A WHAP Glossary of Sorts: 8000 B.C.E.-600 C.E.WHAP E. Napp

Part I: 8000 B.C.E. – 600 C.E.

Cultural Diffusion: The spread of cultural ideas or objects; people spread their cultures to new areas

Demography: The study of population, a term derived from the ancient Greek words “demos”,

meaning population or people, and “grahe”, meaning to describe

Intervening obstacles: Physical features that halt or slow migration from one place to another

“Marker Events”: An event that changes the course of history

Migrations: Permanent moves to new locations that have occurred on local, regional, and global

levels

The Myth of Continents: An unexamined spatial assumption made by dividing the world into “continents”

Periodization: Division of history into time periods or eras to facilitate understanding of history

Perspective: Point of view

Push Factor: A factor that encourages people to move from the region that they live in

Pull Factor: A factor that attracts people to move to a new region

Agriculture: The deliberate tending of crops and livestock in order to produce food and fiber

Bipedalism: The preference for walking erect on two limbs rather than four; one distinction

between humans and other mammals

Çatal Hüyük : An early settlement founded by 7000 B.C.E. and located in southern Turkey;

foreshadowed the development of cities

Division of Labor: In hunting and gathering groups, the basic division of labor was between men

(hunters) and women (gatherers) In early agricultural settlements, people began to see the advantages of

“specialization”; the most talented at crafting agricultural tools could do that for all the villages

Work could be done more efficiently

Horticulture: May be distinguished from agriculture in that horticulturists used only hand tools,

such as hoes and digging sticks to plant seeds and cultivate crops

Independent Invention: An invention involving no cultural diffusion Agriculture spread by cultural diffusion but it also rose as an independent invention

in many other areas

Jericho: An early settlement founded by 7000 B.C.E. on the Jordan River; foreshadowed the

development of cities

Lucy: The discovery in 1974 of the hominid “Lucy” Lucy’s species was named Australopithecus afarensis, a bipedal creature that lived

in eastern Africa more than three million years ago Lucy’s species, like all other hominids except homo sapiens, eventually became

extinct

“Marker Event” of Pre-History: Long before the time period of homo sapiens, human ancestors made the important

discovery of fire, probably borrowed from flames caused by lightning or lava flows Eventually, they learned to start their own fires, and the control of fire led to many

improvements in their lives

Neolithic Craft Industries: Three Neolithic craft industries emerged as agriculture developed: pottery,

metallurgy, and textiles Making use of natural products around them, early craftsmen fashioned goods that

were useful to agricultural communities

Neolithic (Agricultural) Revolution: Refers to the changeover from food gathering to food producing beginning around

8000 B.C.E. Even though changes were gradual, it is still appropriate to call the transition to

agriculture a “revolution” or “marker event” because it profoundly affected the way human beings lived

Changes during this transition included: people settling, development of specialization, social inequality, social classes, gender inequality, and patriarchy

Paleolithic Age: Old Stone Age Beginning some 70,000 years ago until about 8000 B.C.E. Hunting and gathering Hunting and gathering groups marked by very few status differences since they did

not accumulate wealth Basic division of labor was based on sex, with the men usually responsible for

hunting and the women for gathering…However, it appears as if they made no judgment that one activity was more important than the other

Polytheism: The belief in multiple gods

Primary Sources: Original evidence from the period

Specialization: Performance of different jobs in a society When members of a community most suited for a task or activity assume greater

responsibility for the performance of the task or activity

Surplus: More crops than the farmer needed to feed his own family

Akkadian Empire: Sumerian city-states were not politically unified until about 2300 B.C.E. when an

invading Semitic group led by Sargon the Great conquered the entire area Founded the Akkadian Empire that was dominated by the newly created town of

Akkad As a result of the political conquest, cultural diffusion of Sumerian ways spread

throughout much of the area

Assyrians: The Assyrians conquered Mesopotamia in the 900s B.C.E.

Babylonians:

During the 1700s B.C.E. Hammurabi led the Babylonians to conquer Mesopotamia

Book of the Dead: During the New Kingdom period of Ancient Egyptian civilization, many

incantations of funeral rituals were collected into papyrus texts known as The Book of the Dead

Divided into more than 150 chapters, it was mass-produced for a prosperous clientele who each purchased a scroll, filled in the name of the deceased, and buried it with the person’s body

Book of Songs: A collection of early Chinese poetry

Cataracts: Areas where a river’s water is too swift and rocky to allow boats to pass Ancient Egyptian civilization was protected from invasion along the Nile River from

the south by a series of cataracts

Chavín: At roughly the same time that the Olmec civilization was flourishing in

Mesoamerica, the Chavín dominated a heavily populated region that included both the Peruvian coastal plain and foothills of the Andes

Both civilizations differed from those of the Eastern Hemisphere in that they did not develop in river valleys, but the geographic challenge for the Chavín was particularly strong

The coast of Peru has little rainfall, and in some places is quite narrow, but the abundance of fish and other sea life provided a dependable supply of food

The Chavín capital, Chavín de Huántar, was located in a high mountain valley at an intersection of trade routes

Part of the Chavín’s influence appears to be based on its religion, which spread through most of the territory, and perhaps to Mesoamerica

City-state: A city-state is centered on a large town that governed the countryside around it The Sumerians created small competing city-states

Civilization: A complex society that includes the following characteristics: generation of reliable

surpluses, highly specialized occupations, clear social class distinctions, growth of cities, complex and formal governments, long-distance trade, and organized writing systems

Confucianism: A belief system developed by Confucius, a Chinese philosopher during the Zhou

dynasty The Analects are a collection of Confucian sayings

Endorses the belief that by maintaining order, peace and harmony will exist Endorses the belief that inferiors must obey superiors in order to maintain order

and harmony Endorses the belief that superiors must set good examples in order to maintain

order and harmony Filial piety is the idea that sons must honor and obey parents and ancestors

Cosmopolitanism: The shared cultures and lifestyles that result when different groups are in regular

contact

Cultural Hearths: Areas where the civilizations first began that radiated the ideas, innovations, and

ideologies that culturally transformed the world Early cultural hearths developed in southwest Asia and north Africa, south Asia,

and east Asia in the valleys and basins of great river systems Cultural hearths developed much later in Central and South America, and their

geography shaped cultural development not around river valleys, but around mountain ranges and central highlands

