforethefishingseasonstarts.SotheactualfishingactivityperiodonthecoastandincoastalwatersmaystartinearlyJuneandlastuntilmid-orlateSeptember.Installationofthetrapislabourintensive,requiring20-30+peopledependingonhowlargeafishingcompanyisandhowmanyfishingparcelsithas.Smallwooden,plastic,ormetal fishingboatswithoutboard gasolineor inboarddiesel engines areused, andbarges6-20m longserveasanauxiliaryfleettomovegearfromshoreintothewaterandsetitup.Catchisusuallytransferredtoprocessingfactoriesonshore,butduringyearswithhighsalmonrunslargeprocessingvesselsanchornearthesalmontrapstoprocessandfreezethecatchthatisbroughttothemonbargestowedbytugs.Afterthesalmonfishingseasonisclosed,fishermenremovethetraps.Someropesorcablesthatbreakduringthefishingseasonorinthetrapremovalprocessmaybeleftatthetraplocationwithbuoysorafewfloatsattacheduntilthenextfishingseason.

TheSakhalinGovernmentpermitscompaniestoinstall550-650coastalsalmonfishingtrapsannually,ofwhichabout500arealongtheeastcoastoftheislandandabout100alongthewestcoast(Fig.2above).Theactualnumberoftrapinstallationswithinpermittedparcelsisdeterminedbythefishermen.Especiallyifthecompanyownsseveralparcels,thenumberoftrapsonaparcelmaybelessthanpermittedsothetotalnumberoftrapssetannuallyislowerthanthetotalpermitted.Inrecentyears,morethan400trapshaveusuallybeensetoffSakhalin.During2011-2015,themajorityoftrapswerelocatedalongthecentralandsoutheasterncoasts(Fig.2aabove),andeffortwasmuchloweralongthenortheasterncoastwheretheWGWsummerfeedinggroundsarelocated(Fig.2babove).Nevertheless,in2015severaltrapsweresetveryneartheentranceofPiltunLagoon.Theywereinstalledinaccordancewithallsalmonfisheryregulationsandpermits.

SEWmonitoredthecoastalsalmonfisheryonallofSakhalinIslandin2011-2015usinghigh-resolutionsatelliteimagerytoverifycomplianceofthefisherywiththeregulations,suchasdistancebetweentrapsandfrommouthsofnearestrivers,lengthofthemeshedfence-lineattachedtotheshore,thefence-lineconfiguration,etc.TheSEW study also provided the information on actual salmon trap locations that is presented in Figure 2 (Dmitry LisitsynandNikolayVorobiev,pers.comm.).Thestudyfoundthat,inviolationoffisheryregulations,themainfence-linesofsometrapsextendedupto5.7kmoffshore.

Besidesthelegallypermittedsalmonfishery,illegalfishingoccursinsidePiltunLagoonandinthenarrowchannelthatconnectsthelagoonwiththeocean.Poachersusesetgillnetsandseines.



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InadditiontotheSakhalinregion,averylarge-scalecoastalsalmontrapfisheryoperatesalongthesouthernhalfofthewesterncoastofKamchatka(FAOareas6105.2and6105.4;Fig.1above)andalsoinKronotskyandKamchatskygulfsineasternKamchatka(area6102.2).

4.3 Gillnet fisheries

TwotypesofmarinegillnetfisheriesoperatedintheRFEin2010-2014,thedriftgillnetfisheryforsalmonandthebottom-setgillnetfisherythatprincipallytargetsPacifichalibut,Hippoglossus stenolepis(Table1above).

During 2010-2014, the Russian salmon drift gillnet fishery operated over a vast area along the east andsouthwest coastsofKamchatkaandalong theKuril Islands (FAOareas6102,6103,6104,and6105; Fig.4abelow).Fishermenusedsyntheticmonofilamentnets30-60mlongand6-10mdeepwithmesh60-80mm.Asmany as 100-150 nets were connected in one line and boats sometimes set several lines a day. Soak time varied between6to15hours.Totalannualeffortwhencatchwasreportedrangedfrom2,213vessel-daysin2013to2,797in2012(Table1above).Atotalof88Russianvesselsparticipatedinthefisherywith46-59vesselsfishingannually(Table2below).

