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Theories of Motivation

Lexis Lloyd

July 11, 2016

PADM 7170

Dr. Daniel Baracskay

Theories of Motivation PADM 7170 Lloyd 1

Introduction

What motivates you? The driving factors behind motivation have been researched for

several decades. The traditional theories of motivation have been analyzed from top researches

such as Abraham Maslow, David McClelland, and Frederick Herzberg. The theories and models

of motivation have vastly developed over the course of time. This paper will examine and

breakdown each of Maslow’s, McClelland’s, and Herzberg’s ideas and theories aimed at

motivation.

Motivation serves as an intricate characteristic in every aspect of life. According to

research, motivation has been defined as “what a person does (direction), how hard a person

works (intensity), and how long a person works (persistence),” (Scandura, p. 169). Motivation

can be directly related to our overall goals and values. The factors behind motivation can vary

from person to person. Not every driving factor of motivation is applied to everyone’s situation.

In addition, the characteristics that motivate individuals can stem from all different sources.

To begin, there are several factors and variables that are influential in motivating

employees. According to research, the main factors that are found among people who actually

work for government seem to be, in order of descending priority, public service motivation, job

security, and high income (Lewis, Table 1, p. 399). For instance, individuals could work for an

organization due to a sense of intrinsic motivation which involves engaging in an activity for

personal reasons or self-rewards.

With that being said, there could also be people wanting to participate due to a sense of

extrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivation is performed to either avoid punishment or seek some

type of reward whether it be benefits, money, vacation time, promotion, etc. In addition, another

factor motivating employees to work could involve networking with different types of people.


There are many benefits that can come from meeting new people and making connections with

them. Another influence of motivating people could be the feeling of being a part of a team. A

lot of people look for a sense of belonging and this could motivate them to join a particular

organization. Each individual has their own unique driving factors to motivate them to go to

work.

Analysis and Comparison of Theories

One theory of motivation comes from a very well-known psychologist named Abraham

Maslow. Maslow is best known for creating and developing the hierarchy of needs. The idea

behind this hierarchy was developed to determine individual motivational factors. The hierarchy

is designed to have individual’s complete lower level needs before working to fulfill higher-level

needs. Each level serves as a purpose to motivate individuals to complete before advancing to the

next phase. According to research, the needs in consideration progress from (a) Physiological

Needs, (b) Safety, (c) Belonging, (d) Love/Esteem, to (e) Self-Actualization Needs (Harrigan and

Commons, p. 25, 2015). Each section represents an important characteristic and aspect that

motivates individuals to accomplish a task.

Maslow’s theory of motivation is based around a consensus of needs and is viewed as a

holistic approach. According to Maslow’s views, “What I have called the basic needs are

probably common to all mankind and are, therefore, shared values” (Maslow, p. 152, 1954).

Maslow’s theory of motivation is unique due to the breakdown and characteristic of each need.

An individual becomes more and more motivated to complete a phase of the hierarchy as they

move up the pyramid.

As stated, the hierarchy of needs starts with physiological needs. This category includes

the basic needs such as food and water to survive. Once an individual is satisfied and has


completed this phase, then they will move on to the next category of basic needs. In this case it

would be safety. Safety needs refer to considerations of protection from bodily harm and

environmental stability. (Harrigan and Commons, p. 25, 2015). As this step gets completed, the

next need of belonging emerges on the hierarchy.

Each new phase will place a stronger emphasis and influence on the individual’s behavior

and motivation. Belonging needs go hand in hand with feeling wanted and being accepted from a

social group. The following need in Maslow’s hierarchy is esteem. This need refers to one’s

level of confidence and how one perceives themselves. After this level is completed, the final

level in the hierarchy of needs is self-actualization. According to an academic journal article,

self-actualization needs refer to the pursuit of needs such as morality, creativity, and acceptance

of facts (Harrigan and Commons, p. 26, 2015). Below is a representation of Maslow’s hierarchy

of needs and each level of the pyramid symbolizes the motivation to achieve the characteristic.

As one advances from each level of the hierarchy, their sense of motivation increases as

well. According to research, Maslow's motivational theory is based on the idea that behavior is

controlled through a limited number of developing fundamental needs which operate in fixed

sequence, i.e., through these various needs the individual is motivated (Sengupta, 2011).


Maslow’s theory on motivation is developed through needs and wants. An individual is

motivated to fulfill each level due to their desires. “Maslow suggests that needs are intrinsic in

the structure of human nature itself: that they are biologically and genetically based, as well as

culturally developed.” (Harrigan and Commons, 2015).

