Western Civilization IIHIS-102

Unit 11 – The Interwar Years

The Russian Civil War (1917-1922) Treaty of Brest-Litovsk polarized Russian society

Both nationalists and conservatives were upset at the terms

Two sides: Red Army and the White Army The Reds were the Bolsheviks who had seized

control with the October Revolution The Whites

Contained republicans, conservatives, middle-class, army generals

United by the desire to remove the Reds (Bolsheviks) from power

Controlled significant parts of the empire for most of the war

The Russian Civil War (1917-1922) There were also nationalist movements that were

threats to the Reds Included movements in Ukraine, Georgia, and north

Caucasus The Allies were also upset with the Treaty

Pulled Russia from the war effort Caused worries of a Russo-German alliance Were fearful that the Soviets would not take

responsibility for the massive foreign loans Russia owed them

The Allies did intervene on the periphery of Russia This solidified Bolshevik mistrust of capitalist world

powers

The Russian Civil War (1917-1922) Eventually the Reds gained greater support

from the majority of the population As the war progressed the Reds became better

organized Trotsky became the new commissar of war Organized 5 million man army by 1920

Economically, the Reds had to shift their focus because of the war Adopted “war communism” Government control of industry Government requisitioned grain from the peasantry Outlawed private trade in consumer goods Militarized production facilities and abolished money

The Russian Civil War (1917-1922) War communism could not counter the effects of

war Russian industry was devastated and major cities

emptied Industrial output in 1920 fell to only 20% of prewar

levels Large-scale famine (1921) that caused 5 million deaths Large-scale strikes because of the ineffectiveness of the

Bolshevik regime The war finally ended with a Red victory in 1922 Consequences:

One million combat casualties Several million dead from hunger and disease Total of 100,000 to 300,000 executed (on both sides) Created permanent hatreds

Whites standing over the bodies of Reds

NEP Period In March 1921, the Bolsheviks issues a new

economic program It was known as the New Economic Policy (NEP)

Reversion to state capitalism State owned all major industry and banks Individuals could own private property Farming land for the benefit of the peasants Grain requisitioning was replaced with fixed taxes

on the peasantry Lenin described it as “one step backward in order

to take two steps forward”

NEP Period Marxist theoretician Nikolai Bukharin argued

that the best way to industrialize the country would be to tax private peasants Peasants should “enrich” themselves Their taxes would support urban industrialization

and working classes The “golden age of the Russian peasantry”

Divided up noble lands to level wealth disparities Reintroduced traditional social structure (peasant

communes) Produced enough grain to feed the country By 1924, harvests returned to pre-war levels

NEP Period Overall the NEP was a failure Created an economic imbalance

Agricultural sector grew much faster than heavy industry This led to higher prices for manufactured goods

Peasants then produced more agricultural goods Causing their price to fall

Then peasants started hording goods to drive the market back up

Peasants refused to participate in markets to benefit urban areas Kept excess grain for themselves Cities experienced grain shortages

Joseph Stalin General Secretary

of the Communist Party

(1922-1953)

“Revolution From Above” Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (1878-1953)

Born in Georgia Joined the Bolsheviks in 1903 Exiled to Siberia seven times for revolutionary

activity During the Civil War, he became one of the

leading figures of the Reds In 1924, Lenin died

Many assumed that Trotsky would take over leadership of the party

However, there were other Bolsheviks would wanted control, including Stalin

“Revolution From Above” Stalin’s strategy was simple: isolate all

opposition Used the left to isolate the right, used the right to

isolation the left By 1929, Trotsky and Bukharin were removed

from positions of power Once in control he:

Abandoned NEP Believed that industrialization could not go quick

enough based on the taxation of the peasantry Increased tempo of industrialization

Believed the Soviet Union was falling behind the West

“Revolution From Above” Stalin forced the total collectivization of

agriculture Local party and police officials forced peasants to

join collective farms Peasant put up serious resistance

There were 1,600 large-scale rebellions between 1929 and 1933

Peasants slaughtered livestock rather than turn it over to farms

He targeted the “Kulaks” These were well-to-do peasants Became the term to represent any peasant who was

against collectivization

“Revolution From Above” Peasants’ farms were redistributed

Many were moved to places that were inhospitable or had poor farm land

Led to decreased agricultural production There was little incentive to produce food