Fishing vessel activity 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 5-year total

Totalnumberofvessels 58 46 54 54 59 88

Dayswithcatch,total 2,544 2,497 2,797 2,213 2,335 12,386

Dayswithcatch,pervessel 44±4.4 54±4.3 52±4.4 41±3.5 40±2.3 141±14.2

Minimumdays,pervessel 1 1 1 1 9 1

Maximumdays,pervessel 107 123 122 112 82 469

Table 2. Commercial salmon drift gillnet effort in western gray whale habitats in in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014



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Figure 4. Locations of drift (A) and demersal (B) gillnet fisheries in the Russian Far East in 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

(vessel-days)

(vessel-days)



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Theaverageindividualvesselfishingeffortrangedfrom40daysin2014to54in2011withamaximumof123days.Thefishingseasonstartedinearlyormid-MayandcontinueduntillateAugustorearlytomid-September(Figure 5 below). Fishing activity increased from May to July then dropped sharply in August. Essentially no fishingoccurredduringOctober-April.ThecommercialsalmondriftnetfisheryhasbeenbannedinRussiasince1January2016(FZ,2015).

Figure 5. Seasonal changes in the salmon drift gillnet fishery in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014

Thebottom-setgillnetfisheryfordemersalfishesoperatedmostlyintheOkhotskSeaoffthewesternKamchatkacoast(FAOareas6105.4and6105.1)andoffshorefromeasternSakhalinIsland(FAOarea6105.3;Fig.4babove).Bottom-set nets are quite similar to driftnets but have heavier lead lines and are held on the bottom with anchors.Oneanchorhasabuoyandlinegoingtothesurface.Bottom-setgillnetsareusedtocatchhalibut,Atkamackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius),andthornyheads(Sebastolobusspp.).AnnualfishingeffortintheentireRFErangedbetween916and1,112vessel-daysin2010-2014(Table1above).Atotalof48vesselswereinvolvedinthefishery,butthenumberfishingfluctuatedbetween15and28annually.Themedianannualfishingeffortofeachvesselrangedbetween12.5and29vessel-days.Over70%offishingeffortoccurredinareaswithdepthsof500mormorewiththosevesselstargetinghalibutandthornyheads.About20%oftheeffortoccurredontheshelfat20-100mdepthandtargetedAtkamackerel.Thereweredistinctseasonalpatternsinthebottom-setgillnetfishery(Fig.6below).FishingeffortsteadilyincreasedfromJanuarytoJuneanddecreasedfromJulytoDecember.Intotal88%ofthefishingeffortoccurredinApril-December.

Figure 6. Seasonal changes in the demersal set gillnet fishery in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014



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4.4 Longline fisheries

TwotypesoflonglinefisheriesintheRFEarecommoninWGWhabitat:theseincludethedemersalgroundfishlonglinefisheryandthesquidverticallonglinefishery.ThepelagiclonglinefisherywasnotincludedinthisanalysisbecausetheRFEfishinggroundswererestrictedtoasmallareainthewesternSeaofJapanandfishingeffortwassmall.Thegroundfishandsquidfisheriesareaboutequal infishingeffort.Annualfishingeffortforbothfisheriescombinedhasbeenquitesteadyat10,000-13,000vessel-days(Table3below).Atotalof345vesselsparticipatedinthefisheryduring2010-2014,with163-242vesselsfishingannually.Themedianofsinglevesselannualeffortrangedfrom40vessel-daysin2014to52in2010.ThemaximumannualsinglevesselfishingeffortwasthehighestamongalltypesoffisheriesintheRFE;itrangedfrom277daysin2010to324daysin2012.Thevesselsfishedyear-roundfordemersalfishspecies.