Cuneiform: Sumerian writing Writers used a wedge-shaped stick to mark the symbols on the tablets, resulting in

cuneiform – meaning “wedge shaped” – that was used for several thousand years in the Middle East

Dravidian: A term that refers to the ancient peoples and languages of southern India

Dynasty, Dynastic Cycles: A dynasty is a family-based kingdom Dynastic cycles occurred in China when a dynasty rose, became strong, and then

weakened, inviting takeover by a new dynasty In between dynasties, there was often a time of chaos

Epic of Gilgamesh: By about 2000 B.C.E. compilers wrote down a famous story that had been passed

down orally since at least the 7th millennium B.C.E. called The Epic of Gilgamesh, a ruler of an early Sumerian city-state, probably Uruk

It explored human friendship, relations between humans and the gods, and particularly the meaning of life and death

Gilgamesh went on an epic journey in pursuit of eternal life, which he ultimately did not find

The story was somber, and emphasized the control that the gods had over human destiny

Fertile Crescent: A wide swath of land from Mesopotamia to Egypt

Hammurabi: During the 1700s B.C.E., Hammurabi led the Babylonians to conquer Mesopotamia Responsible for ordering an early written law code, the Code of Hammurabi

Hammurabi’s Code: The advent of the first known written law code (a systematic set of rules

administered by a government) Had harsh punishments and class divisions – punishments differed according to the

offender’s social class A significant “marker event” occurred under the Babylonians with the advent of the

first known written law code Inscribed on a black stone pillar, gave judges many examples of punishments for

crimes meant to be used as standards for justice These codes provide insight into much more than just laws, but also illuminate a

rich assortment of beliefs and customs of the Mesopotamian people

Harappa: An early city of the Indus River valley The construction of the city suggests a well-organized government planned them Some scholars speculate that Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were twin capitals A major trading center

Hyksos: A people who came from the north to conquer the Nile Delta This invasion ended the peace and prosperity of ancient Egypt’s Middle Kingdom

(2100 – 1650 B.C.E.)

Isis: Ancient Egyptian goddess of the Nile and of fertility

Labor Systems: Coordinated efforts to get work done

Late Bronze Age: The era between 1700 and 1100 B.C.E. Characterized by an early version of cosmopolitanism, or the shared cultures and

lifestyles that result when different groups are in regular contact

Law Code: A systematic set of rules administered by a government

Loess:

A thick mantle of fertile and soft soil easy enough to be worked with wooden digging sticks

Ma’at: In his role as pharaoh of ancient Egypt, the pharaoh maintained ma’at, the divinely

controlled order of the universe The divinely controlled order of the universe

Mandate of Heaven: The early Zhou rulers claimed that they had been given the right (or mandate) to

rule by “heaven,” or the supernatural deities who oversaw earthly life As long as the rulers were just and fair, they retained the confidence of heaven, but

if they were not, the mandate would be lost Prosperity was a “sign from heaven” that the rulers still had the mandate, but

misfortunes were usually interpreted as a communication from the deities that the ruler was not living up to their high expectations

If a ruler lost the mandate, his subjects not only had the right, but the responsibility to replace him

The mandate of heaven is a central belief that guided China through dynastic cycles that lasted until the early 20th century

A dynasty rose, became strong, and then weakened, inviting takeover by a new dynasty

Of course, an important “marker event” in Chinese history occurred when the Zhou overthrew the Shang in the 12th century B.C.E. for it was justified with the concept of the mandate of heaven

Matrilineal: The female line of descent is important in determining family power

Patrilineal: The male line of descent is important in determining family power

Patriarchal: Male dominance in a society Social organization marked by the supremacy of the father in the clan or family Literally means “rule of fathers”

Menes: According to Egyptian legend, the first pharaoh was Menes, who supposedly lived

about 3100 B.C.E., although scholars are not at all sure that he actually existed What is clear is that the middle and lower areas of the Nile were united under one

ruler who was followed by an unbroken line of god-kings until about 2500 B.C.E.

Mesopotamia:

The earliest civilization is generally believed to have developed in Mesopotamia, or “land between the rivers,” in southwest Asia, sometime during the 4th Millennium B.C.E.

This “land between the rivers” is land between the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers Because the land is geographically accessible from many directions, it became a

“crossroads” for diverse groups of people that sometimes settled and sometimes moved on

Minoans: By the late 3rd millennium B.C.E. an advanced civilization had begun to develop on

the island of Crete, just south of the Aegean Sea The people were named Minoans after their legendary King Minos, and excavations

have unearthed a large palace complex, massive walls, and shaft graves (burial places at the base of deep, rectangular pits)

Mohenjo-Daro: An early city of the Indus River valley The construction of the city suggests a well-organized government planned them Some scholars speculate that Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro were twin capitals A major trading center

Monsoon Rains: Seasonal winds that blow from the seas toward the Indian subcontinent

Mycenaeans: An early group on the Greek mainland, who came to dominate the area by the Late

Bronze Era They were warlike and aggressive, and controlled trade across the Aegean Sea and

with the other civilizations of the Middle East Followed the Minoans

Olmec: By 1200 B.C.E. (or perhaps earlier) a complex society had emerged that

archaeologists called the Olmec, or “rubber people” Olmec civilization was based on agriculture, but they had no need for extensive

irrigation because the area received abundant rainfall for cultivating crops Cities grew as religious and trade centers The mysterious giant heads sculpted from basalt that the Olmecs are now famous

for may well have symbolized the power of the ruling families These heads range up to 11 feet high, and have clear distinct facial characteristics

that may have been carved to honor specific rulers They developed a calendar They had no large animals and as such, human labor did all the work of agriculture

Oracle Bones: Specially prepared broad bones or turtle shells, each inscribed with a question

When properly heated, the bones would crack, and shamans, individuals who claimed the ability to contact the ancestors, would interpret the communication by the patterns formed

Many of these oracle bones have survived, and they tell us a great deal about early Chinese society and beliefs

Oracle bones are also a great source of early Chinese writing, which by Zhou times was also commonly inscribed on bronze ceremonial dishes

Papyrus: Ancient Egyptians used papyrus to write on Made from strips of a plant pressed together

Pictographs: The earliest form of Chinese writing was the pictograph, a standardized picture of

an object Written Chinese did not include an alphabet, but pictographs were often combined

to represent abstract ideas The characters used in modern China are direct descendants of those from Shang

times, and scholars have identified more than two thousand characters inscribe on oracle bones

