Billings 1

Securing a Better World with

Billings 2

Human Understanding

Shannan Billings

Eleanor Binnings

ENG 1020 – 088

May 1, 2015

What does extinction mean? For a particular species of bird, it meant to have once

reigned the skies in a grandiose flock that, before long, would face a descent so earthshattering it

would perish all of its kind. What does it mean to be on the brink? For a feline, it is a life cut

short so that the stripes on its back may serve ignorance, gluttony, poverty, and what would

eventually be scarcity. What does it mean to respect life? For a pachyderm and her calf, it means

allowing a chance for survival; that if needed, the mother can protect her young with her

magnificent horn. In respecting life human beings must find common-ground amongst one

another to understand the core value of life itself. The world would be more secure and safer for

both the creatures and humans through understanding.

Human Understanding

Human beings impose the greatest impacts upon the environments. Their capacity to

make decisions can impose the greatest threats upon, not only themselves, but also on the

wildlife in their surroundings. Often enough, the consequences of endangerment and extinction

are heavily considered after the fact. Humans, however, have the aptitude to empathize and

understand one another. Much of what influences human choice is the knowledge, the values,

and the circumstances to which individuals are associated. Humans should take care in

Billings 3

considering these conditions that spawn attitudes toward animals, because this will allow small

steps to turn into confident strides in the framework of conservation. The passenger pigeon, the

rhinoceros, and the tiger are strong, if not resilient, examples that express the power of human-

understanding. With the understanding of these three species, the aim is that future generations

will make further strides in conservational efforts for all species.

Passing of the Passenger Pigeon

In their noteworthy time of attention in the nineteenth century the passenger pigeons, or

Ectopistes migratorius, were birds most known for passing-by. According to educator Emily

Graslie in her Year of the Passenger Pigeon film, these pigeons would migrate in flocks of a few

billion in strength, over eastern and midwestern North American towns for nearly hours and

sometimes days (0:30). This long period of overhang was referred to as the dark-cloud and once

departed it left a landscape in an utter disarray. To the knowledge of wildlife conservationists,

Joshua Ellsworth and Brenda McComb, trees would deteriorate as toxic pigeon ejecta layered the

ground several centimeters thick and branches would give way to the weight of the pigeons as

they nestled together (1549). On occasion the pigeons were a blessing during a food shortage,

but conversely, they were seen as a curse when crops were uprooted and consumed. This

disarray, as mentioned by Graslie, made villagers fear that the apocalypse was upon them (0:41).

Little was known about the passenger pigeons. The knowledge of how species have roles in

ecosystems were not educated amongst persons at the time. Therefore, ambiguity and ignorance

wreaked havoc on these migratory birds.

Passenger pigeons did not lack in numbers, in fact, they held the largest bird population

known among any other species of birds. There is no formal reason for such an outstanding

Billings 4

population-other than the fact that their kind would thrive in reproducing when flocks were

massive in size. In the late ninetieth century there was a total estimation of three to five billion

birds, a number similar to the overwintering that occurred the in the United States in 1995

(Ellsworth and McComb 1549). Unfortunately, due to the reoccurring destructions brought by

their presence the passengers became unfavorable among settlers and, in fact, were seen as pests.

Such negative repute drove settlers to exterminate the profuse populations in the latter half of the

1800s. Methods of extermination consisted of netting, poisoning, and shooting matches. The

hunting of passenger pigeons(as shown in Figures 1 and 2) became not only a means for

elimination, but also a means for temporary prosperity; the hunting and trapping brought in the

supply for making pillows and complimenting the home-economics of pies (Graslie 2:30). In

effect, the pigeons only become popular in matters of recreation, production, and consumption.

These pigeons gained a significant amount of negative attention that lead to the

engagement of homicidal interventions in the 1860s and up until the turn of the 20th century. A

small minority attempted to speak against the trapping and trading of these birds; although, it

was not necessarily the concern about extinction, but rather the cruelty of the sport (4:10).

Despite the concerns passenger pigeons were still sought after and trappers would still find ways

Billings 5

around the unprotected rules and kill them. In Stuart Pimm and Robert Askins’ ecological

journal article, the declination was a combination of factors that included hunting as well as

disease and deforestation (9346). This largely points to the fact that human disturbances and the

lack of wildlife management were a major cause of the species’ loss. As mentioned before,

reproduction within the species was fortified most when the flocks were great in numbers. When

the passenger pigeon population rapidly declined, so did their stimulation for reproduction as

well as their incentive to attend the few hatchlings in their nests.

