M.K.M Summary

Chapter One: English as a first Language

Crystal: to speak English, young learners need to acquire:

1- Learn the vowels and consonants of a language, and learn how to combine these sounds into sequences: m+p+s/ into jumps.2- Learn the vocabulary of the language. Over 50.000 words3- Learn the grammatical constructions.4- Learn the prosodic features needed to produce meaning5- Learn conventions of speaking related to gender, region, class, occupation.6- Learn the strategies of when and how all these rules can be broken to achieve special effects.

Four Theories made about the early sounds made by children:

- Universalist: infants start life able to make all the possible speech sounds that a human can make and then cease to make those sounds not found in their particular linguistic environment.

- Environmentalists: infants begin with no ability to make sounds other than cries, and rely on the environment to provide sounds for them to learn and copy.

- The production of speech sounds depends on a genetically determined programme, which is the same for all human children.

- Attunement theory: infants start with a basic set of sounds common to all but build up a repertoire of the sounds found in their particular environment

Three methods used to analyze speech data from young children:

- IPA International Phonetic Alphabet: it consists of a set of standard symbols into which the sounds of any language can be translated.

- Spectrographic analysis: a spectrograph takes a sound signal as its input and translates this to a visual image, termed a spectrogram.

- Different linguistic communities: ask listeners to make a global judgment about the similarity of the sounds made by infants after listening to a series of tape recordings.

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-Caregiver: the person or people who care for the infant and who therefore provide most of the childes early social and linguistic contact.

- Dyad: it consists of the child and the childes usual caregiver. They give patterns of interaction through playing, feeding, bathing and other activities offering opportunities for predictable language exchanges such as turn taking.

-Child-Directed Speech (CDS): it involves modified speech directed to children, which is different from the speech addressed to adults. It involves exaggerated intonation, higher pitch and slower delivery.

-Motherese: a speech style of Child-Directed Speech, which is a feature of some, not all cultures.

Clifton Pye: found that Quiche people in Central America do not modify their speech when talking to young children.

Shirley Brice Heath: found that black working-class communities in south-west USA do not usually use "baby talk" in their interactions with young children.

* Children learn to communicate before they develop language skills: they use limited vocabulary with varied intonation to convoy a range of meanings.

* Children recognize different patterns of intonation and different structures and identify it with different styles and functions of caregivers: fathers’ talk, structures and style differs from mothers.

Katherine Nelson: identified five semantic categories of words in use:

1. Specific nominals: daddy, mummy2. General nominals: doggy, ball3. Action words: eat, give4. Modifiers (properties or qualities): hot, sticky5. Personal and Social: no, bye-bye

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Characteristics of Children’s Early Language Acquisition:

1. Systematic use of sounds to convey meaning.2. Ability to understand words precede ability to produce them.3. Children are active producers of language; they use their own

structures to express meaning rather than those modeled for them.

Grammatical Development Stages:

1 - It consists of utterances, which are one word long. (60% naming function - 20% express action)

2 - Primitive sentence structures. Children learn basic word orderTwo words (verb + object: shut door) or (subject + verb: cat jump)

3 - ' Filling out ' adding extra elements of clause structureThree elements (daddy got car) four elements (you go bed now)

4 - Linking words such as (and, so then, before)

5 - Learn and apply irregular forms Nouns: feet – foot not feets Verbs: go – went not goed

6 - Using sentence-connecting features, complex patterns of subordination and developing an adult personal style.

Later Language Development

1. Schooling and its role in increasing children’s vocabulary2. Develop grammar skills and produce complex constructions 3. Develop communication skills, conduct conversations, use

question forms, and so on.4. Conduct effective communication in relation to specific audience

(jokes – punch line).5. Development of linguistic skills and social awareness (entwined).

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- Telegraphic speech: it describes the language of children at a stage where they do not use grammatical marks.

- Meta-linguistic ability: the ability to think about and reflect on language itself.