Maslow was one of the first theorists to really research and study the needs or drives that

motivate people. However, his approach has been modified and adapted throughout the years.

“Despite the popularity of Maslow’s hierarchy due to its simplicity and intuitive appeal, it has

not been supported by research evidence.” (Wahba and Bridwell, 1976). With that being said,

many more theorists and ideas transpired in regards to what truly motivates an individual.

In addition to Maslows’s hierarchy of needs, McClelland developed the three

fundamental needs theory. According to our text, the fundamentals of this concept incorporate:

need for achievement (nAch)-the drive to succeed at high levels, need for power (nPow)-the

need to influence others to do what you want, and need for affiliation (nAff)-the need for close

personal relationships. (Scandura, p. 170). There has been research to support that people with a

higher need to achieve typically perform at higher levels.

McClelland focused most of his research on nAch. Persons with a significant nAch are

described as choosing to be accountable for solving difficulties and for setting objectives to be

attained by their own endeavors in addition to having a powerful inclination to receive response

on their duty achievement. (Latham and Pinder, 2005). Many entrepreneurs have significant

nAch because they incorporate many of the features and characteristics that it takes to

accomplish this.

Due to his findings, “McClelland’s theory has received more research support than other

need theories; however, the application of the theory to motivate followers is limited because


these needs are believed to be learned at a young age (in other words, it may not be possible to

increase an adult’s nAch).” (Scandura, p. 170). With the development of McClelland’s theory, he

established new contributions to the way people viewed motivation. His theory opened doors to

new possibilities and began to shed light on how different factors can play a role on an

individual’s motivation within the workplace.

According to research, “McClelland notes that individuals are driven in dissimilar

degrees by their demands for accomplishment (Lăzăroiu, 12a, b), power, and association.”

McClelland’s theory on motivation is commonly practiced by several managers. McClelland

certainly made significant contributions to the field. Determining what motivates an individual is

critical for a manager or leader to know.

It is highly important that a person in charge knows how to appropriately motivate their

employees or team members. There are several characteristics that can come into play and factor

in the equation on motivation in the workplace. Motivational processes can be inferred only form

analysis of this continuing stream of behavior that is determined by environment and heredity

and is observed through their effects on personality, beliefs, knowledge, abilities, and skills.

(Kanfer, 1990). McClelland’s theory emphasizes on the drive to succeed at high levels. This

could be through promotion or advancement in the workplace. We set goals for a reason. We aim

to achieve each goal and that gives us a high level of satisfaction when we complete them.

One concept that transpired from McClelland’s theory is affiliation motivation.

Affiliation motivation refers to the tendency for an individual in a group-based society to take

friendly measures to obtain the approval of others, because of the inherent necessity to maintain

harmonious interpersonal relationships with others (McClelland, 1987). Individual success can

play a significant role in an organization exceeding as a whole.


The factors and characteristics behind motivating individuals continues to fascinate

people over time. With that being said, the third theory of motivation comes from Frederick

Herzberg. Herzberg established and developed the two-factor theory also known as the

motivator-hygiene theory. “The two-factor theory relates lower-and higher-order needs and

relates them to job satisfaction.” (Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman, 1959).

Herzberg focused on the characteristics that satisfied or dissatisfied an individual when

trying to motivate them. “When people think about what makes them dissatisfied with work, they

think of things like supervision, pay, company policies, and the working conditions, which are

called hygienes. On the other hand, when people think about what satisfies them, they are more

likely to think of advancement, recognition, and achievement, called motivators.” (Scandura, p.

170).

There are different factors that can drive or motivate people to succeed. Research proven

that physiological satisfaction and positive social environment greatly impact worker

productivity. Some people thrive off of the feeling of personal gratification. Many employees

working in non-profit organizations are motivated by the satisfaction of helping others. The

factors that are said to motivate employees in the public sector include a sense of purpose,

gratification, and fulfillment. People are far more motivated to do something that they love and

enjoy as opposed to just receiving a bonus.

Motivation factors in the private sector can differ compared to the fulfillment of

employees in non-profit organizations. In addition, extrinsic motivation factors such as monetary

benefits and pay are a much higher motivator for private sector employees. The motivation

factors differ between public and private sector employees, however, managers in both

organizations must not undermine the importance of work motivation.


