week 4a. the dp and the geometry of trees cas lx 522 syntax i

Week 4a. The DP andWeek 4a. The DP andthe geometry of treesthe geometry of trees

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

Previously, in LX522…Previously, in LX522… Sentences are made of Sentences are made of constituentsconstituents, themselves , themselves

possibly made of constituents, etc.possibly made of constituents, etc. [The kid [who [dropped [the cookie]]]] [ate [it]][The kid [who [dropped [the cookie]]]] [ate [it]]

Any account of syntactic knowledge will need to Any account of syntactic knowledge will need to provide this kind of hierarchical structure.provide this kind of hierarchical structure.

Overall idea: The syntactic system we have in Overall idea: The syntactic system we have in our head our head builds treesbuilds trees, such that all and only the , such that all and only the trees that the system can build are trees that the system can build are grammaticalgrammatical.. To the extent that grammatical and ungrammatical To the extent that grammatical and ungrammatical

sentences are distinguished in terms of the sentences are distinguished in terms of the hierarchical structure, it must be part of the system.hierarchical structure, it must be part of the system.

MinimalismMinimalism As we try to determine what the properties As we try to determine what the properties

of this grammatical system are, we should of this grammatical system are, we should assume as little as we can get away with.assume as little as we can get away with.

Any language-like system that is going to Any language-like system that is going to create hierarchical structure is going to create hierarchical structure is going to need something that takes two need something that takes two (or more, but (or more, but let’s say that “two is simpler than any other let’s say that “two is simpler than any other number”)number”) things and puts them together into things and puts them together into something eligible for further combinations.something eligible for further combinations.

So, the machine that builds the trees has at So, the machine that builds the trees has at least the operation least the operation MergeMerge..

XX-theory-theory A phrase is a syntactic A phrase is a syntactic

object formed by object formed by combining (combining (mergingmerging) ) two syntactic objects, two syntactic objects, with the properties with the properties inherited from one of inherited from one of them (the them (the headhead of the of the phrase).phrase).

A word is a syntactic A word is a syntactic object.object. specifier

complementX

YP X

XP

headZP

intermediateprojection

maximalprojection

minimalprojection

XX-theory-theory In the ’70s and ’80s, these ideas went by In the ’70s and ’80s, these ideas went by

the name “Xthe name “X-theory”.-theory”. Every XP has exactly one:Every XP has exactly one:

head (a lexical item)head (a lexical item) complement (another XP)complement (another XP) specifier (another XP)specifier (another XP)

for any X (N, V, A, P, I, etc.)for any X (N, V, A, P, I, etc.)

specifier

complementX

YP X

XP

headZP

intermediateprojection

maximalprojection

minimalprojection

Radford and the X(P)Radford and the X(P) To forestall confusion: To forestall confusion: lunchlunch is both a is both a

minimal projection and a maximal minimal projection and a maximal projection. It functions as a phrase, an XP, projection. It functions as a phrase, an XP, but it has nothing in it but a head, an X.but it has nothing in it but a head, an X.

Since you need to write Since you need to write somethingsomething, , Radford generally opts to write X for these Radford generally opts to write X for these X/XPs.X/XPs.

eat lunch

V NP

VP

Radford and the X(P)Radford and the X(P) In this class, and on my overheads, I will usually In this class, and on my overheads, I will usually

write X/XP as XP. You should do the same, but you write X/XP as XP. You should do the same, but you should be aware that Radford does it differently.should be aware that Radford does it differently.

In general, this will depend on whether the In general, this will depend on whether the properties we are focusing on are those of properties we are focusing on are those of phrases (XPs) or heads (Xs). In these ambiguous phrases (XPs) or heads (Xs). In these ambiguous cases, it will almostcases, it will almostinvariably turn out thatinvariably turn out thatthey act like phrasesthey act like phraseswith respect to what wewith respect to what weare focusing on.are focusing on.

eat lunch

V NP

VP

Radford and the X(P)Radford and the X(P) Another similar comment pertains to the status Another similar comment pertains to the status

of IP below. It is an IP. It is of IP below. It is an IP. It is notnot an I an I. It’s true . It’s true that it that it will bewill be an I an I after we combine after we combine PatPat with with the IP, but it isn’t the IP, but it isn’t yetyet. Cf. Radford p. 120. . Cf. Radford p. 120.