The famine (1932–1933) The human cost was 3–5 million lives The Bolsheviks retained grain reserves in other

parts of the country Did not use the reserves to feed the population Instead, they were sold overseas for currency and

stockpiled in the event of war

1930 Soviet propaganda poster designed to get people to join the kolkhoz (collective farm)

“Revolution From Above” Stalin promoted a rapid campaign of forced

industrialization These were known as the Five Year Plans

First Five-Year Plan (1928–1932) Most stunning period of economic growth Industrial output increased 50 percent in five

years Built new industries in new cities Urban population more than doubled (26 to 56

million) between 1924 and 1939 The human cost

Large-scale projects carried out with prison labor

“Revolution From Above” The labor camp system was known as the Gulag

People were arrested and sent to camps By 1940, 3.6 million people were incarcerated by the

regime This labor was used for large scale projects including

the White Sea canal There were structural problems to Stalin’s plans

The command economy: production levels planned from Moscow in advance

Heavy industry favored over light industry Emphasis on quantity over quality

Five-Year Plan in Four Years—We will complete!

The Great Terror The “Great Terror” (1937-1938)

Also known as the Great Purge Series of political repression and persecution

The elimination of Stalin’s enemies, real or imagined Mass repression of internal enemies from the top

to the very bottom Purged the old Bolsheviks One million dead 1.5 million sent to the Gulag

With this purge, Stalin had complete control

Victims of the Great Purge from the Butovsky landfill

Italy after World War I Aftermath of World War I

A democracy in distress 700,000 dead $15 billion debt

Problems: Split between the industrial north and agrarian

south Conflict over land, wages, and local power Government corruption and indecision Inflation, unemployment, and strikes

Demands for radical reform

Italy after World War I In 1920, socialists and anarchists attempted

to take control of the factories Red Leagues formed in the countryside to

break up large estates In the November 1920 elections, Italians

abandoned the center and shifted to the extremes On the right was the Catholic People’s Party On the left was the Socialist Party Both did not want revolution but instead pushed

for greater reforms The rise of socialism led to the rise of more

right-wing vigilante groups

Benito Mussolini (1883-1945)

Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (1883–1945)

Was born to a socialist father and teacher mother Fled to Switzerland in 1902 to avoid military duty Returned to Italy in 1904

Editor of Avantia (1904-1914) Leading socialist daily Lost editorship when he urged Italy to side with

the Allies during World War I As a supporter for the war, he was kicked out

of the socialist party The party wanted Italy to remain neutral

Mussolini We fought briefly in the war before he was

wounded When he returned to Milan he had turned to the

right wing Moved towards revolutionary nationalism Founded Il Poplo d’Italia Pushed his ideas for support of the war and the

guarantees promised by the Allies He also began organizing the right-wing groups

Attracted young, idealist, fanatical nationalists who were upset with the terms of the Treaty of Versailles

Became known as fasci (“groups” in Italian)

Fascism In Italy In 1919, Mussolini formed the Fasci Italiani di

Combattimento Italian Combat Squad consisting of 200 members Claimed to oppose discrimination based on social class

and was strongly opposed to all forms of class war Wanted to raise Italy back up to the greatness of the old

Roman Empire This helped the party gain support mainly of the middle-

class The national government continued to weaken In September 1922, he began negotiations with the

king to allow the Fascist party into the government

Fascism In Italy On October 28, 1922, 50,000 fascist militia

marched on Rome on October 28, 1922 They became known as the “black shirts” Occupied the city Victor Emmanuel III responded by inviting

Mussolini to form a cabinet The Fascist Party took over the Italian

government without firing a single shot Failure of the Italian government was more in

its weakness than the power of the Fascist Party Also partly due to the failure of Peace of Versailles

Black Shirts marching on Rome

Italy Under Mussolini The Fascist Party set up a one-party dictatorship Three doctrines

Statism - “Nothing above, outside, or against the state”

Nationalism - The “highest form of society” Militarism - The “ennoblement” of man in war