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Chapter Two: English in the Repertoire

Cooperative Conversationalists

Hatch: 'One learns how to do conversation, one learns how to interact verbally, and out of this interaction syntactic structures are developed'.

Therefore, language acquisition is a matter of learning the rules of social behavior and only later a matter of learning the grammatical rules by which these are realized.

Communicative Competence

Noam Chomsky

- Linguistic competence: the knowledge of the language system which the speaker of any language have enabling them to distinguish utterances which are grammatical in the language from those which are not.

- Linguistic performance: the frequently un-grammatical and / or imperfectly delivered actual utterances of language in use.

Dell Hymes

Communicative competence: competence should include not only what is grammatically correct but also what is socially appropriate such as knowing when to speak, which variety of language to choose, what is socially appropriate turn of phrase to achieve the desired effect.

- Monolingual: speaking one language, the mother tongue language.

- Bilingual: speaking two languages.

- National language: the language used in government offices.

- Bilingual competence: competence to use the two languages appropriately to achieve particular effects.

* For children to achieve bilingual competence: they need to recognize that their two languages are separate in (sounds, grammar, and meaning).

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-Knowledge of a language: the knowledge of the cultural appropriate ways of using the language correctly.

- Interference phenomenon: learners of second languages sometimes misjudge and transfer into the second language specific. Inappropriate, features of the first language.

Active learning: learners are following rules and testing them rather than imitating (passive learning).

-Bilinguals differ from monolinguals

* Bilinguals have greater resources, more languages and varieties within each language.

* Bilinguals develop knowledge of semantic references in both languages (word – meaning relations).

* Bilinguals recognize first phonetic, tonal, grammatical and semantic contrasts that are significant in their languages.

Usual pattern of language acquisition A rapid development of the sound system at an early age, overlapping with and followed by development of grammatical sensitivity and development of meaning and discourse strategies.

Do children talk in different ways to different people?

Infants are selective about whom they talk to.

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Chapter Three: Learning to read and write in English

-Literacy: learning how to read and write.

-Emergent literacy: the young childes first discoveries of reading and writing.

-Domains of literacy: daily living / entertainment / school-related activities / religion / general information / work / literacy techniques and skills / interpersonal communication / storybook time.

Literacy Practices

* different communities develop different literacy practices

- based on the studies of Schieffelin and Cochran-Smith about literacy before school in three different cultures :

A- Philadelphia nursery school in USA: the children parents were literate in English and placed a high value on reading and writing.

B- Kaluli community in Papua New Guinea: some adults learned to read English at the local mission but literacy played no part in the home activates.

C- Sino-Vietnamese refuge in Philadelphia: they were literate in Chinese but whose literacy priorities focused on the functional need to learn English. Symbolic writing systems

1- alphabetic script : shop names 2- syllabic symbols : numbers \ abbreviations 3- logographic symbols : H for Hospital4- pictograms : road traffic signs……………………………………………………………………………..

-Two principles identified as the basis of the writing systems:

Symbols should represent meaningor

Symbols should represent sounds

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Writing Systems

1- Logographic writing systems: such as Chinese, where symbols represent meaning.

2- Syllabic writing systems: such as Japanese which use symbols to represent syllabic units of sound.

3-Alphabetic writing systems: such as modern European languages.

Principles of writing Marie Clay writing development in New Zealand

1. The message concept: when children start writing down messages.

2. The copying principle: when children start copying symbols.

3. The directionality principle: when children start writing in a particular way on the page: left to right, up to down.

4. The inventory principle: where children list all the symbols they know.

5. The space principle: where children explore ways of separating words with spaces or dots.

Three principles controlling writing development Yetta Goodman USA

1. The functional principle: a Child’s learning about of how language is used, such as labeling pictures.

2. The relational principle: the child's attempts to find out how written language corresponds with the world, such as the size of an object and the length of a word?