Pat

eat lunch

I

V NP

N IP

will

VP

X, XX, X, XP, XP In English, the In English, the headhead and the and the complementcomplement

always seem to come in that order: head-always seem to come in that order: head-complement.complement. at lunchat lunch (P NP = PP)(P NP = PP) eat luncheat lunch (V NP = VP)(V NP = VP) will eat lunchwill eat lunch (I VP = IP)(I VP = IP)

But here, languages differ.But here, languages differ.English is a English is a head-firsthead-first (or (orhead-initialhead-initial) language.) language.

at lunch

P NP

PP

X, XX, X, XP, XP In Japanese, the head follows the In Japanese, the head follows the

complement. Japanese is complement. Japanese is head-finalhead-final.. ringo-o tabetaringo-o tabeta (NP V = VP)(NP V = VP)

apple ateapple ate toshokan detoshokan de (NP P = PP)(NP P = PP)

library atlibrary at

This seems to be aThis seems to be aparameter thatparameter thatdistinguishes languagesdistinguishes languages(the (the head parameterhead parameter))

toshokan de

NP P

PP

X, XX, X, XP, XP Whether the specifier comes before XWhether the specifier comes before X or or

after is independent of whether the head after is independent of whether the head comes before the complement.comes before the complement.

Specifiers are overwhelmingly initial, Specifiers are overwhelmingly initial, although a few languages may be best although a few languages may be best analyzed as having final specifiers analyzed as having final specifiers (sometimes).(sometimes).

E.g., Japanese, which isE.g., Japanese, which ishead-final, neverthelesshead-final, neverthelesshas initial specifiers.has initial specifiers.

Ringo-ga

ringo-o tabe-I

NP I

IP

ta

VP

Narrowing in: NP?Narrowing in: NP?

Traditionally, a phrase like Traditionally, a phrase like the the studentsstudents is called a is called a noun phrasenoun phrase and and written as NP.written as NP.

What does this imply about the What does this imply about the structure?structure? What category is What category is studentsstudents?? What category is What category is thethe?? Which one is the head?Which one is the head? Where is the other one?Where is the other one?


Traditionally, a phrase like Traditionally, a phrase like the studentsthe students is is called a called a noun phrasenoun phrase and written as NP. and written as NP.

What does this imply about the structure?What does this imply about the structure? What category is What category is studentsstudents?? What category is What category is thethe?? Which one is the head?Which one is the head? Where is the other one?Where is the other one?

Is this Japanese?Is this Japanese?

studentsDP

NP

theN

?


There are a couple of problems with this.There are a couple of problems with this. There’s the There’s the headednessheadedness problem problem

The syntactic object that combines with the The syntactic object that combines with the head is the complement, not the specifier.head is the complement, not the specifier.

(Note: There is a way out of this, we’ll see it later)(Note: There is a way out of this, we’ll see it later)

Supposing that Supposing that thethe is a whole DP is is a whole DP is suspicious, because suspicious, because it can it can nevernever be bemodified by anythingmodified by anything..Modifiability is a signatureModifiability is a signatureproperty of phrases.property of phrases. students

DP

NP

theN

?

DPDP!!

If If the studentsthe students is not an NP, it must be a DP.is not an NP, it must be a DP. It’s head-initial, like English should be.It’s head-initial, like English should be. The NP can of course be modified (The NP can of course be modified (happy happy

studentsstudents).).

There are several reasons to think that There are several reasons to think that the the studentsstudents is a DP and not an NP, even better is a DP and not an NP, even better than these two, which we’ll see inthan these two, which we’ll see indue course due course (…at the appropriate(…at the appropriatejuncture, in the fullness of time)juncture, in the fullness of time)..

studentsD

DP

theNP

!

DPDP

Consider the genitive (possessive) Consider the genitive (possessive) ’s’s in English:in English: John’s hatJohn’s hat The student’s sandwichThe student’s sandwich The man from Australia’s bookThe man from Australia’s book The man on the hill by the tree’s binocularsThe man on the hill by the tree’s binoculars

Notice that the Notice that the ’s’s attaches to the attaches to the whole possessor whole possessor phrasephrase——in the last two examples, it isn’t even in the last two examples, it isn’t even attached to the head noun attached to the head noun (it’s the man’s book and (it’s the man’s book and binoculars, not Australia’s or the tree’s, after all)binoculars, not Australia’s or the tree’s, after all)..