Vessel-dayswithcatch,total 9,986 11,573 12,035 14,745 13,106 61,445

Vessel-dayswithcatchpervessel,median 52.0 49.5 50.0 51.5 40.0 134.0

25th percentile 31.0 38.3 40.0 44.0 31.0 46.0

75th percentile 59.0 57.0 60.0 59.0 54.0 234.0



Table 3. Commercial longline fishery effort in western gray whale habitats in in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014

TargetspeciesinthegroundfishlonglinefisheryarePacificcod(Gadus macrocephalus), Pacifichalibut,Greenlandturbot (Reinhardtius hippoglossoides), Kamchatka flounder (Atheresthes evermanni), thornyheads, Macrourus sp., rockfish (Sebastes spp.),Atkamackerel,andeelpouts (Zoarcidae).Manyotherdemersalfishspeciessuchas sablefish (Anoplopoma fimbria), batoidsorrays, gobies (Gobiidae), flatfishes (Pleuronectidae), crabs, andcephalopodsarecaughtasbycatch,buttheirvolumeisverysmallcomparedtothatofthetargetspecies.SixdifferenttypesoflonglinegearwereusedintheRFEin2010-2014.Ingeneral,theyuseasyntheticmainline1-2kmlongwithshorterlineswithhooksattachedviaswivels.Onelonglinesethas1,000-2,000hooks.Bothendsof the set have lines that go from an anchor to a buoy at the surface. One boat usually sets 3 or more longlines. Soaktimeis6-24hours.AlongtheeastcoastofKamchatkathefisheryusesalargeportionoftheshelf(Fig.7abelow)atdepthsfrom100-300m.Of2,856DCRsfor2010-2014,over92%werewithinthisdepthrange,and54%werewithin100-200m.Only5%ofthefishingeffortwasreportedindepthsof20-100m.SimilarfishingeffortwasreportedinthenorthernKurilIslandsarea(FAOarea6103);therewasatotalof2,670DCRsinthe5-yearperiodwith81%oftheeffortintheshelfbreakzone(100-300m)andhalfofthateffortinthe100-200mzone.Only4%oftheeffortoccurredin20-100mand15%wasinareasdeeperthan300m.MostoftheRFEgroundfish longlineeffort inWGWhabitatoccurs intheSeaofOkhotskalongthewesternKamchatkacoast.Inthatregion,therewasatotalof20,887DCRsin2010-2014ofwhichhalfoccurredin2011.Only28%ofthefishingeffortwasin100-300mdepthsandonly5%ofthatwasin100-200mandlessthan1%wasinlessthan100m.Themajorityoftheeffortwasinwatersover300mdeep(71%).ThehighestfishingeffortoccurredinJanuary and February (~800 vessel-days) and the lowest in September and October (~200 vessel-days) (Fig. 8 below).



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Figure 7. Locations of demersal (A) and vertical (B) longline fishing grounds in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

(vessel-days)

(vessel-days)



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Figure 8. Seasonal changes in the demersal species longline fishery in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

TheverticallonglinefisherytargetsPacificflyingsquid(Todarodes pacificus),andtoamuchlesserextentothersquidssuchasneonflyingsquid(Ommastrephes bartramii).MostofthefishinggroundsarelocatedintheSeaofJapan(FAOarea6106;Fig.7babove).Operationaldepthis10-100m.Thisisaseasonalfisherythatoccursinlate summer and early fall (Fig. 9 below).

Figure 9. Seasonal changes in the squid vertical longline fishery in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

4.5 Snurrewad fishery

ThesnurrewadfisheryisoneofthemostcommontypesofcoastalgroundfishfisheriesintheRFE,especiallyintheKamchatka(FAOareas6102.2,6105.2,and6105.4),northernKurilIslands(6103),andPrimorie(6106.1)regions(Fig.10below).Thesnurrewadisatypeofseinegearthatisdeployedwhiletheboatmovesinacircle.Deployment starts by putting a buoy with 500-800 m of cable attached in the water as the boat moves forward. After this cable is out the seine goes in the water and after the seine a second cable of the same length as the first.Theboatcontinuesmakingacircle to thebuoywhere theoperationstarted.Then theboatpullsbothcablesandthecablesslipalongthebottompushingfishtothemiddleofthecircleandthenintotheseine.