First step was to change the government Got rid the electoral laws Abolished cabinet system

Mussolini assumed role of prime minister and party leader (Il Duce)

Introduced repression and censorship

Italy Under Mussolini Ending class conflict

A managed economy A corporate state

Granted independence to papal residence in the Vatican City Also promised restitution for expropriations

occurred during unification Roman Catholicism established as the state

religion Maintaining the status quo and “making the

trains run on time”

Weimar Germany (1918-1933)

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) November Revolution (November 9, 1918)

Occurred two days before the end of World War I Bloodless overthrow of the imperial government The kaiser abdicated Social Democratic Party (SPD) announced a new

German republic Socialists wanted democratic reforms within

existing imperial bureaucracy Radicals and communists wanted more wide

sweeping reforms Communists and independent socialists staged

armed uprisings in Berlin Social Democrats tried to crush the uprisings

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Elections not held until January 1919 Violence continued until 1920 Rise of militant counter-revolutionaries The Freikorps

Former army officers fighting Bolsheviks, Poles, and communists

Fiercely right-wing anti-Marxist, anti-Semitic, and anti-liberal

Called themselves Spartacists

Weimar Germany (1918-1933) Weimar coalition

Socialists, Catholic centrists, and liberal democrats Parliamentary liberalism

Pluralistic framework Universal suffrage for men and women Bill of rights that guaranteed civil liberties

The failure of Weimar Social, political, and economic crisis The humiliation of World War I Germany “stabbed in the back” by socialists and

Jews What was needed was authoritarian leadership

Germany Prior to World War II Treaty of Versailles (1919)

Article 231 – “War Guilt Clause” Placed full blame on Germany for the start of the war Ordered reparations of over 132 billion marks to the Allied

countries Many Germans saw this as an embarrassment since it

left the country economically broke and unarmed In April 1921, the Allies first began demanding

payment of war reparations from Germany This led to rapid devaluation of the German mark

In 1921, the exchange rate was 75 marks to $1 U.S. In November 1923, it 4 billion marks to $1 U.S. Many lost their life savings due to the devaluation of

the mark

Million Mark notes being used as note paper (October 1923)

Germany in the Great Depression During the 1930s, the Germany was hit harder

than the U.S. by the Depression Germany had a 33% unemployment rate while the

U.S. only had a 25% one By 1935, Germany literally ran out of money

Why was it so bad? Before the Crash of 1929, American businesses

had invested in the rebuilding of Europe After the Crash, Americans pulled out of Germany

Because of the shortage of jobs and food, many Germans were willing to turn to radical groups

Adolph Hitler and the Rise of Germany

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party In September 1919, Hitler was working as a

police spy for the German Army One of his duties was to infiltrate the German

Worker’s Party (DAP) He liked the ideas of the party and joined it It promoted the idea of nationalistic “non-Jewish”

socialism This became the foundation of the Nazi party

In October 1920, Hitler creates the Sturm Abteilung (SA), which became his own private army Their job was to protect Hitler and disrupt meetings

of political opponents The SA became known as “storm troopers”

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party In July 1921, Hitler was elected to be Führer of the

party He renamed it to the National Socialist German

Workers’ Party (NSDAP), or the Nazi party By 1923, Germany’s economy was in rough shape

In September 1923, Germany resumed making reparation payments to France

By November, people would be required to carry billions of marks to buy groceries, of which many could not afford

The Nazi party felt this was the perfect opportunity to seize power By November 1923, the Nazi party had over 55,000

members

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party Their plan called for the kidnapping of Bavarian

leaders at a Munich beer hall They would then force them at gunpoint to make Hitler

their leader They had a famous WWI general on their side who

would then help them win over the army Munich Beer Hall Putsch (November 8, 1923)

Hitler and his SA troops stormed in to the beer hall He managed to convince the leaders to support him However, they were unable to secure the support of

the army Hitler was arrested for conspiracy to commit

treason

Leaders of the Beer Hall Putsch

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party Hitler was put on trial in February 1924

The judges at the time were Nazi sympathizers Hitler used the trial to spread Nazi propaganda

During the trial he stated: “I alone bear the responsibility. But I am not a

criminal because of that. If today I stand here as a revolutionary, it is as a revolutionary against the revolution. There is no such thing as high treason against the traitors of 1918.”