Rosetta Stone: A tablet with a relatively long script in three languages: formal hieroglyphics, an

informal Egyptian writing, and Greek Egyptian hieroglyphics were decoded with the very fortunate discovery of the

Rosetta Stone Since Greek was known, the tablet was used to find many parallel symbols in

hieroglyphics With that head start, scholars were able to decode most of the hieroglyphic writing

samples that have been discovered Archaeologists have had no such luck in the Indus Valley, but new discoveries may

unearth some comparable clue in the future

Semitic: The Semitic language family was the precursor to both modern Hebrew and Arabic

languages

Shaman: Individuals who claimed the ability to contact the ancestors and would interpret

communication with the ancestorsShang Dynasty:

Founded a kingdom that stretched north and south from the Huang He River valley, and lasted about 700 years

Scholars do not fully agree on the dates and details of the earliest Chinese dynasties, but most accept that the Shang Dynasty is the first one to have left behind written records and solid archaeological evidence of its existence

1600 – 1050 B.C.E. Legends speak of the earlier Xia dynasty, but no written records from that time

have been found to confirm this

Shi: Professional bureaucrats or men of service An important political development under the Zhou Dynasty of China was the

growing size and responsibility of professional bureaucrats, or shi (men of service) These administrators were the best-educated men in the empire, and they served as

scribes, clerks, advisors, and overseers, both in the king’s court and in the subordinate governments of the king’s vassals

They came to specialize in keeping records, running public works or wars, or organizing rituals and ceremonies

The shi were the forerunners of a scholarly governing class that would gain great power and status in later dynasties

Social Mobility: The ability of individuals to change their social status

Sumerians: A non-Semitic group called Sumerians, who came into lower Mesopotamia about

5000 B.C.E., is generally credited with building the earliest civilization Gradually they created small competing city-states, each centered on a large town

that governed the countryside around it Despite the growing economic interdependence, the towns remained quarrelsome,

and the Sumerians’ early history was characterized by unceasing warfare, often provoked by competition for control of precious irrigated lands

Systems Failure: A breakdown of the political, social, and economic systems that supported a

civilization The Indus valley cities were abandoned sometime after 1900 B.C.E., although the

reason for their decline are uncertain No evidence of an invasion has been found, so one theory is that the civilization

suffered systems failure There might have been a precipitating event, such as an earthquake of a flood, but

gradual ecological changes appear to have occurred as well The cities may have grown too fast, so that the large population put stress on the

environment, burning trees to bake mud bricks for construction and farming land to intensely

Theocracy: Governed by gods or by priests Government of a state by immediate divine guidance or by officials who are

regarded as divinely guided

Tribute: Payment usually in the form of produce to a ruler A payment by one ruler or nation to another in acknowledgment of submission or as

the price of protection

Vassals: Lords that served the king and were bound to him by personal ties

Xia Dynasty: According to legend, an ancient dynasty (family-based kingdom) called the Xia

came to control much of the area around the Huang He River before the Shang Dynasty, but no archaeological sites connected to it have been found, so their existence is still not proven

A legendary first dynasty of China

Zhou Dynasty: In the 12 century B.C.E., the Shang rulers were overthrown by the Zhou Dynasty, a

group from farther west that became the longest-lived of all the Chinese dynasties The dynasty falls into two distinct phases: the Western Zhou (11th – 8th centuries

B.C.E.) with capital cities in the west, and the Eastern Zhou (8th – 5th centuries B.C.E.) when the capital was moved east to Luoyang

An important political development under the Zhou was the growing size and responsibility of professional bureaucrats, or shi (men of service)

Used the Mandate of Heaven to justify their overthrow of the Shang Dynasty Important Chinese philosophies like Confucianism and Daoism developed in the

Age of Warring States during the Zhou Dynasty

Ziggurats: Large multi-story pyramids constructed by bricks and approached by ramps and

stairs A temple dedicated to a special god Sumerian temples

Minoans: The Minoan civilization on the island of Crete controlled most of the Aegean area by

1600 B.C.E., and was replaced by the Mycenaeans

Mycenaeans: Replaced the Minoans Were often at war with others around them, and by 1200 B.C.E. they were at war

with the city of Troy on the other side of the Aegean Sea (in Anatolia)

Their cities were also invaded about this time by people from the north, so the times were chaotic, eventually ending in the destruction of their cities, with inhabitants abandoning them

After the fall of the Mycenaean civilization, the Aegean area entered into a “Dark Age” that lasted until about 800 B.C.E., when Greek cities began to reemerge as important urban centers

Phoenicians: A seafaring group from the eastern Mediterranean Invented the first alphabet

Phonetic Alphabet: The Phoenicians are best known for their use of a phonetic alphabet, a system of 22

written marks (“letter”) that each corresponded to a sound in the spoken language Their alphabet was much simpler than any other written language of its day, and

was much easier to learn and use for their trading The Greeks built on the Phoenician alphabet by adding sign for vowels, which the

original system did not have

Classical Civilizations: Characteristics of classical civilizations include increased size and/or increased

political strength of rulers, more complex cultures – several of the world’s great religions emerged as forces during this period, more numerous and better written records, more complex long-distance trade, more contacts between nomads and sedentary people, and more direct influence on modern civilizations

Many modern beliefs and practices may be traded much more directly to the classical era than to the earliest civilization era

Generally dated as the period from 1000 B.C.E. – 500 C.E.