3. The linguistic principle: children explorations of how different types of language require different types of language structures, such as. Dear granny marks the beginning of a letter; Once upon a time marks the beginning of a story.

* Yetta Goodman views children’s writing development as a process of active learning.

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Chapter four: English as a Classroom language

- Using English as the Medium of Education in Schools

A- To complete the learning task that correspond to the intellectual, social and linguistic development of older children.

B- learning subjects and their specialized technical terms using the English language helps pupils to enter the intellectual communities.

- Teachers use spoken language in the classroom ( functions ):

1-To direct and control pupils activities.2-A way for providing children with cretin kinds of information.

* The essence of formal education is that one person, a teacher, helps another person, a learner to do things which the learner would not be easily able to learn without some help.

- Aims of formal education :

1-To enable the process of learning and teaching.2-Children should acquire knowledge about particular subjects.3-Children should learn to use spoken and written language in "educated ways"

* Educated speakers of English are able to use the language when they explain ideas, describe events or processes, and construct arguments.......................................................................................................................

- Discourse communities : networks of people with shared interests, purposes and ways of using language.

- Schoolteacher(Mercer): someone who guides his or her pupils into active participation in educated discourses.

- Teaching and learning depends on the creation of shared experience and joint understanding.

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- Initiation-Response (Feedback or Evaluation )IRF exchanges – IRE sequences : The teachers initiate question to elicit information; pupils respond; teacher evaluates response or give feed back.

* Two types of questions: 1 - Closed questions (one possible answer).2 - Open-ended questions (more than one possible answer).

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- Children lacking fluency in English in classroom because of the culture Influence. Malcolm, the Aboriginal community favored and fostered reticence in speech.

- Collaborative learning: the students ability to use language as a way of thinking together, therefore thinking and talking in an educationally appropriate way as a social model of thinking Mercer.

What pupils have to learn ?

1-Pupils have to learn the special ways of using English that apply in school.

2-Pupils may have to learn to speak and write in English if they have grown up speaking some other language.

3-Pupils may have to learn to use Standard English if they have grown up speaking a nonstandard variety of English.

What is the multiple task of teaching bilingual students?

1- Teach the English language.2- Teach the educational ground rules for using English in the classroom.3- Teach the specific subject content.

- Code-switch : In some circumstances where English is used as the classroom language, but where the pupils’ first language is not English, a teacher may code switch to the first language if problems of comprehension arise.

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* To use standard English in the classroom: students should conform to the conventions of English vocabulary, spelling and grammar of the country.

Teaching Writing

- Genre approach (Halliday): it focus the attention of teachers and students on how written texts in English are expected to vary according to their nature and functions.

- Process writing (Graves): it shifts the focus from the finished product to the processes which pupils need to go through as writers.

1-Choosing a topic2- Discussing (idea of the topic)3- Drafting4- Revision5- Editing6- Publishing.

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Chapter five: A History of English Teaching

- Anglo-Saxon approach: King Alfred developed the first educational system and Latin words were translated to English, but for the purpose of learning Latin (Holistic: reading for meaning)

- Medieval Approach: It started with Latin because nearly everything at that time was written in Latin, particularly the Holy Scripture(it broke English into its constituents parts)

Sixteenth to Eighteenth century

* the growth of grammar, and grammar schools were established for teaching Latin grammar, and the growth in grammar schools created a demand for literacy in English, later on started the teaching of English as a subject. Nineteenth Century

*Most of the population could only aspire to a form of basic education, which for most children meant Sunday schools, evening classes or factory schools where children worked.

* Several Approaches on elementary education:

Approach One: was to discourage the teaching of reading and writing to the mass of the population. Approach Two: was to encourage reading but not writingApproach Three: literacy of English should be available to all, but the approach of literacy in English was seen as dangerous because literacy means reading, writing and thinking about texts.