He was still found guilty and sentenced to five years in prison with possibility of parole

He was given a large and comfortable cell at Landsberg prison

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party During his time in prison, Hitler dictated Mein

Kampf It contained a number of his political ideas In included his belief in lebensraum, “living room,” for

Germans It also included the concept of a “superior” race (the

Aryans) and “inferior” races (Jews and Slavs) He was released from prison on December 20,

1924 By this time, he realized his mistake was not having

the support of the military Instead, he was going to get support of the people and

the army by using the democratic process to his advantage

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazi Party While Hitler was in prison, the popularity of the

Nazi party had declined It had even been banned in Bavaria after the Putsch

When he was released from prison, he spent the next few years reorganizing the Nazi party Designed it to give a more legitimate appearance He used his oratory skills to win over politicians and

masses He reworked his image to appeal to the middle and

upper classes Hitler was able to enjoy a comfortable lifestyle in

Bavaria However, the Nazi party did not have any real

power until 1929

Paul Von Hindenburg (1847-1934) German President

(1925-1934)

Rebirth of the Nazi Party The Great Depression hit Germany hard

German industry came to a grinding halt without the foreign money and that led to job layoffs

At its peak, unemployment reached 33% in Germany Inflation skyrocketed and people lost their life savings

With the dramatic downturn of the economy, the Nazi party began to rise in popularity Prior to 1929, the Nazi party had a membership of

100,000 (less than 0.2% of Germany’s 60 million population)

The government was very ineffective in 1930 The German chancellor asked President Paul Von

Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag and call for new elections

Rebirth of the Nazi Party Hitler used these new elections to his party’s

advantage He campaigned throughout the country and

strongly appealed to the disgruntled masses He promised jobs, a strong economy, and to bring

back pride to Germany The Nazi party won 18.3% of the votes

This gave them 107 seats in the Reichstag and position as the second largest party in Germany

But they were not given a position in Hindenburg’s cabinet

From 1930 to 1932, party members did what they could to prevent a successful coalition The longer the government was in turmoil, the

stronger the Nazi party would become

1932 Nazi campaign poster “The workers

have awakened - Choose the National Socialists”

Fall of the Weimar Republic In February 1932, Hitler gained German

citizenship This would now allow him to run for president

That spring, he ran against President Hindenburg He came in second with 36% of the votes Hindenburg was 85 at the time

In April 1932, Chancellor Heinrich Bruening banned the SA and SS from Germany Many were fearful that the Nazis would use the two

groups to seize power Invoked Article 48 of the Weimar Constitution which

game the president power to invoke “emergency measures”

Many Germans were frustrated with Bruening They sought a more conservative government

Fall of the Weimar Republic In May 1932, General Kurt von Schleicher met with

Hitler He made a deal with Hitler:

Hitler would support a new nationalistic and conservative government under Schleicher

In return, the ban on the SS and SA would be lifted Included in this was the disposal of Bruening as

Chancellor and the call for new elections for the Reichstag

On May 29, Hindenburg asked for Bruening’s resignation Many were upset with Bruening for using Article 48 too

many times, including the President He appointed Franz von Papen as the new chancellor

Papen had been hand-picked by Schleicher

Fall of the Weimar Republic The Reichstag was dissolved and new

elections were to take place in July The ban on the SS and SA was lifted on June

15, 1932 What followed was an immense amount of

violence committed throughout Germany by the Nazis

“Blood must flow, blood must flow! Blood must flow as cudgel thick as hail! Let's smash it up, let's smash it up! That goddamned Jewish republic!”