This is not a noun suffix. It seems more like a This is not a noun suffix. It seems more like a little little wordword that signals possession, standing between that signals possession, standing between the possessor and the possessee. the possessor and the possessee. (Recall, it’s a (Recall, it’s a cliticclitic).).

DPDP It seems to be impossible to have both a It seems to be impossible to have both a ’s’s and and

a determiner.a determiner. *The building’s the roof*The building’s the roof

Cf. Cf. The roof of the buildingThe roof of the building *The tiger’s the eye*The tiger’s the eye

Determiners like Determiners like thethe and the possession and the possession marker marker ’s’s seem to be in seem to be in complementary complementary distributiondistribution—if one appears, the other cannot.—if one appears, the other cannot.

You may recall a similar pattern from a couple You may recall a similar pattern from a couple of weeks ago. What was the explanation for of weeks ago. What was the explanation for the *s?the *s? The big fluffy pink rabbitThe big fluffy pink rabbit *The that rabbit*The that rabbit *The my rabbit*The my rabbit *Every my rabbit*Every my rabbit

DPDP

*Pat’s the big fluffy pink rabbit*Pat’s the big fluffy pink rabbit

This would make sense if both This would make sense if both thethe and and ’s’s are instances of the category D; DP can are instances of the category D; DP can have only one head.have only one head.

PossessorsPossessors This suggests a structure like This suggests a structure like

this for possession phrases:this for possession phrases:

The possessor DP is in the The possessor DP is in the specifier of DPspecifier of DP. . And of course, And of course, this can be as complex a DP as this can be as complex a DP as we like, e.g., we like, e.g., the very hungry the very hungry linguistics student by the tree linguistics student by the tree with the purple flowers over with the purple flowers over therethere..

The possessed NP is the The possessed NP is the complement of D.complement of D.

D

’s

D

DP

book

NP

DP

D

student

NP

the

RecursionRecursion

Another noteworthy aspect of the Another noteworthy aspect of the possessor phrase is its possessor phrase is its recursiverecursive property.property.

The possessor is a DP in the specifier of The possessor is a DP in the specifier of DP. That means that the DP possessor DP. That means that the DP possessor could have a possessor too…could have a possessor too…

The student’s father’s bookThe student’s father’s book The student’s mother’s brother’s The student’s mother’s brother’s

roommateroommate

X-bar theory: DPX-bar theory: DP The The

student’s student’s mother’s mother’s brother’s brother’s roommateroommate

D

D

DP

roommate

NP

DP

D

student

NP

the

D

D

brother

NP

DP

D

’s

D

mother

NP

DP

’s

’s

X-bar theory: DPX-bar theory: DP

What do we do with apparently What do we do with apparently simplesimple “NPs” “NPs” like like JohnJohn or or studentsstudents (e.g., (e.g., Students in the Students in the class complained bitterlyclass complained bitterly)? Are these NPs or )? Are these NPs or DPs?DPs?

Well, there are two options…Well, there are two options… One:One: They are NPs. They are NPs.

Pro: Pro: Just as they appear.Just as they appear. Con: Con: Subjects, objects, etc. can be Subjects, objects, etc. can be eithereither NPs or DPs. NPs or DPs.

Two: Two: They are DPs.They are DPs. Pro: Pro: Subject, objects, etc. are Subject, objects, etc. are alwaysalways DPs. DPs. Con: Con: Not obvious from the surface pronunciation.Not obvious from the surface pronunciation.

X-bar theory: DPX-bar theory: DP

What do we do with apparently What do we do with apparently simplesimple “NPs” “NPs” like like JohnJohn or or studentsstudents (e.g., (e.g., Students in the Students in the class complained bitterlyclass complained bitterly)? Are these NPs or )? Are these NPs or DPs?DPs?

Well, there are two options…Well, there are two options… One: They are NPs.One: They are NPs.