Herzberg’s two-factor theory demonstrated the motivators that people desire for a sense

of achievement. As with Maslow’s theory, Herzberg’s two-factor theory is widely cited, but it

has not received much research support, (House and Wigdor, 1967). Herzberg’s theory

emphasized the relationship between satisfaction and job performance. If an individual enjoys

their job, then they are more likely to be more efficient and have an overall high performance

rating. The sources of job satisfaction are found in the opportunities which the job itself affords

for self-actualization (as that term is used in Maslow, 1954).

Understanding motivation and the elements involved is key especially for a manager or

the leader in charge. Every employee or team member may not be motivated on the same level. It

is significant to determine what characteristics motivate an individual to succeed. Motivational

factors can stem from all different sources. Whether it is a sense of intrinsic motivation or a

sense of extrinsic motivation is mainly up the individual itself.

One way to effectively motivate employees is to set reachable goals. For goals to

motivate employees, they must have certain properties (Tubbs, 1986). Our textbook, Essentials

of Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach, covers the features and importance

of the acronym SMART goals. Each letter of the word “SMART” represents a significant

characteristic of goal setting. “These goal-setting principles can be remembered with the

acronym SMART for specific, measurable, actionable, relevant, and time-based goals. (Scandura,

p. 171, 2016). Below is an image that depicts what each letter of SMART goals includes. It is

critical to understand how to appropriately apply SMART goals to an organization. A leader or

manager should evaluate the goals and make sure they incorporate each letter of SMART in

order to be successful.


When someone is setting goals, it is critical to keep in mind the acronym SMART goals

and make sure it applies. The breakdown of each letter represents an important characteristic of

goal setting. If someone sets an unreachable or unobtainable goal, then they may lose motivation

to complete the task. It is better to set challenging goals. “Also, motivation is higher when an

employee is more committed to challenging goals compared with easy goals,” (Scandura, p. 172,

2016). SMART goal setting should be applied to organizations in order to motivate employees to

accomplish an assignment and be successful. Goals can allow an individual to remain focused

and motivated throughout the job.

SMART goal setting can be applied by using management by objectives, or MBO.

“MBO is a performance appraisal program where leaders meet with their direct reports and set

specific performance objectives jointly.” (Scandura, p. 172, 2016). It is critical to establish new

goals each week, in order to keep an employee motivated and excited to work. It is significant to

set individual and team goals to accomplish within any organization. In addition, our behavior

can dictate our desires and motivation to achieve the goals we set.

The leader continuously plays an intricate role in motivating employees. It is important

that the leader demonstrates strong qualities that exemplifies the meaning of a strong role model.

If the leader is not motivated, then it makes it hard for the staff members to be motivated. The


leader or manager must set the tone for the organization. Also, the leaders are actively involved

in the process of developing commitments from followers, (Scandura, p. 172, 2016). Leaders

must set goals for their employees that align with the organizations overall values, goals, and

principles.

It is significant that a leader communicates with their employee by providing appropriate

feedback. Feedback on goals guides performance and allows the person to correct behaviors that

may not be working or try different performance strategies, (Scandura, p. 173, 2016). Providing

feedback also demonstrates a sense of recognition. With that being said, recognition has been

noted to motivate individuals.

Feedback has the potential to motivate individuals whether it is positive or negative

criticism. Early theorists have discussed the importance of praise and recognition. When an

employee receives this type of feedback, then they could be positively motivated by the

appraisal. They may work hard in order to receive that type of praise again. Achievement

motivation is based on reaching success and achieving all of our aspirations in life, (Rabideau,

2005).

On the other hand, negative feedback can motivate an individual just as much. In our

textbook, we learned about the different types of reinforcers that deal with punishment. If an

employee receives negative feedback or is negatively punished, then the individual may feel

motivated to step up and prove themselves. Each employee is different, and it is up to them on

how they will handle and address each given situation.

Motivation is closely connected with our behavior. Our thoughts, actions, and behaviors

are influenced by our drive to be successful. “Two motives are directly involved in the prediction

of behavior, implicit and explicit. Implicit motives are spontaneous impulses to act, also known


as task performances, and are aroused through incentives inherent to the task. Explicit motives

are expressed through deliberate choices and more often stimulated for extrinsic reasons.”

(Rabideau, 2005). Once a manager or leader establishes what motivates their employees, then

they can effectively run their organization.

Leadership plays a significant emphasis on whether or not employees are motivated to be

successful or not. It is important that a leader or manager understands what motivates each

individual. “Leadership is about inspiring others to follow their vision for the organization.