“Bloody Sunday” (July 17, 1932) Nazis killed 19 and wounded close to 300 in a pro-

Communist area near Hamburg Papen invoked Article 48 in response and martial

law was declared in Berlin

Fall of the Weimar Republic At the July 31, 1932 elections, the Nazi party

won 37% of the vote This gave them 270 seats in the Reichstag The Nazi party was now the largest party in

Germany Hitler demanded the chancellorship from

Hindenburg but was refused The government continued to fail passing any

meaningful legislation Another election was called for November The Nazis were not able to put together another

strong campaign and lost seats in the Reichstag

Fall of the Weimar Republic Papen resigned on November 17, 1932

Hitler once again demanded the chancellorship, and was again denied

On December 2, 1932, Schleicher was appointed Chancellor However, he was not trusted by the people and had

difficulty putting together a coalition Papen approached Hitler about kicking

Schleicher out of power Papen and Hitler would both then be in control When Papen approached Hindenburg about this

alliance, he assured him that he would be able to control Hitler

Fall of the Weimar Republic On January 23, 1933, Schleicher asked Hindenburg

for emergency control of the government He had been unable to secure a coalition Hindenburg refused and asked for Schleicher’s

resignation On January 30, Hitler was named Chancellor

Papen was named Vice Chancellor as a condition of the appointment

One of the first things Hitler did as Chancellor was to Hindenburg to dissolve the Reichstag and call for new elections Hindenburg reluctantly agreed and elections were set

for March 5, 1933

Hitler as Chancellor

Hitler as Chancellor On February 27, 1933, a communist named

Marinus van der Lubbe set fire to the Reichstag There is some debate as to whether Lubbe acted

alone or if the Nazis also participated in the arson Hitler used the event for his own political

plans He promoted the fire as a Communist plot and

used this to his advantage Reichstag Fire Decree (February 28, 1933)

Hitler invoked Article 48 of the constitution to protect public safety

The decree also terminated many civil rights

Hitler as Chancellor Hitler also used this event to bolster the Nazi

party by spreading anti-communist propaganda When the elections were held on March 5, 1933

the Nazi party won 43.9% of the votes Enabling Act (March 23, 1933)

Hitler pushed for its passage at the meeting of the new Reichstag

It placed legislative powers in the hands of the cabinet for four years

It ended democracy in Germany

Hitler as Chancellor In March 1933, the first concentration camp

was set up in Dachau It was originally designed to house opponents to

the Nazi government On April 1, 1933, Joseph Goebbels, the Nazi

Propaganda Minister, organized a one-day boycott of all Jewish businesses This was the first of many anti-Jewish actions by

the Nazi government Also in April 1933, the Gestapo is born

It was created by Hermann Göring The name comes from Geheime Staats Polizei

(Secret State Police)

Hitler as Chancellor On May 10, 1933, Hitler organized a massive

book burning in Berlin Hundreds of thousands of books containing “un-

German” ideas were burned by 20,000 volunteers As Hitler was consolidating his power, he

realized that the SA had lost its usefulness and was actually becoming a detriment to his own power The leaders of the SA were becoming too left wing

and many feared that they would bring about a Marxist type of revolution

Hitler as Chancellor Night of the Long Knives (June 30-July 2, 1934)

A massive purge of the SA ranks in which 85 people were killed

On August 2, 1934, Hindenburg died Hitler’s cabinet passed a law making him

Führer und Reichskanzler (leader and chancellor) Hitler was made supreme commander of the

military and military personnel swore an oath to him and not Germany

Almost 85% of the population were shown to approve of these measures in mid-August

“Germany Lives!” propaganda poster (c. 1930s)

The Third Reich In March 1935, Hitler violated the Treaty of

Versailles by rebuilding the army He reintroduced the draft He rebuilt the navy and the air force

He violated the Treaty again in March 1936 Germany reoccupied the demilitarized zone of the

Rhineland England and France did nothing in response

On October 25, 1936, Hitler entered into a treaty (Axis) with fascist Italian dictator Benito Mussolini

The Third Reich Anschluss

As part of Hitler’s idea of a “Greater Germany,” Austria was annexed

The Austrian Nazi party held a coup just days prior to an election to prevent the annexation to Germany