English and the Celtic Languages

English in education meant the use of Standard English, therefore the spread of Standard English was at the expense of regional dialects. In government-funded schools in Wales and Ireland, Standard English was accompanied by the suppression of Irish and Welsh.

English and Empire

In India and other parts of the British Empire there was no attempt to eradicate the local languages. English was introduced as the language of the elite and as the language of higher education.The purpose was to prepare an elite that would cooperate with the British

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Two major influences ( Newbolt reports / Bullock Report ):

* The names of these committees reflect the common British practice of naming official committees after people who chair them.

The Newbolt Report

* The Newbolt Committee convened at the end of World War One to report on the position of English in the educational system.

- National unity (an education based upon the English language and literature would have a unifying tendency).

- literature it involved English taking the place of the Greek and Latin classics as the literature to be studied.

- language, it involved reducing class-based distinctions in speech and writing through the following:

1- Systematic training in the sounded speech of Standard English to secure correct pronunciation.2-Systematic training in the use of Standard English, to secure clearness and correctness in oral expression and in writing.3- Training in reading.

The Bullock Report

* The Bullock Committee convened over 50 years later, to consider in relation to schools, all aspects of teaching the use of English, including reading, writing and speech. The Report was commissioned as a direct response to a series of publications called the Black Papers.

* Black papers: unofficial papers, which clamed that standards of literacy damage the national economy. - The Report was satisfied with the teaching practices.- The Report emphasized that competence in language comes above all through its purposeful use, not through the working of exercises divorced from content.-According to the Report, all subjects had a responsibility for the development of language across the curriculum.

* The difference between the two reports is in their aims for English

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* Three modes of English as a curriculum subject embodied in British educational policy and practice: John Dixon

1-Language and Skills2-Literture and Cultural heritage3-Personal Growth

Teaching English in India:

The major issue was whether it was desirable to offer Indians European style of education using English, or to support the traditional Indian styles and language of learning.

Orientlists: they supported continued use of the classical languages of Indian tradition (Sanskrit,Perian,arabic).

Anglicicts: they gave support to English as the classical language.

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- Vernacular: languages that were spoken on an everyday basis and which also had a literary tradition.

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Chapter Six : Issues in English Teaching

-English as a subject: deals with values, culture and society (a potent combination) with powerful groups competing to control the definition of English and thereby the values being transmitted.

- Mother-tongue contexts: countries in which English is the first language of large sectors of the population and in which English is the taught as a first language in schools.

* Australian Education council Teaching standard Australian English is felt to be important because: - it is the language of formal spoken communication.- it is the language of the education system.- it is the language of professional life.

-One problem to which many linguists have drawn attention is : the difficulty of drawing clear boundaries between Standard English and nonstandard varieties.

- Standard English: refers to the structure of the language, its grammar and vocabulary, but it may be spoken in any accent. Katharine Perera

Characterization of Standard English: Katharine Perera

1-It is relatively uniform throughout the English-speaking world2-It is the variety used by educated native speakers3-It is the variety used in formal contexts

Standard English in the British Curriculum

-SE is distinguished from other forms of English by its vocabulary, and by rules and conventions of grammar, spelling and punctuation.

-The grammar features that distinguish SE include how pronouns, adverbs and adjectives should be used, and how negatives, questions and verb tenses should be formed.

-Differences between the spoken and written forms relate to the context of the situation: spoken is more spontaneous; written is carefully crafted.

-Spoken SE is not the same as Received Pronunciation; it can be expressed in a variety of accents.

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Two Approaches to Reading

- Phonics approach: it is concerned with the relationship of sound and symbol (Morris): Pupils can be taught to read most effectively by learning the sounds that letters make and joining these together to make words.

* The reason that phonics does not work for children:

The links between the letters and the sounds cannot be uniquely specified, because the written language is provided with 26 letters, but in spoken language it is used to produce 40 distinctive sounds.

- Real Books approach (Smith): (children learn to read by reading) Children become readers when they are engaged in situations where written language is being meaningfully used.