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Figure 10. Locations of snurrewad fishing grounds in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

Thesnurrewadfisheryoperatesmostlyontheshelfat20-200mdepthswhere84%oftheeffortoccurs(Fig.10).Targetspeciesarewalleyepollock(Gadus chalcogrammus),Pacificcod,andflatfishes.Alargevarietyofotherdemersalspeciessuchassculpins(Cottidae),Pacifichalibut,saffroncod(Eleginus gracilis),andherring(Clupea harengus)arecaughtasbycatch.Thefisheryoperatesyear-round,butinsummermonthstheeffort isabout2-2.5 times higher than in late fall and winter (Fig. 11 below).

Figure 11. Seasonal changes in snurrewad fishery effort in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

(vessel-days)



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Atotalof392vesselsfrom20to50minlengthparticipatedinthefisheryin2010-2014,with260-316vesselsfishingperyear(Table4below).Catchwasreportedonover89,000vessel-daysandannualeffortrangedfrom16,477and20,656vessel-days.Onaverageonevessel reported52-62dayswithcatchduringayearwithamaximumofupto229days.




Vessel-dayswithcatchpervessel,median 55 53 52 54 62 185

25th percentile 32.8 25.0 29.0 26.0 34.8 83.8

75th percentile 91.3 81.0 87.0 82.0 79.5 307.8



Table 4. Commercial snurrewad fishery effort in western gray whale habitats in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014

4.6 Demersal trap and pot fisheries

Alarge-scalefisheryusingdemersaltrapsandpotsexistsintheRFE(Table5below).Thesetypesofgeararedeployedonthebottombytwomethods.Onemethodistosetseveraldozentrapsorpotsthatareconnectedtooneanotherwithaline1,000mormorelongthatisanchoredateachend.Eachendofthesethasalongropeconnectedtoasurfacebuoywhichfishermenusetoretrievethegear.Theothermethodistosetsingletrapsorlargepotsonthebottom,eachofwhichhasalonglinethatgoestoasurfacebuoy.Thesetypesofgearareusedtocatchcrabs,demersalfishes,octopus,shrimp,andwhelk(Table6below).




Vessel-dayswithcatchpervessel,median 97 110 88 93 95 231

25th percentile 36.0 54.0 43.0 37.0 39.0 57.3

75th percentile 153.0 162.0 138.3 139.0 146.5 545.0


Maximumdays,pervessel 324 318 323 318 323 1,447

Table 5. Commercial demersal trap and pot fishery effort in western gray whale habitats in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014

Type of demersal trap fishery 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 5-year total %

crab cone trap 10,840 12,657 11,828 11,095 9,615 56,035 79.9

crab trap large 712 725 658 763 722 3,580 5.1

demersalfishtrap 5 62 152 2 221 0.3

octopus trap 583 433 554 317 332 2,219 3.2

shrimp trap 729 683 621 738 744 3,515 5.0

whelk trap 1,328 968 825 839 565 4,525 6.5

TOTAL 14,197 15,528 14,638 13,754 11,978 70,095 100.0

Table 6. Structure of demersal trap fishery effort in western gray whale habitats in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014 (vessel-days)



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Over85%ofthefishingeffortinthetrapandpotfisheryisforcrabs.ThemajortargetspeciesareAlaskankingcrab(Paralithodes camtschaticus),spinykingcrab(Paralithodes brevipes),goldenkingcrab(Lithodes aequispinus),blueking crab (Paralithodes platypus),triangletannercrab(Chionoecetes angulatus),tannerorbairdicrab(Chionoecetes bairdi),beni-zuwaicrab(Chionoecetes japonicus),andsnoworopiliocrab(Chionoecetes opilio).

Atotalof216fishingboatswereinvolvedinthetrapandpotfisheryin2010-2014ofwhich120-148boatsfishedannually.Thevesselsreported70,095totalDCRs,withabout15,500-20,000annually(Table5above).Onaverageoneboatreported88to110fishingdaysperyear.Themaximumannualsingle-boateffortwasover318days.