Polis: A Greek term for city-state The geographic features of the Greek homeland encouraged the development of the

polis, or the city-state

Monarchies, Oligarchies, Aristocracies, and Democracies: The poleis took different political forms Monarchies (hereditary rule by one) Oligarchies (rule by a few) Aristocracies (rule by leading families) Democracies (a new form of popular government) One outcome of these conflicting governing styles was the emergence of tyrants by

the 6th century B.C.E. These tyrants were often military leaders who won popular support against the

aristocracy, and though they were not necessarily oppressive, the idea of one-man rule contradicted traditions of community governance

Helots: In the 700s B.C.E., the Spartans had defeated a neighboring city-state, Messenia,

and had taken their people as servants, called helots Although they were not slaves, they could not leave the land, and their role in

society was to provide agricultural labor During the 600s, the Messenians rebelled over and over again, encouraging the

Spartans to emphasize military control The rebellions were put down, and the helots met the society’s economic needs,

while Spartan men were warriors The Spartans were self-disciplined and rigidly obedient, and put a great deal of

emphasis on physical fitness

Cleisthenes: A rebellion in Athens in 510 B.C.E. put Cleisthenes, an aristocrat, in control, but the

instability of the times encouraged him to experiment with democracy At the heart of Athenian democracy was the “town meeting” of all free males, who

were called together to make decisions affecting the future of the polis All citizens could speak freely It is notable that this democracy consisted of only free males, so women and slaves

had no political power

Hoplites: Heavily armored infantrymen who fought in very close contact and cooperation

together Each soldier was protected by a helmet, breastplate, and leg guards, and held a

shield that protected half of his body and half of the soldier next to him The shields were arranged in continuous formation in front of the men, who moved

together so no gaps appeared between shields In early Greek history, farmers also were part-time soldiers who called up by the

government of their city-state for brief periods to meet military needs Campaigns took place when farmers were available, which meant that military

actions were generally not planned during planting and harvesting seasons These Greek farmer soldiers served as hoplites, heavily armored infantrymen who

fought in very close contact and cooperation together

Secularism: Emphasis on the affairs of this world The Greek emphasis on secularism, or affairs of this world, led them to seek

answers to the dilemmas of human existence in philosophy, in much the same way that the ancient Chinese embraced Confucianism

Natural Law: Forces in nature that cause phenomena to occur A body of laws considered as derived from nature

Socrates: A Greek philosopher (470 – 399 B.C.E.) The first philosopher to focus on ethical questions and truth-seeking regarding

human nature, understandings, and relationships He particularly emphasized the rational in human nature, or the ability of

individuals to reason for themselves

Plato: We know about Socrates through the writings of his student, Plato, who wrote about

his arrest, conviction, and forced suicide for “poisoning” the minds of Athens’ youth In many ways, the trial of Socrates represents the clash between traditional religious

values and the new emphasis on human capabilities, particularly the ability to think for themselves

A Greek philosopher

Aristotle: A Greek philosopher Plato’s student Interested in practically every field of human endeavor, including the natural and

social sciences

Hellenic Culture: The overall achievement of the Greeks during their “Classical Age” (c.500 – 300

B.C.E.) is termed Hellenic culture, based on the Greek name for their homeland, Hellas

Cyrus the Great: The First Persian warrior-king Overcame other rulers, such as the king of Medes, to extend his territory form the

edge of India to the Mediterranean Sea Ancient Persia rose in the area that is now Iran

Satraps: Persian representatives Cyrus the Great allowed his subjects to retain their own customs and laws, under

the supervision of his Persian representatives, the satraps These governors were responsible for collecting tribute, such as precious metals,

providing soldiers, and keeping order Their positions tended to become hereditary

Marathon: A legendary battle in 490 B.C.E. Wars between the Persians and the Greeks Sparked by rebellions in Ionia, an area governed by the Persians but inhabited by

people with Greek backgrounds and sympathies

When Darius I sent his troops to put down the rebellion, Athens went to aid its fellow Greeks in Ionia

At the battle of Marathon, the Greeks defeated the Persians in this legendary battle

Xerxes: A second series of battles between the Persians and Greeks began under Darius’

successor, Xerxes – a Persian king Xerxes was defeated even more decisively at the battle of Thermopylae in 480 B.C.E.

and again at Platea in 479 B.C.E. Some historians see this clash between Athens and the Persians as the trigger event

that set “West” (Greece) V. “East” (Persia) as a defining concept for modern day international politics

Delian League: An alliance of Greek city-states after the Persian Wars Athens became the premier city-state in Greece

Pericles: Athenian leader Led the Delian League Athenian assertiveness offended the Spartans when Athenians attacked Sparta’s

ally, Corinth

Peloponnesian War: 431 – 404 B.C.E. War between Athens and Sparta Although Sparta eventually won, the war set off a series of quarrels among the city-

states, fueled by their long established independence and individuality All were weakened in the end, leaving them vulnerable to conquest by a new power

to the north, Macedonia

Alexander the Great: Macedonian conqueror Conquered most of the known world to the Greeks Conquered Anatolia, Egypt, Persia, to the Indus River Spread Hellenism or a Greek-like culture Historians call the epoch following the conquests of Alexander the Hellenistic Age

because of the spreading of Greek culture to northeastern Africa and western Asia After Alexander’s death, his empire was divided among his generals

Hellenistic Synthesis: As Greek culture spread with the conquests of Alexander the Great, it blended in a

Hellenistic synthesis with many other cultures, creating cosmopolitan societies connected by trade and Greek culture

Alexander the Great, a Macedonian, had conquered a vast empire stretching from the Nile River to the Indus River

Alexander conquests spread Hellenism

Etruscans: The Etruscans came into Italy about 800, where they established a series of small

city-states that ruled over the native people One of its subject communities was Rome In 509 B.C.E. Rome gained its independence from Etruscan rule, and established

itself as a republic, or a state without a monarch (res publica) The republic lasted until the rule of the first emperor, Augustus (31 B.C.E. – 14

C.E.)

Senate: The Roman Senate was the most important ruling body It was composed of patricians, or aristocrats who passed their positions down to

their sons

Patricians: Roman aristocrats Served in the Roman Senate Roman elites Roman aristocrats controlled large plots of land that were worked by tenant

farmers

Plebeians: Roman commoners Were about 90% of the population The plebeians protested their lack of political power, and managed to get the

government to allow them representatives called tribunes, who at first were elected by the people, but eventually came to be controlled by the Senate by the mid 1st century B.C.E.

Consuls: Elected from among the members of the Roman Senate for one-year terms that

were not to be repeated Two consuls headed the Roman government during the era of the republic Each consul had veto power over the other, and because they were usually military

generals, they were often fiercely competitive and keen to challenge each other’s power

Tribunes: Representatives of the Roman plebeians

Julius Caesar:

A charismatic Roman patrician general with great sway over his soldiers who threatened the Roman republic

Caesar eventually declared himself dictator, only to be assassinated by senators on the Ides of March (March 15), 44 B.C.E.