……………………………………………………………………………..

*Metalinguistic knowledge : the study of children's knowledge about language and how it works.

*Graphemes: letters or groups of letters.

*Phonic knowledge: focusing on the relationship between letter & sound

*Graphic knowledge: focusing on letter shapes.

*Word recognition: development of a vocabulary of a word.

*Grammatical knowledge: knowledge of word order

*Contextual knowledge: extracting meaning from text as a whole.

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Chapter seven: English for Speakers of Other Languages

Where English is taught and learned

* In France: most pupils study English as a foreign language at least three to four hours a week from the age of 11.

* In Malaysia: the English language is used as a second language and for internal business.

* In Morocco: a reading knowledge of English is becoming increasingly important at university level.

* In Brazil: private schools teach English, with the choice of learning British English or American English.

-English as a mother tongue (EMT)-English as a second language (ESL)-English as a foreign language (EFL)-English for speakers of other languages (ESOL)

Two early methods in teaching English as a second language

-Translation method: the literal translation of a text, then grammar focused methods).

-Drilling method: Teaching spoken English first, followed by intensive drilling of language patterns where English alone is used, followed by translation but only at an advanced level.

Writing a Text Book for teaching English is a dilemma for the writer

- Defining the purpose of the text book, which depends on the learners (EMT or EFL or ESL) and the level of teaching (school or university).

- Social and Culture influence can affect the writer's choice in defining the text book content.

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Chapter Eight : English in the Academic World

Causes of the global spread of English in higher education

-Support for the academic use of English throughout the world has been a part of the foreign policy of British governments.

-The role of the USA in many academia fields of research, thus increasing academic publishing in English.

-English became to function as a lingua franca for scholars of different language backgrounds.

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- Linguistic Imperialism (Phillipson): the process whereby a powerful language displaces other in some social functions, and in so doing assists the cultural influence of the nations which speak it.

The nature of academic English

Halliday has suggested that one common feature of the creation of a suitable functional variety of language for a field study is the creation of new ( things names ) : words for referring to newly discovered or specially defined objects, processes, relationships and so on.

* This kind of lexical development is achieved through :

Reinterpreting existing words. Creating new words out of native word stock. Borrowing words from another language. Calquing (creating new words in imitation of another language. Inventing totally new words. Creating locutions. Creating new words out of non-native word stock.

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* French style of academic writing :

-more self-consciously eloquent.-personally expressive.-arguments are constructed on a thesis/antithesis/synthesis.

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- Contrastive Rhetoric (CR): the study of how language is used in writing in different cultural settings.

* For non-native speakers of English the problem is doubled:(ESL) learners have to become competent in their use of specific lexis, correct structures and academic writing, as well as competent in the general use of English in social contexts.

Ballard :

Cultural shift: it describes the learning demands made on native English speakers as they start to deal with academic English in higher education.

Double cultural shift: it refers to the experience of non-native speakers of English in using academic English in higher education.

* Learning Academic English is learning the rules of a new culture not just learning the language (new ways of speaking, new ways of writing and new ways of behaving in academia).

Approaches of Teaching Academic English

One-The study skills approach: it includes teaching students how to plan and prepare essays, time management, preparation for exams and other general studying skills.

Two-English for academic purposes (EAP): it focused on teaching students correct linguistic forms for representing their knowledge in English.

Three-The genre analysis approach: Students are encouraged to read a wide range of authentic texts, in order to become aware of the range of genres and registers they would encounter within their own specific subject areas, therefore students would become more able to develop their own writing skills.

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Chapter One: Text, Time and Technology in News English

The role of English in world news (journalism)

1- English has been the language of modern journalism 2- The conventions of English news spread to other parts of the world3- The international news agencies use English

* The importance of time factor in news stories publishing

Time is crucial for publishing news because newspapers compete to be the first in publishing. * The influence of the Telegraph on news practices and forms

The influence of telegraph in news distribution: a quest to get the story first, before one's competitors.