Trapandpotfishingeffortwasspreadwidely intheOkhotskSeaandSeaof Japan(Figs.12-14below).MajorfishingareasarelocatedontheshelfalongthewesterncoastofKamchatka(FAOareas6105.2and6105.4),inthenorthernOkhotskSea(area6105.1),alongtheshelfofftheeastcoastofSakhalin(area6105.3),andalongtheAsianmainlandshelfintheSeaofJapan(area6106.1).Thefisheryusestheshelf(0-200m)andshelfbreak(201-500m),for47%and38%oftotaleffort.Thefisheryoperatesyear-roundbutismostactiveinMay-JuneandSeptember-November,wheneffortis3-4timeshigherthanintheothermonths(Fig.15below).

Figure 12. Locations of demersal trap fishing grounds (all fisheries) in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014. (vessel-days)

(vessel-days)



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Figure 13. Locations of crab fisheries using standard cone-shape pots in the Russian Far East in 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

Figure 14. Locations of crab fisheries using large American-style rectangular traps in the Russian Far East in 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

(vessel-days)

(vessel-days)



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Figure 15. Seasonal changes in the demersal trap and pot fishery effort in the Russian Far East, 2010-2014 (vessel-days)

5 Likelihood of WGW entanglement or entrapment in RFE fisheries

Trapnetsareknowntoentraporentangle,andkill,WGWsoffJapan(Welleret al. 2008) and recent observations show that WGWs also become entangled in coastal salmon trap gear in the RFE (Weller et al.2014;WGWAP-17).Heyning and Lewis (1990) reported thatmost graywhale entanglements off Californiawere attributable toinshore setnets and consisted predominantly of whales three years old or younger. Baird et al. (2002) found thatgraywhaleentanglementsoffthecoastofBritishColumbia,Canada,occurredinsalmondriftgillnet,salmonseine,herringnetpen,longline,andtrap/potfisheries.Whilesomedifferencesingeardesignanddeploymentstrategies exist between geographic regions, recent observations (see section 2.1 above) show clearly thatWGWsbecomeentrappedandentangledinfishinggearintheRFE.

WhiletheinformationpresentedinthisreportshowsthatgraywhalesintheNorthPacificcommonlybecomeentangledinfishinggear,andsometimesareseriouslyinjuredorkilledasaresult,itisnotpossibleatthistimetoestimatehowmanyofthoseanimalsareWGWs.Also,allofthefigurespresentedaboveunderestimatetheproblembecauseonlysome,possiblyasmallfraction,ofwhalesthatbecomeentangledareseenbypeople,reported,andexaminedtodeterminespeciesandcauseofdeath.Forexample,RobbinsandMattila (2004)estimatedthatonly10%ofentanglementsofthehumpbackwhales(Megaptera novaeangliae) that visit the Gulf of Maine are actually reported (judging by analysis of scars and wounds shown on photographs of the caudal peduncle).

Evenwithoutclearknowledgeofwhen,where,andinwhatfisherywhalesarebecomingentangled,itispossibleto use Geographic Information System analysis to assess entanglement risk based on distributions of whales andpotentiallyentanglinggear.Saezet al. (2013) conducted such a study to investigate the risk of large whale entanglement in commercial fixed-gear fisheries along the coasts of California, Oregon, and Washington.Commercialfisheryeffortwasmodeledbycombiningport-based landingsdatawithdepth-definedpotentialfishingareas,andamodelofseasonalgraywhaledensity(DeAngeliset al. 2011andinprep.).Thepredicteddensityofwhaleswasoverlaidwiththeestimatedamountoffishingefforttoidentifylocationsandtimeswhenentanglement was predicted to be more likely. Gray whales were at risk of entanglement during their annual migrationbetweenDecemberand June,andseveral areasand timesofhighco-occurrencewere identified.