Pro: Just as they appear.Pro: Just as they appear. Con: Subjects, objects, etc. can be Con: Subjects, objects, etc. can be eithereither NPs or DPs. NPs or DPs.

Two: Two: They are DPs.They are DPs. Pro: Pro: Subject, objects, etc. are Subject, objects, etc. are alwaysalways DPs. DPs. Con: Con: Not obvious from the surface pronunciation.Not obvious from the surface pronunciation.

PronounsPronouns

Consider: Consider: meme, , youyou, , himhim (or (or II, , youyou, , hehe)…)…

Since a pronoun can be the subject of a Since a pronoun can be the subject of a sentence (e.g., sentence (e.g., I leftI left), a pronoun must be ), a pronoun must be part of a DP.part of a DP.

For pronouns, however, there’s some For pronouns, however, there’s some reason to believe that they actually reason to believe that they actually headhead the DP. That is, that the pronoun the DP. That is, that the pronoun II is a D. is a D. That is, not PRN as we’d called it up until now, That is, not PRN as we’d called it up until now,

but actually in the same category as but actually in the same category as thethe and and ’s’s..

X-bar theory: PronounsX-bar theory: Pronouns

Consider the following:Consider the following: You politicians are all alike.You politicians are all alike. We linguists need to stick We linguists need to stick

together.together. The media always mocks us The media always mocks us

academics.academics. These seem to have a pronoun These seem to have a pronoun

followed by a noun inside the followed by a noun inside the DP; we can make sense of this DP; we can make sense of this if the pronoun is a D which if the pronoun is a D which can optionally take an NP can optionally take an NP complement.complement.

Dwe

DP

linguistsNP

X-bar theory: Bare nouns X-bar theory: Bare nouns and proper namesand proper names

How about something like How about something like studentsstudents (in (in Students poured out of the auditorium at Students poured out of the auditorium at noonnoon) or ) or JohnJohn (in (in John went for a walkJohn went for a walk)?)?

For For studentsstudents, we want to believe that it is , we want to believe that it is an instance of the N category (in order to an instance of the N category (in order to make sense of make sense of the studentsthe students or or we studentswe students or or John’s studentsJohn’s students. But if this N is . But if this N is contained in a DP (the complement of a D contained in a DP (the complement of a D head), where is the D?head), where is the D?

In order to maintain consistency, we’ll In order to maintain consistency, we’ll suppose that suppose that in bare nouns D is present in bare nouns D is present but nullbut null (it has no phonological (it has no phonological representation; we write this as representation; we write this as ØØ).).

X-bar theory: Bare nouns X-bar theory: Bare nouns and proper namesand proper names

So for the bare noun So for the bare noun studentsstudents, we have a , we have a structure like that shown structure like that shown here.here.

As for proper names like As for proper names like PatPat, , we will assume that they are we will assume that they are essentially like essentially like studentsstudents.. Why? Why not like Why? Why not like II, , meme, , themthem??

DØ

DP

studentsNP

DØ

DP

JohnNP

TreesTrees

We will be working with trees a lot, We will be working with trees a lot, and the and the geometrygeometry of trees will be of trees will be quite important. We need some quite important. We need some terminology to talk about the parts terminology to talk about the parts of trees.of trees.

TreesTrees

An abstract tree An abstract tree structure…structure…

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

The “joints” of the tree The “joints” of the tree are are nodesnodes. The nodes . The nodes here are labeled (with here are labeled (with node labelsnode labels).).

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees


Nodes are connected by Nodes are connected by branchesbranches..

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees


Nodes are connected by Nodes are connected by branchesbranches..

The node at the top of the The node at the top of the tree (with no branches tree (with no branches above it) is called the above it) is called the root root nodenode. A is the root node.. A is the root node.

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

Nodes with no branches Nodes with no branches beneath them are called beneath them are called terminal nodesterminal nodes..

B, D, E are terminal B, D, E are terminal nodes.nodes.

A

B C

D E

TreesTrees

Nodes with no branches Nodes with no branches beneath them are called beneath them are called terminal nodesterminal nodes..

B, D, E are terminal nodes.B, D, E are terminal nodes.

Nodes with branches Nodes with branches beneath them are called beneath them are called nonterminal nodesnonterminal nodes..