Managers on the other hand, are concerned with controlling the operations of the organization so

things run efficiently.” (Scandura, p.25-26).

There are different styles of leadership that can affectively be used to motivate others.

The two types of leadership styles involve transactional and transformational leadership.

“Transactional leadership is defined as behaviors that motivate followers through rewards and

corrective actions.” (Scandura, p. 26). Our text also discusses the behaviors of transactional

leaders which include: non-leadership, management by exception, and contingent reward. If an

employee has a low performance analysis, then the transactional approach should be applied by

incorporating active and passive forms.

In other cases, transformational leadership should be applied. “Transformational

leadership is defined as behaviors that mobilize extra effort from followers through emphasis on

change through articulating a new vision for the organization.” (Scandura, p. 27). It has been

noted that transformational leadership behaviors place a positive emphasis on efficiency and

performance rankings by supervisors. Leadership is significant to incorporate in any

organization. It is critical that both styles of leadership are effectively implemented in order to

develop positive working relationships.


Conclusion

Overall, there have been several theories of motivation that have transpired over the

years. Abraham Maslow was one of the earliest theorists to analyze motivation. Maslow’s

hierarchy of needs certainly established a framework for other theorists to build from. The

hierarchy of need aims at what drives an individual to accomplish a goal or task. Each level of

the hierarchy is designed to increase an individual’s motivation as they move up the pyramid.

The second theory of motivation examined David McClelland’s developed the three

fundamental needs theory. Most of McClelland’s motivation theory focused on the need for

achievement (nAch). This theory was sought that individuals are driven to succeed at high levels.

There has been research to support that people with a higher need to achieve typically perform at

higher levels.

Lastly, Herzberg developed the two-factor theory or hygiene-theory. This theory

examined the factors of motivation. In this concept, there are motivators that lead to satisfaction.

These characteristics could include pay, supervision, and policy. Then there are hygiene’s that

cause dissatisfaction.

Overall, the three need theories can tell us a lot about human behavior and what

motivates someone to work. There could be an intrinsic or extrinsic motivating factors that cause

people to work. It is important that managers understand what motivates employees in order to

drive them to be overall efficient. These theories can help managers effectively lead their

organization and workers to success. When employees are motivated, they work harder with a

sense of purpose.


References

Crewson, Philip E. 1997. Public Service Motivation: Building Empirical Evidence of Incidence and Effect. Journal of Public Administration Research and Theory 7 (4): 499 – 518.

Harrigan, William Joseph, and Michael Lamporst Commons. 2015. "Replacing Maslow’s needs hierarchy with an account based on stage and value." Behavioral Development Bulletin 20, no. 1: 24-31. PsycARTICLES, EBSCOhost (accessed June 26, 2016).

Herzberg, F., Mausner, B,m & Snyderman, B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York, NY: John Wiley.

House, R. J., &Wigdor, L. A. (1967). Herzberg’s dual-factor theory of job satisfaction and motivations: A review of the evidence and criticism. Personnel Psychology, 20 (4), 369-389.

Kanfer, R. (1990). Motivation theory and industrial and organizational psychology. Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, 1(2), 75-130.

Latham, Gary P., and Craig C. Pinder (2005), “Work Motivation Theory and Research at the Dawn of the Twenty-first Century,” Annual Review of Psychology 56(1): 485–516.

Lazaroiu, George. 2015. "Work Motivation and Organizational Behavior." Contemporary Readings In Law & Social Justice 7, no. 2: 66-75. Legal Collection, EBSCOhost (accessed July 2, 2016).

Maslow A.H. (1954).Motivation and Personality. New York: Harper.

McClelland, D. C. (1987). Human motivation. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Rabideau, Scott T. "Effects of achievement motivation on behavior."Retrieved from Personality Research: http://www. personalityresearch. org/papers/rabideau. htm (2005).

Scandura, Terri A. 2016. Essentials of Organizational Behavior: An Evidence-Based Approach. CA: Sage.

Sengupta, Sunita Singh. 2011. "Growth in Human Motivation: Beyond Maslow." Indian Journal Of Industrial Relations 47, no. 1: 102-116. Business Source Complete, EBSCOhost (accessed June 25, 2016).

Tubbs, M. E. (1986). Goal setting: A meta-analytic examination of the empirical evidence.

Wahba, M. A., & Bridwell, L. G. (1976). Maslow reconsidered: A review of research on the need hierarchy theory. Organizational Behavior and Human Performance, 15 (2), 212-240.


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