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ResultsfromthestudyindicatedthattheDungenesscrabfisheryhadthehighestco-occurrencescoresandthuswasjudgedtobethehighest-riskfisheryforallwhalespeciesconsidered(graywhales,humpbackwhales, blue whales (Balaenoptera musculus),finwhales(B. physalus) and sperm whales (Physeter macrocephalus).

AnanalysissimilartothatofSaezet al.(2013)wouldbeusefultoexamineriskofWGWsbecomingentangledinfishinggearintheRFE.Section4abovesummarizesmuchoftheneededinformationoncharacteristicsofRFEfisheries,focusingonthetypesofgearthoughttorepresentthehighestrisk.However,asdiscussedinsection3above,theinformationavailableoncurrentWGWdistributionandmovements(includingmigrationroutes)is incompleteandnotsufficienttomodelseasonaldensitypatterns.Thebestthatcanbedoneatpresentisto conductageneral assessmentof risk.Wedosobelow,making threeassumptionsaboutWGWs:1) theymayoccuratvarioustimesofyearthroughouttheRFEregion;2)theyarepresentatthefeedinggroundsoffnortheasternSakhalinatleastasearlyasmid-May,withabundancegenerallyincreasingfromJunetoAugust,and they stay as late as mid-December in at least some years; and 3) at least some individuals migrate from SakhalintothewestcoastofNorthAmericaandback.Thedetailsofthatmigration,asdescribedbyMateet al.(2015)forthreewhalesnamed“Flex”,“Agent”and“Varvara”,areasfollows:FlexwastaggedatSakhalinon4October2010,stayednearSakhalinuntil10December,thenswameastwardacrosstheOkhotskSeaandalongthesouthwesternandsoutheasterncoastsofKamchatka.FlexthencontinuedeastwardacrosstheBeringSea,throughtheAleutianIslands,andacrosstheGulfofAlaskatotheU.Swestcoastwherethelasttagtransmissionwasreceivedon5February2011offOregon.AgentwastaggedatSakhalinon28August2011andstayednearSakhalinuntil24November.OnleavingSakhalin,AgentfollowedacoursesimilartothatofFlexatleastasfaras the central Gulf of Alaska but had not reached the west coast of the U.S. when the last tag transmission was received on 31 December. Varvara was tagged at Sakhalin on 31 August 2011 and also stayed near Sakhalin until24November.OnleavingSakhalin,VarvarafollowedacoursesimilartothoseofFlexandAgentbutafterpassingthroughtheAleutians,shecloselyfollowedthewestcoastofNorthAmericaeastwardandsouthwardtothevicinityofthewinteringlagoonsinBajaCalifornia.Then,startingon26February2012,VarvaramovedbacknorthwardalongtheNorthAmericancoast,turningatabout50°NlatitudeandswimmingwestwardthroughtheGulfofAlaskaandAleutianstoKamchatka.ShecontinuedwestwardandwasatSakhalinIslandon14Maywhen tag transmissions stopped.

5.1 Coastal salmon trap fishery at Sakhalin Island

Thecoastalsalmontrapfisheryusesanetfencethatextendsfromshoreto3kmorfartheroffshore.Thefisheryoperatesduringsummer,whichiswhenmorethan100WGWs,includingmother-calfpairsandnewlyweanedcalves,arepresentandfeedinginnearshore(andoffshore)watersoffnortheasternSakhalin.WhenthesetrapsaresetinareasusedbyWGWs,theywillwithoutquestionobstructtheirmovementsandresultinatleastsomeentanglements or entrapments and injuries or deaths. Many WGWs co-occur with salmon traps in the vicinity of PiltunLagoonfortwomonthsormore,andthereforethisfisheryposesaveryhighriskofinjuringorkillingthem.

5.2 Gillnet fisheries

Netsareoneofthetwomostcommontypesoffishinggearthatentanglegraywhales.