Triumvirate (Rome): A rule of three This group threatened the Senate’s power Included Caesar, Crassus, and Pompey Eventually Caesar declared himself dictator

Actium: Octavian defeated Antony in the Battle of Actium in 31 B.C.E. and the Senate

declared him Augustus (“revered one”) Caesar, establishing the Roman Empire

Cleopatra: The last queen of Egypt, a direct descendant of Alexander the Great’s general

Ptolemy, who took control of Egypt after Alexander’s death Cleopatra was a Greek by descent, language, and culture, and she was supposedly

the first member of her family in their 300-year reign to have learned the Egyptian language

Tried to form alliances with powerful Romans Bore Julius Caesar’s child Sided with Mark Antony (after the assassination of Caesar) in his struggle against

Octavian for control of Rome Married Mark Antony but Octavian defeated Antony Committed suicide by convincing an asp (a snake) to bite her, ending her ambitions

forever

Princeps: “First citizen” Octavian defeated Mark Antony The Senate declared Octavian Augustus (“revered one”) Caesar, establishing the

Roman Empire August preferred to be called princeps (“first citizen”) In his forty-year rule, he overhauled the military, the economy, and the government,

putting in place a system that would last for another 250 years without substantial changes

Equites: One of the many accomplishments of Augustus was a new civil service that managed

the large empire with considerable efficiency and honesty The officials were equites, a class of Italian merchants and landowners who helped

run the Roman Empire

Law of the Twelve Tables:

Roman written law code from the days of the republic Included ideas such as innocence until proven guilty and equality before the law Augustus studied and codified Roman Law, adding onto the code from the days of

the republic – The Law of the Twelve Tables

Pax Romana: The “Roman peace” From the reign of Augustus Caesar until the late 2nd century C.E. The Roman empire reached its largest extent during the era, and settled into a long

period of peace and prosperity in which Roman strength was generally unchallenged

From 31 B.C.E. until 180 C.E., the empire prospered

Patron-client relationship: Patrons were men of wealth who clients turned to for help and protection in the

Roman economy A senator had many clients who depended on his political power, and in return they

gave him military service, labor, and political support

Punic Wars: Wars fought between Rome and Carthage Between 264 and 146 B.C.E. As the Roman Republic expanded on the Italian peninsula, Romans began to play a

large role in the Mediterranean Sea trade. Their economy and political power were increased tremendously by their victory in

the Punic Wars Carthage, a former Phoenician colony, located on the southern shore of the

Mediterranean, controlled the western Mediterranean before its defeat The Romans burned the city of Carthage to the ground, slated the earth to keep

anything from growing there again, and took control of the lands, rich in grain, oil, wine, and precious metals

These resources fed the continuing expansion that continued after the founding of the empire by Augustus Caesar

3 rd Century Crisis : Economic problems returned in the 3rd century C.E. crisis in the Roman Empire After a series of problematic emperors, and under pressure from a growing number

of raids by nomadic people across Roman bordersVirgil:

Roman poet Linked great epic poetry like the Iliad and the Odyssey to Roman history in his

Aeneid, which became the official version of the founding of Rome Roman literary works also spread its language – Latin – far and wide

Diocletian:

A strong Roman emperor who stopped the slide or decline of the Roman Empire temporarily

Constantine: In the 4th century C.E., the Roman Emperor Constantine established a second

capital city in the east that he named “Constantinople” in order to have better connections in that part of the empire and to escape the threatening attacks of Rome by nomads

Converted to Christianity

Warring States Period: At the end of the Zhou Dynasty of China The Warring States Period was a time of political turmoil, with regional warlords

constantly challenging the authority of the Zhou It was a period that prompted much debate over how to solve China’s many

problems, resulting in the origins of three influential belief systems: Legalism, Daoism, and Confucianism

Legalism: Chinese philosophy Believed that humans were naturally evil and would only obey authority through

force Advocated strict laws, harsh punishments, and sacrifice of personal freedom for the

good of the state

Daoism: A philosopher named Laozi, who reputedly lived during the 6th century B.C.E.,

reacted to the constant warfare by encouraging people to avoid useless struggles by following the Dao, or the “path”

He shunned political and military ambitions as lacking morality and meaning, and guided his followers toward nature for comfort and understanding

Daoism emphasizes acceptance and individual retreat from society

Laozi: Founder of Daoism Encouraged people to avoid useless struggles by following the Dao, or the “path”

Confucianism: The philosopher Confucius emphasized the importance of hierarchical, harmonious

relationships in the creation of an orderly society Everyone has a place in society, from the ruler to his lowliest subject, and all have

responsibilities in their relationships with others Confucianism saw the family as the foundation of society that serves as a model for

benevolence, duty, and courtesy

Qin Dynasty: Legalism met an enthusiastic response from the leaders of the state of Qin in

western China, who used the philosophy to dominate their neighbors Since the Qin government had much stronger centralized authority than the

previous dynasties had, the king declared himself “The First Emperor,” or Shi Huangdi, who ruled China from 221 – 210 B.C.E.

The dynasty only survived for a few years after his death But its brevity does not reduce its significance in the development of the Chinese

state

Shi Huangdi: “The First Emperor” or Shi Huangdi Ruled China from 221 – 210 B.C.E. Ruler of the Qin Dynasty of China Ruled his empire through a centralized bureaucracy Tenets of legalism served him well as he stripped the nobility of power and divided

China into administrative provinces governed by administrators that served at his pleasure

Built roads to facilitate communications and move his armies Forced his subjects to contribute their labor to building public works, including the

first fortifications of the Great Wall fo China Standardized laws and currencies An important step in his unification of China was his mandate that the Shang

version of Chinese script be used all over the empire The common script enabled people across China to communicate with one another

through writing However, his strict rule made him quite unpopular Shortly after his death, revolts began, resulting in the overthrow of the Qin dynasty

in 207 B.C.E.