With numbers so exorbitant, it seemed nearly impossible for such an abundant species to

have passed-by for the last time as it did after 40 years of annihilation. Regardless, it was in 1914

that the last passenger pigeon, Martha,

died after her 29 years at the Cincinnati

Zoo (Smithsonian Institute 2014).

Subsequent to her death, Martha was

been relocated to several places,

including the Smithsonian National

Museum of Natural History (see

Figure 3), the Bird Hall, and a number

of conferences to serve as symbol of a species once lost. These particular pigeons now mark an

importance on history and the involvement humans now have with the wildlife.

The year 2014 commemorated the centennial anniversary of the extinction of Martha and

her kind. Such remembrance holds a firm lesson of how mankind, as a species, possesses the

destructive potentials against all other species. Although there is no population to recover in

respects to the passenger pigeons, there is much to be said about the other species that are

Figure 3: Martha the Last Passenger Pigeon

Billings 6

presently afflicted today. Those afflictions have motivated the human race to seek their

constructive potentials. As a result of a century’s of conservation and research, many regions

have achieved small triumphs in species preservation.

Revival of the Rhinoceros

Conservation is profoundly dependent on the human race-as expressed with the passenger

pigeons. Not only does ignorance confine the movements in conservation, but so do the values

and circumstances that support the individuals involved. These diverse conditions can ultimately

make the difference between the life and the death of a species like the rhinoceros. The

rhinoceros subsist in the regions of South Africa and Eastern Asia. These locations are highly

encroached with illegal hunting or poaching of pachyderms. “Poach” is a term that the Oxford

Dictionary defines as, an “illegally hunt or catch (game or fish) on land that is not one’s own, or

in contravention of official protection” (Oxford University Press). While rhinoceros may not be

considered the average game, these exotic species are treated no better-and sometimes even

worse-than the average game. The question that comes to mind is: why are rhinos a target for

poaching?

Little attention is paid to the cultural value of the rhinoceros. It is important, however, to

know this assessment in order to comprehend the issues regarding rhino poaching. Rhinoceros

horns are structures of bone and keratin. This keratin are what similarly make up human hair and

fingernails. Biggs, Courchamp, Martin, and Possingham, experts and the authors of the "Legal

Trade of Africa’s Rhino Horns”, asserted that the rhino horn is worth more than gold, diamonds,

or cocaine per unit weight in the regions of Africa and Asia (1380). Indeed, rhino horns are

Billings 7

hugely funded by merchants for its presence in the black market. In South Africa during 1993

rhino horns were priced at $4,700 per kilogram and $65,000 per kilogram in 2012 (1380). In East

and Southeast Asia are no strangers in the pursuit and consumerism of rhinoceros horns. Rhino

horns have served two major purposes since the ancient times. Horns provide raw material for

ornamental carvings. In places like Yemen horns are whittled into dagger handles (Duffy 117).

In other cases, the horns are ground into powder and dispersed into traditional Chinese

medicines. Chinese medicines containing horns are presumed to have curing properties to several

types of illnesses. The rhino keratin, unlike human keratin, has been accepted in Asian remedies

for treating common headaches and fevers as well diluting blood (118). Properties such as these

brings the notion of whether or not this particular wildlife trade should be legalized, controlled,

and taxed in order to satisfy these medical traditions and assumptions. Despite any possible

negotiations, the species of rhinoceros is undeniably declining at a rate to which there may not be

any rhinoceros left to negotiate over.

The wildlife trade is not an easy concept to grasp and conservation is not an easy task to

handle. Poaching is an intense problem but it is not the point of origin for the wild life trade.

Poaching occurs, not out of the sole the desire to kill exotic animals, but the desire for wealth and

assets. For one thing, the poverty found in these regions entice poachers to take advantage of

situations that generates income. In her book Nature Crime, Rosaleen Duffy, a professor of the

political ecology of development also offers the concept that the upper-class are most responsible

for mandating the demand of rhino horns (218). Over the course of history, the wealthy class has

had the privilege to decree the hunting and collecting of rare species. The pursuit of an exotic

species was socially acceptable in Asian and African countries. It was also acceptable to kill a

rhino after it raided communal territories and crops. Now wildlife management has been brought

Billings 8

into light and regulations have banned the hunt and trade of rhinoceros in most regions. In an

ideal state, the number of crimes should reduce after the placement of bans, but often times there

is an opposite reaction.