Mostof theeffort in thecommercialsalmondriftnetfisherywas in thePacificOceanfaroffshore,but therewasalsoagreatdealofactivityaroundthenorthernKurilIslandsstraitsthatsomegraywhalesuseduringtheirseasonalmigrations.SalmondriftgillnetfishinghasrecentlybeenbannedinRussiaandthereforeshouldnolongerbeanissueforWGWsintheRFE.However,severalfishingboatswerestoppedandtheircaptainsarrestedinsummer2016alongthePacificcoastofKamchatka;theywerefishingillegallyforsalmonwithdriftnetsusingpermitsissuedforthescientificfloatingsalmontrapfishery.SimilaractivitywasobservedalongthePacificsideofthenorthernKurilIslandsinearlyJuly2016(V.N.Burkanovunpublisheddata).Althoughthereiscurrentlyabanondriftgillnets,fishermenareexploringwaystogetaroundtheban,forexamplebyanchoringthenetindeepwaterandcallingita“setnet”.

Thebottom-setgillnetfisheryoverlapswithWGWdistribution inspaceand time inwatersaroundsouthernKamchatkaandthenorthernKurilIslands.Itisimportanttonotethatconsiderablefishingeffortoccurscloseto



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thecoastinsoutheasternKamchatkawhereWGWsareknowntobepresentatleastseasonally.FishingeffortishighestinsummermonthswhenwhalesarerelativelyabundantoffsoutheasternKamchatka(Vertyankinet al. 2004) and continues in the late fall and winter when some WGWs have been tracked moving through this area on migration (Mate et al.2015).Therefore,thebottom-setgillnetfisheryposesarisktoWGWs.

5.3 Longline fisheries

Longlinefishinggearhasonlyinfrequentlybeenidentifiedasentanglinggraywhales(Bairdet al.2002),butropeand line are commonly reported on entangled animals even though it may not be possible to determine the gear’s origin.

ThedemersallonglinefisheryoverlapsinspaceandtimewithWGWdistributionalongsoutheasternandeasternKamchatka,aroundthenorthernKuril Islands,and ina largeshelfarea in theSeaofOkhotsk.TherearenoknownrecordsofWGWinteractionswithlong-linefisheriesintheRFE(therehavebeennoobserverprograms),butbasedon year-roundfishingeffort, areaswherefishingoccurs, and timing thatoverlapswith theWGWseasonaldistribution,thereishighlikelihoodthatentanglementsoccur.

TheverticallonglinefisheryforsquidoperatesintheSeaofJapanduringlatesummerandearlyfall.Thefisherydoes not overlap with any currently known WGW feeding areas but in the past several decades gray whales have beenoccasionallyreportedintheSeaofJapan.WGWsarenotlikelytointeractwiththisfishery.

5.4 Snurrewad fishery

ThesnurrewadfisheryoverlapswithknownWGWseasonaldistributionalong theKamchatkaPeninsulaandnorthernKurilIslands.Effortinthisfisheryisthehighestofallthatareanalyzedinthisreport.ItisquiteactivealongthesouthernSakhalincoastandthePacificsideofthesouthernKurilIslands,andinthePrimorieregion.Longand loosecables,especiallywhenvesselsdeploythegear,mayentangleWGWs.There isananecdotalreportofalargedarkwhale(presumablyagraywhale)entangledinsnurrewadgearinthenorthernKurilIslandsin the late1980s, andfirmdocumentation2 of a humpback whale entangled in a snurrewad seine near the KamchatkaPeninsulain2015(V.N.Burkanovunpublisheddata).ItislikelythatsomeWGWsareentangledinthisfisheryespeciallyinsouthernKamchatkaandtheKurilIslands.

5.5 Demersal trap and pot fisheries

Trap/pot gear isoneof the twomost common typesof fishinggear thatentanglegraywhales,presumablybecauseofthelong,loosebuoylines,andlinesconnectingpotssetinstrings.

TrapandpotfishingeffortisspreadwidelyontheshelfandshelfbreakoftheOkhotskSeaandSeaofJapan.WGWsarelikelytoencountertrapandpotgearthroughouttheirdistributionintheRFE.MuchofthefishingeffortoccursinApril-OctoberwhengraywhalesaremostabundantintheRFE,butthefisheryoperatesyear-roundwithsubstantialeffortinNovember-DecemberwhenWGWsareknowntobemigrating.DemersalpotandtrapfisheriesposeahighriskofentanglingWGWs.