Great Wall: Fortifications built in northern China to prevent invasions

Terra Cotta Army: Shi Huangdi was buried in a magnificent underground palace, surrounded by

thousands of terra cotta soldiers, crafted specifically to guard the ruler after his death

The site of the tomb has only been excavated since 1974, when a Chinese farmer digging for water accidentally discovered a piece of a soldier

Han Wudi: An able ruler of the Han Dynasty The Han Dynasty ruled China from 206 B.C.E. – 220 C.E. After the collapse of the Qin Dynasty, China was brought under control quickly by

Liu Bang, who was not a particularly talented military commander, but was a

strong ruler, partly because he picked able bureaucrats who organized the new dynasty efficiently

Like their contemporaries, the Romans, the Han organized and controlled their realm through a strong, nonhereditary bureaucracy

The Han brought forward the Confucian value of benevolence to substitute for the Qin strictness and reliance on force

Used the examination system to select candidates for government service Trade increased as Silk Roads were developed

Forbidden City: The emperor of China lived in the forbidden city, so called because only his family,

servants, and closest advisors were permitted within its boundaries Administrative buildings and houses of aristocrats and the scholar-gentry

surrounded the forbidden city, and the streets bustled with commerce Like Rome, Han China was an urban empire that ruled a rural and peasant

population

Scholar-Gentry: This class was linked to the shi, and eventually superseded it Their status was based on control of large amounts of land and bureaucratic

positions in the government Wealth from landholding supported their brightest sons to study for and win

important administrative positions

Calligraphy: One of the highest art forms during the Han Dynasty in China, or the artistic

rendering of the written word A skill that is still highly prized in Chinese society

Caste: A social class of hereditary and usually unchangeable status The term was first used in India by Portuguese merchants and mariners during the

16th century when they noticed the sharp social distinctions on the Indian subcontinent

The four major castes of Hinduism are Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra The Aryans, however, used the term varna to refer to their social classes

Varna: The Aryans used the term varna, a Sanskrit word meaning “color” to refer to their

social classes By about 1000 B.C.E., four major varnas were recognized, as explained in a creation

myth in which a primordial creature named Purusha was sacrificed Brahmins are the highest social classes and were the priests and scholars, who

sprang from Purusha’s mouth, and represented intellect and knowledge

Kshatriya; the warriors and government officials sprang from the arms of the creature

Vaishya; From Purusha’s thighs came the third layer of people – landowners, merchants, and artisans

Shudra; The creature’s feet were represented by common peasants and laborers

Jati: During the classical era, the caste system became much more complex, with each

caste further subdivided into jati, or birth groups, each with its own occupation, duties, and rituals

Each jati had very little contact with the others, and its members intermarried and followed the same occupations of the ancestors

Vedas: The period from 1500 to 500 B.C.E. in the Indian subcontinent is called the “Vedic

Age,” after the Vedas The Vedas were religious texts that were passed down from generation to generation

of Aryans in the forms of hymns, songs, prayers and rituals honoring the Aryan gods

The Vedas reflect the conflicts between the Aryans and the Dravidians, and they identify Indra as the Aryan war god and military hero, as well as gods of the sun, sky, moon, fire, and the underworld

Rig Veda: The most important of the Vedas is called the Rig Veda, compiled between about

1400 and 900 B.C.E., but was not written down until about 600 B.C.E.

Upanishads: Over the years the Aryan religion blended with beliefs of the Dravidians, as

reflected in a body of works called the Upanishads, which appeared in the late Vedic Age, about 800 to 400 B.C.E.

The Upanishads spoke about a universal spirit, known as Brahman, who is eternal and unchanging

Reincarnation: A central belief of Hinduism and Buddhism is the belief in reincarnation or the

rebirth of the soul According to Hindus, through reincarnation, the rebirth of the soul after the body

dies, the human spirit (atman) could eventually join the universal spirit, as long as the human behaved ethically

Eventually, these belief as well as others came to be called Hinduism, the religion of most people that live today in the Indian subcontinent

Hinduism: The religion of most people that live today in the Indian subcontinent Beliefs include karma, dharma, reincarnation, Moksha, and caste

Atman: According to Hindus, the human spirit that can eventually join the universal spirit The individual soul or essence that is eternal, unchanging, and indistinguishable

from the essence of the universe

Buddhism: A second major world religion, Buddhism, began in India during the early classical

period Its founder was Siddhartha Gautama (563 – 483 B.C.E.), born to a Kshatriya family

in the north of India Although his life as a prince was comfortable and satisfying, he left his family to

seek the meaning of life, and eventually experienced an enlightenment that became the foundation of the faith

Siddhartha was called the Buddha (“Enlightened One”), and spent the rest of his life in the area around the Ganges River valley spreading his knowledge to others

He never claimed to be a god, but after his death, some of his followers elevated him to that status

Although the religion spread, most Indians remained faithful to the old beliefs

Mauryan Dynasty: The Mauryan Dynasty of the Indian subcontinent came to rule a good part of the

subcontinent for almost 300 year The dynasty began in the kingdom of Magadha, in eastern India The kingdom was wealthy and strategically located along the trade routes of the

Ganges River valley, and its leader, Chandragupta Maurya expanded it into India’s firs centralized empire

His grandson, Ashoka, ruled over the entire subcontinent except for the southern tip of the peninsula

323 B.C.E. – 185 B.C.E.

Ashoka: Political developments in India greatly impacted the growth of Buddhism,

particularly after Ashoka Ashoka was the third and greatest ruler of the Mauryan Dynasty and converted to

Buddhism Ashoka was the grandson of Chandragupta Maurya Ashoka’s early life was spent conquering different regions of India until, according

to his own account, he was shocked by the bloodshed at the battle of Kalinga at the midpoint of his reign

He turned to Buddhism because of its emphasis on peace, tolerance, and nonviolence, and he spent the remainder of his years promoting these values

The Mauryan Empire lasted for a time after Ashoka’s death in 232 B.C.E., but eventually it collapsed from the pressures of attacks in the northwest

Gupta Empire: In the early 4th century C.E., a new empire rose to centralize power once again,

although it never was as large as the Mauryan Empire had been The Gupta Empire began in the same powerful area, Magadha, with is founder

Chandra Gupta, modeling himself after the Mauryan founder by borrowing his name

The Gupta Empire was not only smaller, but it also never had as much control over regional lords as the Maurya had, particularly under Ashoka

The Gupta did not build a genuine bureaucracy to rule their subjects, but instead were content to draw tribute from them, allowing regional warrior elites a great deal of autonomy to rule their areas

A time of peace, prosperity, and achievements occurred during the Gupta Empire – the concept of zero, the decimal system, and the concept of infinity developed

Stirrup: Was probably invented in what is now northern Afghanistan Warriors in many places realized what an advantage the stirrup gave them in battle,

so its use spread to faraway China and Europe

Attila: During the late 4th century C.E., the nomadic Huns began an aggressive westward

migration from their homeland in central Asia During the mid-5th century, Attila organized the Huns into a great attacking army,

invading Hungary, crossing Roman frontiers in the Balkans, and venturing into Gaul and northern Italy