Event structure & discourse structure (William Brewer)

Event structure: the order in which events actually happened.Discourse structure: the order in which events are told in a story.

* There is only one real-world event structure but many possible discourse structures.

Chronological order (matching event structure in sequence)

-Up to the 19th century, news texts presented the event in a chronological order (event structure was similar to discourse structure).

- From the 20th century, news events are not presented in a chronological order (event structure and discourse structure different).

Opening & End of (narrative story / news story)

- Narrative stories: the use of a coda

- News stories: do not use a coda; instead, in the beginning we have a title and a lead (first sentence which summarizes the story

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Labov's six elements of personal narrative structure

1. The abstract: summarizes the central action and main point of the narrative.

2. The orientation: sets the scene and provides information on who, what, when and where.

3. The complicating action: is the central part of the story proper.4. The evaluation: justifies the values of the story.5. The resolution: concludes the sequence of events.6. The coda: Additional remarks' bridging the gap between narrative

time and real time, and returns the conversation to the present.

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

- News Recency (immediacy) in news: the closer the news event to the present time, the more important the news becomes.

- Heteroglossia: the mixing of many voices.Each text does not represent the voice (influence of effort) of its author only, but represents multiple voices (multiple influences).

- Embedding: a type of heteroglossia, in which one speech event; is incorporated into another.

- Deixis: it refers to language features that anchor statements in relation to space (here, there) or time (now, then) relative to the speaker's viewpoint.

…………………………………………………………………………………………..

* Input sources in news stories:

Interviews Public address Press conference Written text of spoken address Reports, surveys, letters, agendas, research papers, etc. Earlier stories on a topic News agency copy Journalist’s notes

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Penny Press features

A- The penny press was a consumer good for a consumer society; it reflected all of society and politics, not just the world of commerce and commercial politics.

B- The penny press displaced not merely partisanship but an explicit ideological context in which to present, interpret and explain the news.

C- The penny press imposed the cycle and habit of commerce upon the life of society generally. Because in business time is money, the latest news can make a difference between success and failure, selling cheap or selling dear.

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Chapter Two: Visual English

- Visual Literacy: Learning through the use of visual information such as scripts,   pictures, diagrams, films, etc

Q - Are English texts nowadays multimodal?

Yes, they use devices from more than one semiotic mode (visual and verbal) of communication simultaneously such as Newspapers.

Q - Is visual literacy affected by regional and cultural differences?

Yes, visual literacy is affected by conditions of culture and time.

- Graphosemantics: meaning which derives from the text's 'written ness', by looking at what is written and how it is written and at the relationship between the two.

- Visual alliteration: The repetition of similar graphic elements such as Fish Fins.

- Visual puns: relying on funny connections between words, sounds and the idea being discussed.

Halliday's communicative Metafunctions

1- The Ideational metafunction: representing ideas and information.

2 - The Interpersonal metafunction: representing relationships; attitudes in formal or informal situations.

3 - The Textual metafunction: combining the ideational and interpersonal meanings into a text.

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- Visual Transitivity: for Halliday, a set of choices for representing 'what is going on in the world'

The Material process (Action-Transaction-Event) 

1- Action: there is one participant, an actor, so that the action is represented as though it is done for its own sake, without anyone or anything else being involved. Example:

Actor Material process: actionThe soldier fired

2- Transactions: there are two participants, an actor and a goal, so that the deed is represented as having consequences for someone or something else. Example:

Actor Material process: transaction GoalThe soldier killed innocent villagers

3- Event: there is only one participant, a goal, so that whatever goes on is not explicitly represented as being done by someone ore something. It is represented as just happening. Example:

Goal Material process: eventInnocent villagers died

High modality / Low modality

Modality in language is (probability - possibility – certainty)

- High modality: the expression of high truth value (certainty)

- Low modality: no certainty

Example:

A sharply detailed, fine grained photograph: high modality

No detail: low modality

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- Visual Deixis: references to time and place

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Chapter Three: English in Cyberspace

- Cyberspace: the imaginary space created by the internet in which people interact and form social relationships.