A, C are nonterminal nodes.A, C are nonterminal nodes.

A

B C

D E

Tree relationsTree relations

A node X A node X dominatesdominates nodes below it on the nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled which would be pulled along if you grabbed the along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off node X and pulled it off of the page.of the page.

A

B C

D E


A node X A node X dominatesdominates nodes below it on the nodes below it on the tree; these are the nodes tree; these are the nodes which would be pulled which would be pulled along if you grabbed the along if you grabbed the node X and pulled it off node X and pulled it off of the page.of the page.

C dominates D and E.C dominates D and E.

A

B C

D E

C

D E


Remind you of anything?Remind you of anything?To briefly reconnect with To briefly reconnect with actual language data, it actual language data, it seems as if you do seems as if you do something to C (like pull something to C (like pull it off the page), it affects it off the page), it affects D and E as a unit.D and E as a unit.

A

B C

D E

C

D E


A set of terminal nodes is A set of terminal nodes is a a constituentconstituent if they are if they are all dominated by the all dominated by the same node and no other same node and no other terminal nodes are terminal nodes are dominated by that node.dominated by that node.

““D E” is a constituent.D E” is a constituent. ““B D” is not.B D” is not.

A

B C

D E

C

D E


A node X A node X immediately immediately dominatesdominates a node Y if X a node Y if X dominates Y and is dominates Y and is connected by only one connected by only one branch.branch.

A immediately dominatesA immediately dominatesB and C.B and C.

A

B C

D E


A node X A node X immediately immediately dominatesdominates a node Y if X a node Y if X dominates Y and is dominates Y and is connected by only one connected by only one branch.branch.

A immediately dominatesA immediately dominatesB and C.B and C.

A is also sometimes called A is also sometimes called the the mother mother of B and C. of B and C.

A

B C

D E


A node which shares the A node which shares the same mother as a node X same mother as a node X is sometimes called the is sometimes called the sister sister of X.of X.

B is the sister of C.B is the sister of C. C is the sister of B.C is the sister of B. D is the sister of E.D is the sister of E.

A

B C

D E


A node X A node X c-commandsc-commands its sisters and the nodes its sisters and the nodes dominated by its sisters.dominated by its sisters.

A

B C

D E



B c-commands C, D, and B c-commands C, D, and E.E.

A

B C

D E




D c-commands E.D c-commands E.

A

B C

D E




D c-commands E.D c-commands E. C c-commands B.C c-commands B.

A

B C

D E

X-bar configurationsX-bar configurations

The The complementcomplement is the is the sister of the head.sister of the head.

The The specifier specifier is the sister is the sister of Xof X that is a daughter of that is a daughter of XP.XP.

XP

YP X

X ZP

PrecedencePrecedence

The tree also encodes the The tree also encodes the linear linear order order of the terminal nodes.of the terminal nodes.



TheThe is pronounced before is pronounced before studentsstudents..

NP

D Nthe students



TheThe is pronounced before is pronounced before studentsstudents.. SawSaw is pronounced before is pronounced before thethe and and

studentsstudents..

NP

D Nthe students

Vsaw

VP


That is, V is pronounced before NP, That is, V is pronounced before NP, meaning V is pronounced before all meaning V is pronounced before all of the terminal nodes dominated by of the terminal nodes dominated by NP.NP.

NP

D Nthe students

Vsaw

VP


Even if the tree is drawn sloppily, Even if the tree is drawn sloppily, nothing changes—(everything nothing changes—(everything dominated by) V is pronounced dominated by) V is pronounced before (everything dominated by) before (everything dominated by) NP. This is still “saw the students”.NP. This is still “saw the students”.

NP

D Nthe students

Vsaw

VP

No line crossingNo line crossing

One of the One of the implications of this implications of this is that you cannot is that you cannot draw a well-formed draw a well-formed tree with lines that tree with lines that cross.cross. TheThe can’t be can’t be

pronounced before V pronounced before V because because The The is part is part of DP and V has to be of DP and V has to be pronounced before pronounced before all of DP.all of DP.

NP

studentsVthe

D

DP

VP

meet

week 4a. the dp and the geometry of trees cas lx 522 syntax i

Documents