By the late 5th century, the Huns were pouring into the Indian subcontinent Defense of the frontier exhausted the Gupta’s treasury, and the empire collapsed by

550

Lateen Sail: Sailing on the Indian Ocean had to take into account the strong seasonal monsoon

winds that blew in one direction during the spring and the opposite direction during the fall

Indian Ocean vessels did without oars, and used the lateen sail A lateen sail was roughly triangular with squared off points for maneuverability

through the strong winds

Desertification: The expansion of the Sahara Desert that dried out agricultural lands The Bantu may have begun to leave their homeland as early as 2000 B.C.E., possibly

because of desertification The Bantu traveled for centuries all over sub-Saharan Africa, but retained many of

their customs, including their Bantu language

The Bantu migrations had introduced agriculture, iron metallurgy, and the Bantu language to most regions of sub-Saharan Africa

Polytheism: Is the belief in many gods, with each god having a specialty, usually related to

nature

Universalizing Religions: Religions with cores of beliefs that transcend cultures and actively recruit new

adherents Christianity and Buddhism are examples of universalizing religions, with cores of

beliefs that transcend cultures and actively recruit new adherents During the classical era, an important change occurred in two of the religions –

Christianity and Buddhism – that allowed them both to spread to many new areas from their places of origin

These two religions followed the Silk Road and the Indian Ocean circuit, and their numbers grew greatly

Ethnic Religions: Some important religions, such as Judaism, the Chinese religions (Daoism and

Confucianism), and Hinduism created strong bonds among people, but had little emphasis on converting outsiders to their faiths

Hebrew Bible: A compilation of beliefs, events, and people from the early history of the Hebrews Judaism originated with a small Middle Eastern group called the Hebrews, a

Semitic people influenced by Babylonian civilization The stories of the Bible were transmitted orally for many years, and were written

down probably in the 10th century B.C.E. The text that we have today dates from the 5th century B.C.E., with a few later

additions

Abraham: The founder of the religion of Judaism was Abraham Abraham was a man born in Ur in Mesopotamia who rejected the polytheism of his

homeland and migrated with his family to the land of Israel, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea

Diaspora: A scattering of a group of people The Hebrews suffered a diaspora or a scattering of their people by conquerors such

as the neo-Babylonian in the 6th century B.C.E. and the Romans in the 2nd century C.E.

The religion of Judaism survived, though, to influence other major religions, including Christianity and Islam, to make monotheism a powerful religious concept

Judaism: A religion founded by Abraham Monotheism and ethical and moral rules (i.e. The Ten Commandments) First five books of the Hebrew Bible are known as the Torah The Jewish concept of God represents an important change in human views toward

the sacred The gods in most early religions were whimsical and capricious but the Hebrews

saw God as more abstract, less human, all knowing, all powerful, and always just They also viewed their relationship to God as a covenant (agreement) that assured

them divine care in exchange for their devotion to one God The belief that God sets high standards for ethical conduct and moral behavior was

also powerful, one that set Hebrews apart from other early religions and has endured through the ages

Monotheism: The belief in one God The first monotheistic religion to last was probably Judaism, originating in the

Middle East about 4000 years ago

Jesus of Nazareth: Founder of Christianity Christianity emerged as a new religion in the early years of the Roman Empire in

Judea, the old Jewish kingdom that had become a Roman province Jesus of Nazareth was a Jewish prophet and teacher that Christians regard as the

son of God His supporters believed that he fulfilled a long-standing belief in the coming of a

Messiah Jesus lived during the time of Augustus, and he advocated a purification of the

Jewish religion that would establish the kingdom of God on earth He appealed especially to the poor because his message was universal: all people

were welcome in the kingdom of God, no matter what their social status or ethnicity Jesus also promised a better life, not only after death, but on earth as well, since the

just would be rewarded and the evil punished with a “Second Coming” of God His message of a moral code based on love, charity, and humility, and not on

possessions and money, also made the new religion appealing However, his talk about a kingdom of God on earth alarmed the Romans, who saw

his message as insubordinate to their rule Some Jewish officials also believed him to be a dangerous agitator that threatened

their religious authority As a result, Jesus was put to death about 30 C.E., but his followers believed that he,

as the son of God, was resurrected from the dead, a belief that became central to the new faith

Paul:

The new religion of Christianity was spread by Jesus’ disciples, twelve men who followed him, but the man most responsible for the rapid growth of Christianity was Paul, a missionary who appealed to Greeks and Romans

Paul was Jewish, but he had been born in a Greek city and was familiar with the Greco-Roman culture, so he put basic Christian beliefs in terms that Greeks and Romans could understand

Paul’s emphasis on Christianity as a universal religion was largely responsible for the fact that by the 4th century C.E., about 10 percent of the residents of the Roman Empire were Christian

Although early Christians were persecuted, the Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan in 313, which announced the official toleration of Christianity as a faith

Constantine became a Christian himself (probably on his deathbed), and thereafter all emperors in the East and west (except one) were Christians

In 381, the emperor Theodosius made Christianity the official religion of Rome, too late to serve as a new “glue” for the crumbling empire, but in time to preserve Christianity as a faith that would help organize the chaos when political power failed

Atman: According to Hinduism, human souls that are actually pieces of the universal spirit

that are trapped in physical bodes The religion of Hinduism emphasizes a universal spirit that is responsible for what

occurs in the universe that encompasses humankind The spirit is disembodied but all pervasive, and all human souls, each called an

atman, are actually pieces of the spirit that are trapped in physical bodies

Karma: According to Hinduism, each person has a karma, or a destiny that has been shaped

by years of cause and effect, that is outwardly revealed by an individual’s caste, or station in life

When a person’s destiny has been shaped by years of cause and effect

Dharma: According to Hinduism, attached to a person’s karma is dharma, or a set of duties

that the individual must fulfill If a person has fulfilled his or her dharma, the atman will be reincarnated in the

next life as a person of a higher caste

Moksha: According to Hinduism, ultimately the higher castes have the opportunity to attain

moksha, or reunion with the universal spirit, a rare, but highly prized goal Reunion with the universal spirit

Vishnu:

Hindu beliefs allow for many different forms that the universal spirit (Brahman) may take, including almost any of the pantheon of Hindu gods

It is simplistic to say that Hinduism is polytheistic because all the gods are actually part of the universal spirit