* The Internet combines (telephone communication and broadcasting)

The contradictory social implications of the internet

- Stephen Fry: looks at the internet as something positive. It frees people from the tyranny of face-to-face communication.

- John Snow: he is worried about the negative outcomes of internet communication, although the technology seems to bring with it new freedoms, it is not free of existing systems of inequality in economical, political or social life.

- Authors and publishers: are concerned about the status of texts on the internet and the intellectual property rights associated with them.

Three main issues around the English language and the internet

A- The extent to which; the technology of the internet supports and encourages the use of English more than other languages.

B- A concern about the political and cultural dominance by English speaking countries of a key global communications technology.

C- The extent to which English is itself changing because of its use on the internet.……………………………………………………………………………..

- Electronic text: the encoding of a communication, such as a picture, speech or a document, into an electronic form allows the material to be transmitted to another part of the world and then decoded.

- Economies of writing (Bolter): the dynamic and social relationships between writers and the texts they produce.

- Intertextuality: a term used to describe the manner in which any individual text relies for its meaning upon overt and latent references to other texts.

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* One theme that runs through discussions of language change is the tension between Unification and Diversification: at any one time, social, economic, political and technological structures can create greater or lesser tendencies towards unification or diversification.

-Fixity: the ability to ensure that the content does not change over time

-Subjectivity (Poster): to describe a person's sense of self and perception of relationships to others and refers to the subject when writing about the self.

- Organic Solidarity: a term used by one of the first sociolinguists Emile Durkheim, to describe modern industrialized society.

Theories about Writing literacy in industrially developed societies:

Derrida: claim that writing, rather than speech, must be considered as being the primary medium of social communication

Street: he argued that we must take account of the ideological role of literacy.

Street, Heath and Levine: literacy is not a single phenomenon, but consists of a set of literacies, each with a specific social role; position the social structure and so on.

* There is strong evidence that the printed word has played and still plays a major part in the construction of national discourse communities and therefore in defining the concept of nationhood and nationality.

Anderson: the technology that helped most; in the change from belief in religious community to a national community was the printed texts

For the national identity of non-English speakers of English, the use of English on the internet does not prevent people from reflecting their national identities, because they may use various means to do so:

1-using informal greetings2-using code switching3-using non-standard English language practices, which reflect the influence or features of their native language

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Chapter Four: Market Forces Speak English

- Border crossing: a term used by several linguists and sociologists such as Fairclough, to describe what they identify as a phenomenon in post-industrialized societies, suggesting that a complex range of new social relationships is developing to suit the needs of global economy bringing about some new uses of English.

Two processes of border crossing

A-Informalization: the use of informal forms of English in professional situations in which previously formal forms of English were used; the Boundaries between language forms traditionally reserved for intimate relationships and those reserved for formal situations are becoming blurred (Conversationalized-Fairclough).

Two points of view:

1- The use of more everyday English in a widening range of contexts is a good thing because it allows people to understand and participate in interactions more easily.

2- Using 'the language of the people' allows those in position of power, such as government officials or politicians, to imply the existence of friendly relationships between themselves and the public where no such relationship actually exists.

B-Marketization: English texts are becoming increasingly market-oriented or marketized. Advertising language is crossing over into the domain of information. For example, government documents and information leaflets may use styles of verbal English and visual forms, which where commonly used in commercial advertising.

Some markers of informal language:

1-Uusing terms of address2-Using Shortened names instead of full names3-Contractions of negatives or auxiliary verbs4-Using more informal vocabulary; such as colloquialism forms5-Using active rather than passive verbs6- Using Intonation

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-Plain English: a term associated with a linguistic movement towards making formal documents more comprehensible using plane English.