This allowed German forces to enter Austria with no fighting taking place

England and France did nothing Hitler’s next step was the annexation of the

Sudetenland, part of western Czechoslovakia There were over three million Germans living in

the region at this time

Sudetenland in Czechoslovakia

Sudeten Crisis Many Germans in Czechoslovakia were

antagonistic against the Czech government in Prague They believed the government was discriminating

against them Hitler played off of this by rallying German nationalism

inside the Sudetenland The Germany political parties merged together,

under Hitler’s advice, to form the Sudeten-German Party Their rallying cry was for their separation from

Czechoslovakia and annexation by Germany The Czechoslovakian government turned to

violence as a means to suppress these separatists

Sudeten Crisis Hitler called for German annexation of the

Sudetenland Peace was first attempted in August 1938

British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain attempted to reconcile the conflict between the Sudeten-German Party and the Czech government peaceably

However, the Sudeten-German Party refused to negotiate

In September 1938, Chamberlain met with Hitler to find an amicable agreement

Sudeten Crisis Munich Agreement (September 30, 1938)

Britain, France, Italy and Germany agreed to divide up Czechoslovakia

The territories were given to Germany, Poland, and Hungary

Hitler was not to make any further claims for European territory

First case of official appeasement to Hitler The Czechoslovakian government was not

allowed to participate in talks However they did acquiesce and agreed to abide by

the terms of the agreement On March 15, 1939, Hitler’s troops marched into

Prague and took the rest of Czechoslovakia

Chamberlain and Hitler at the Munich Conference (1938)

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Stalin was angry with the Munich Agreement

The Soviets had not invited to the negotiations He had also wanted Britain and France to join in

an anti-fascist popular front Stalin feared the western countries would

continue their policy of appeasement with Hitler He believed they would either encourage or ignore

a German attack against the USSR

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact (August 23, 1939)

Non-aggression pact between the Soviet Union and Germany

It included a secret break down of countries in eastern Europe into “spheres of influence,” some for the Soviets, the rest for Germany

By 1940, those countries mentioned were either occupied or ceded part of their territories to either Germany or the Soviet Union

Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact

Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882-1945) U.S.

President (1933-1945)

Neutrality Acts Starting in 1935, the still very isolationist

Congress began passing a series of Neutrality Acts They were designed to prevent U.S. involvement with

any belligerent countries Neutrality Act of 1935

It banned shipment of war materials to belligerent countries

In 1936, Italy leaves the League of Nations It formalizes an alliance with Germany

Soon after, FDR asks Congress for greater discretion in applying the Neutrality Act but was denied

Neutrality Acts Neutrality Act of 1936

Expanded upon the Act of 1935 by prohibiting credits or loans to belligerent countries

Neutrality Acts of 1937 These were enacted in response to the Spanish

Civil War The original Neutrality Acts only included conflicts

between nations and not within them; this act amended this

Americans (both individuals and businesses) were restricted from assisting belligerents and were even prohibited to travel on ships owned by belligerents

Neutrality Acts Many criticized the Neutrality Acts

Some believed that these acts actually helped Germany It showed that the U.S. was not going to get involved in

Europe This encouraged Anglo-French appeasement policies

Others argued that the Acts also gave the advantage to Germany Germany had no need to buy arms while France and England

had great need The expansionist policies of Japan and Hitler gave

FDR the ability to protect the interests of the U.S. In 1937, he worked on a program to build long range

submarines to possibly blockade Japan In 1938, he got congress to pass a bill creating a large

enough navy to fight in both the Atlantic and Pacific oceans

Germany After World War I

Danzig Problem “Polish Corridor”

Created a corridor to give Poland access to the Baltic Sea that divided up Germany into two parts

Danzig (Gdańsk) was a free city even though a majority of its citizens were German

Because of this, there were increasing tensions between Germany and Poland

Beginning in March 1939, Hitler attempted negotiations to return the Danzig to Germany Poland had no plans to give up the city Hitler even offered land to Poland from other

sections of eastern Europe for the city

Danzig Problem Both France and Britain signed mutual

assistance treaties with Poland in August 1939 This was after the signing of the Molotov-

Ribbentrop Pact On September 1, 1939, Hitler declared that it

had “exhausted diplomatic options with Poland” and invaded Poland

England and France stated that they would stand by their treaties with Poland They issued an ultimatum to Germany: withdraw

or we will declare war