One of the supreme deities is Vishnu, the preserver

Shiva: Another one of the supreme deities of Hinduism is Shiva, the destroyer Vishnu and Shiva are opposites, and yet each is too complex to be summed up in

those basic descriptions

Mudras: Hand signals Different aspects of Hindu gods are usually represented in sculpture or painting by

the presence of multiple arms and mudras, or hand signals, that communicate with Hindu believers

Vedas: The doctrines of Hinduism stem from the Vedas, the epic poems sung by ancient

priests that were eventually written down The most significant is the Rig Veda

Rig Veda: The most significant of the Vedas Deals with deities (Indra and Varuna) and their relationships with humans

Mahabharata: The world’s longest poem Central Hindu beliefs are found in the Mahabharata, the world’s longest poem Provides moral guidelines for Hindus

Ramayana: A poem that demonstrates the fulfillment of dharma, particularly as it relates to

husband and wife relationships Central Hindu beliefs are found in the Ramayana Provides moral guidelines for Hindus

Bhagavad-Gita: Probably the single best known Hindu story is the Bhagavad-Gita A segment of the Mahabharata about the warrior Arjuna, who strove to treat other

human beings well, while fulfilling his dharma Provides moral guidelines for Hindus

Hinduism: The dominant religion of the Indian subcontinent

Although Hinduism is the world’s third largest religion today, most of its 800 million adherents live in India

Its historical roots are grounded in the caste system and reflect the cultural development of the Indian subcontinent, making it today’s largest ethnic religion

Important beliefs include karma, dharma, reincarnation, caste, and moksha

Nirvana: The Buddha (“Enlightened One”) taught that everyone, regardless of caste, could

attain nirvana Nirvana is the union with the universal spirit which offers release from human

suffering

Four Noble Truths: Buddha taught that nirvana can be reached through an understanding of the Four

Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, not through reincarnations from one caste to another

The Four Noble Truths are1) All life is suffering2) All suffering is caused by desire for things that ultimately won’t fulfill us3) Desire can only be overcome by ending all desire4) Desire can only be ended by following the Eightfold Path

Eightfold Path: Buddha taught that nirvana can be reached through an understanding of the Four

Noble Truths and the Eightfold Path, not through reincarnations from one caste to another

Composed of eight steps that must be mastered one at a time and they all involve “right” thinking and acting: right knowledge, right purpose, right speech, right action, right living, right effort, right mindfulness, and right meditation

Theravada (Hinayana): This division with Buddhism is the stricter version of the faith, with “Theravada”

literally meaning “the narrower vehicle” Emphasizes the monastic life for both men and women, and strictly adheres to the

steps that must be taken on the Eightfold PathClaims to be the pure form of the Buddha’s teaching, and does not believe that the Enlightened One was anything other than a mortal man

This branch spread mainly to Southeast Asia

Mahayana: This “great vehicle” division of Buddhism grew to encompass most Buddhists, and

took many variations Mahayana Buddhists believe that Siddhartha Gautama took the initial steps

towards defining the religion, and that other Buddhas appeared after him

A concept that came to be accepted was a bodhisattva, a person who had taken the Eightfold Path and reached perfection, but had delayed entering nirvana in order to help others

Mahayana Buddhists began to worship Buddhas as a god, and erected stupas (mounds that symbolize the universe) over relics of Siddhartha in temple courtyards

This version of Buddhism is much more accepting of different life styles and paths to nirvana, and as it traveled to other lands, it often absorbed concepts from native religions

Bodhisattva: A Buddhist concept that came to be accepted by Mahayana Buddhists was the

bodhisattva, a person who had taken the Eightfold Path and reached perfection, but had delayed entering nirvana in order to help others

Confucius: Lived in the late Zhou Era during the Warring States period He was a middle-level Chinese bureaucrat in the Chinese government whose

wisdoms became more celebrated after his death than they were while he was alive Most concerned with the chaos of the times he lived in (551 -479 B.C.E.) and his

philosophy envisions an ideal society of harmony and order Important ideas of his philosophy include inferiors obeying superiors, superiors

setting good examples, filial piety or sons honoring parents and ancestors, the Five Relationships, the importance of order, and the importance of the family

The Analects: Confucius did not leave any writings, but his followers compiled his teachings into

The Analects after his death

Yin-Yang: Chinese principle of opposite forces in harmony Important principle of Daoism Confucius built on earlier Chinese traditions, including the mandate of heaven and

the yin-yang principle of opposite forces in harmony

Reciprocity: Confucianism rests on the principle of reciprocity, or the notion that people give and

take equally within the context of five basic relationships of society:-parent and child-sovereign and minister-husband and wife-older and younger brother-friend and friend

The first four relationships are hierarchical or unequal, but a natural part of society, according to Confucius

If everyone within the five relationships behaves as he should, society would be ideally harmonious

Xiao: Confucian essential value Filial piety is the devotion of the individual to family and the strong ties that hold

families together Xiao obliges children to respect their parents and obey family elders, look after their

welfare, support them in old age, and remember them as revered ancestors after their deaths

Ren: Confucian essential value Kindness and benevolence Courtesy, respect, diligence, and loyalty Confucius believed that the five basic relations should be characterized by ren

Li: Confucian essential value A sense of propriety requires people to treat one another according to convention,

and li puts emphasis on orderly rituals that demonstrate respect and reciprocity in relationships

Daoism: Chinese philosophy Encourages people to retreat from society and develop a reflective and introspective

consciousness A chief value of Daoism is “wuwei” – disengagement from the affairs of the world,

and the ability to live simply, and in harmony with nature

Dao: According to the Chinese philosophy of Daoism, Dao is the “way” of nature, or a

force that is not necessarily good or bad but is inevitable Since the Dao is inevitable, human beings must learn to live in harmony with it,

which means the path of least resistance Human striving has brought about the chaos in the world because people have not

accepted the Dao Although Laozi, the founder of Daoism, wrote mainly about withdrawal from the

world, he did give some advice to Chinese rulers He warned rulers not to enjoy war and its spoils or to overindulge when the people

were hungry He believed that happy kingdoms resulted from wise rule, but he disagreed with

Confucius on the need for a strong centralized state Instead, Laozi emphasized the wise man’s individual search for the meaning of life

through following the Dao

Laozi:

According to Chinese tradition, the founder of Daoism was Laozi, who lived during the 6th century B.C.E. in China