- Monologic: a term associated with the Russian theorist Bakhtin. It refers to single-voiced dialogue, where the author's voice is dominant.

Reasons for adopting an informal or conversational style of English:

1. it's used between intimates or equals2. To make writing or speech more accessible to an audience3. as a resource to create or maintain professional relationships

Visual elements used in written texts to imply spoken English:

1-.Typographical devices 2-Speech bubbles3-Punctuation4-Triadic structure 5-Semi-phonetic representation of nonstandard English 6-Intonation

-Marketalized English: in documents is a type of border crossing .It means to use persuasive techniques in a friendly and informal way in order to persuade the customer and get a better chance of sale.

* Commercial institutions train their employees about how to talk to the public or to the clients (the words they should use), which Fairclough describes as Technologization of Discourse.

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M.K.M Summary

Chapter Five: Global English, global Culture How did English come to be such a dominant world language?

Umberto Eco: the predominant position currently enjoyed by English is a historical contingency arising from the mercantile and colonial expansion of the British Empire, followed by American economic and technological hegemony. Of course, English has succeeded because it is rich in monosyllables, capable of absorbing foreign words and flexible in forming neologisms.

The Utopian Dream

The dream of a shared world language, which could act as a natural vehicle of communication between peoples of different nationalities and interests, which could serve the purposes of diplomacy and commerce and provide a rational and logical vehicle for science.

In the beginning of the Renaissance, two lingua francas existed:

1- Latin: the language of elite groups2- Sabir: a pidgin based on southern Romance languages and used for trade between Europeans, Turks, Arabs and others.

- Artificial language: a designed language that was capable of representing the new ideas and concepts generated by scientific enquiry and as a universal language for communication.

* artificial languages were referred as auxiliary languages in order to make it clear that they were not expected to replace any natural language or to become the property of any one nation .

* The auxiliary language movement was abandon because the English language became, de facto, the international lingua franca.

* From the second half of the 19th century, English became the world language because of British colonial expansion, the industrial revolution, and increased trade. The USA emerged as a great world, economic and technological force that supported English.

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M.K.M Summary

- Basic English: a simpler, modified and a more logical form of English created by C.K Ogden, as a lingua franca for basic communication. Its central idea was the identification of a limited vocabulary, of only 850 words used for general purposes of everyday existence with the eradication of all emotive vocabulary. Ogden identified just sixteen verb forms to serve for all communication purposes.

* Examples of existing modified forms of English:

Airs-peak: used for air traffic controlSea-speak: used in maritime navigation

* The English language status varies in different parts of the world:

- In Africa, French is more important than English.

- In South and Central America, Spanish is the dominant language. - In Hong Kong which was a British colony for 150 years, Mandarin language is considered more important than English.

Contradictory views about the spread of English:

A- For some people, it is a major opportunity for progress at both the individual and social levels. It is essential for following up scientific and technological progress. It provides access to communication and information. It also provides better opportunities for employment.

B- For other people it is a colonial instrument used as a tool for domination, and they describe its spread as linguistic imperialism. They believe that it will kill other national languages and cultures, especially those of small communities, and thus call it the killer language. They also think that it promotes consumerism and social / economic inequality.

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M.K.M Summary

English and Communication Media in relation to globalization:

- Globalization: This term refers to the increasingly interdependence between various peoples and countries that are geographically distant from each other but interact through modern communication and transportation.

Communication technology that use English as a lingua franca, have transformed the world into a small village. The main market of media technology is under the domination of English-speaking countries.

The influence of English on other languages is often indirect, since the material include images of lifestyle, worldviews, social relations, etc which have indirect influence even after translating the media text into a national language. English may even influence the word order or morphology of other languages. Globalization thus may lead to convergence of ideas, values, and cultures.

However, globalization may also be a source of diversity and national identity as local cultural features are exploited for advertisements and marketing. It may play a unifying role, or the opposite depending on where and how it is used.

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