2 Video available at https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0SP5z1oIsbM



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6 Conclusions and recommendations

Asageneralpoint, it isclearthatforWGWstorecoverthroughouttheirhistoricalrange,accidentalmortalityand serious injury in fishing gear must beminimized to the fullest extent possible. Authorities, as well asfishermenandfishingcompanies, inalloftherangestatesneedtobemadeawareofandacknowledgetherisksthatfisheriesrepresenttotheseanimals.WeareencouragedthattheIWC’sMemorandumofCooperationConcerningConservationMeasuresfortheWesternGrayWhalePopulationhasnowbeensignedbyJapan,theUnitedStates,Mexico,theRepublicofKorea,andtheRussianFederation,andthatastakeholderworkshoptoupdateandcompletetheConservationManagementPlanforWGWs(seeBrownellet al. 2010) is being planned bytheIWCandIUCNforlate2017orearly2018(WGWAP-17report).ThismayprovideaframeworkinwhichdiversegroupsandindividualscanmakeprogressonreducingtheriskthatfisheriesbycatchposestoWGWs.

Withregard to thecoastalsalmontrapfisherywebelieve that informationcurrentlyavailable issufficient toshowthatentanglementriskinthenearshorefeedingareanearPiltunisveryhigh.Thisisespeciallyofconcernbecausethisisanimportantfeedingareaforadultfemalesandcalves,atacriticaltimewhenthefemalesarerecovering condition following pregnancy and lactation and the calves are being weaned. While there are several options for reducing this risk (seeLowry2016), theonlyway toeliminate itentirely is tostop thesettingofsalmon traps in or near the areas being used by the whales.

AssessingtherisktoWGWsfromopen-oceanfisheriesismuchmoredifficult.Amajorproblemwithidentifyingthe co-occurrence ofWGWs and those fisheries is a lack of comprehensive understanding of the seasonaldistribution and movements of the whales. Mate et al. (2015) have demonstrated that satellite-linked tags can providesuch information,and recommendations foradditional taggingeffortshavebeenmade in thedraftWGWConservationPlan(Brownellet al. 2010) and by the IWC (IWC 2015a). We believe that collecting additional satellite-tagdatafromWGWsisthemostimportantnextstepinrefiningtheassessmentofSI/Mriskcausedbyfisheries.Additionalresearchapproachesmustalsobecontinued,includingfieldsurveys(fromships,mannedaircraft,drones,andshore),photo-identification,passiveacoustics,etc.

Inthispaper,wehavebeguntoidentifyandcharacterizespecificfisherieswithintheRFEmostlikelytoentangleor entrap graywhales (see Table 7 below). Similar workmust be done throughout theWGW range.Whenthis information has been collected it should be combined in a Geographic Information System with WGW distributionandmovementdata,toidentifyproblem“hotspots”ofrisk(e.g.,fisherytypes,regions,andseasons).Thefinalstepmustbetoidentify,evaluate,andimplementspecificstrategiestoeliminateoratleastmitigatetheentanglementrisks–somethingthatmightbestbeundertakenregionally,orfisherybyfishery.



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FisheryNortheast Sakhalin Island

Okhotsk Sea offshore waters

Southwest Kamchatka

Kuril Islands

Southeast Kamchatka Action(s) needed

Coastal salmon trap Very high None Some None Some

Remove traps from northeastern SakhalinMonitor bycatch in other areas

Salmon driftnet None None None None None

Maintain driftnet prohibition Preventillegaldriftnetfishing

Bottom-set gillnet Low Some Some Low Low Monitor bycatch

Demersal longline None High High High High Monitor bycatch

Squid longline None None None None None None

Snurrewad Low None High High High Monitor bycatch

Trap and pot Low High High Low Low Monitor bycatch

Table 7. Summary of the risk of entanglement or entrapment for western gray whales in Russian Far East fisheries



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