Because the consumption, trade, and sport was tolerated prior to the conservation

movement, the wildlife regulation struggles to supervise a blurred line between hunting and

poaching. Inhabitants have been indifferent to the new apprehension for rhinos and less willing

to break from fixed traditions and luxuries. Field researcher, Esmond Martin provides a

supporting case where the resistance in 2000 to 2003 leads to poaching of over 92 of the 544

rhinos in Nepal (87). This Asian country was considerably notorious for its activity with

rhinoceros poaching. In fact, the effects were so depraving that it drove out army personnel, who

were guarding the posts of Royal Chitwan and Royal Bardia National Parks. This thus increased

the poaching rates and violated solitude of local communities. Esmond Martin and Chryssee

Martin, report that the parks and nongovernment organizations put large sums of money into

buffer zones to local communities to improve their living conditions; instead of wining their

support in conservation, some locals, who may have not benefited much from the program,

become tour guides for the poaching gangs (49). This change in roles shows how impressionable

persons are in altering their position in conservation. Not only this, but it also shows how both

the motivation and desperation greatly influence the decision made by locals. And furthermore,

the roles that have shifted away from conservation illustrations how animals are undervalued as

disposable in deprived societies.

Anti-poachers attempt to make assertions against the wildlife trade. Though, poaching

activity is extremely difficult to monitor when rhinos

are so vulnerable in their entire existence. The ceaseless

Figure 4:A de-horned rhino slowly dies after poachers

Billings 9

demand for the horns encourage gangs to willing retrieve the body parts illegally for

compensations. Economic and materialistic

demands heed no consideration for the life of

rhinoceroses (as observed in Figure 4). Rhino

poaching results in many deaths, yet, there are

methods in removing the top of the horn to allow

for a potential regrowth over time. This careful

method is seldom practiced by poachers, and

instead, the horn is habitually cut from the base.

If a rhino is not dead immediately after being shot, then a horn that is cut from the base will

surely leave a rhino to slowly bleed to death. Park rangers and conversationalists have been

known to skim off the top section in hopes of reducing the incentive to poach (see Figure 5). But

even with park rangers risking the rhinoceros’ quality of life through dehorning, the results are

proven ineffective without the provision of additional security (Biggs et al. 1038). In other

words, the poachers are still willing to harm-if not kill- the rhino in order to profit from any

value the remains may have. The rhino trade is a widely funded trade. Dealers offer exorbitant

amounts of money to poacher, whom are readily supplied with the technology to kill rhinoceros;

the mere shot at profiting from poaching appears to be worth the risk of arrestment for some

Nepalese. In a case provided by the Martins’, a Nepalese gang received 1,400,000 rupees

(19,178 USD) after retrieving a horn that had been requested by a well-off trader (50). The

incentives to poach points to the fact that poverty is a huge set back in wildlife conservation.

Alas, poachers continue to profit more as the “supply” of rhino decreases in the black market

because the buyers are willing to pay for the rarity of the species. Principally, this scarcity is

Figure 4:A de-horned rhino slowly dies after poachers

Billings 10

because the rhinoceros populations are decreasing; however, the animals that are involved in

these trades are not valued as living beings, but rather as a means of wealth from a scarcity in

supply. The devastating consequence gained from the profit, status, and power of the horns is

that all rhinoceros become endangered-and not long after that they will all become extinct.

Control is important in conservation. Efforts to control becomes problematic because

authority tends to be abused. Military tactics have been used toward, not only poachers, but also

to, as Duffy states, local communities, who are criminalized and punished, sometimes with

deadly force (110). The recent undertakings to hunt and kill poachers has brought great attention

in conservation. The effectiveness may temporarily deliberate the act of poaching; however, the

slaying approach may not be sustainable for peace amongst countries and for the long term. Yet,

with the militarized enforcement, harsh penalties, and pursuits may further drive up the offered

prices. Since “supply is restricted in the face of inelastic and growing demand” (Biggs et al.

1380), traders may be forced to bargain at higher prices for the costly risks that are taken to

retrieve horns. The complications of monitoring the black marketing of wildlife products are

similar to the banning or controlling of alcohol and drug substances. The key difference is that

the Nepalese risk terminating a significant element in their culture. The rhino has a crucial role in

the Nepalese art, religion, architectures, and folklore. By removing the essence of rhinoceroses

from the region, the culture of Nepalese will not only lose its traditions, but will also lose the

knowledge and appreciation for these exotic species in next generations to come.

Despite the challenges that faced the Nepalese their conservation efforts came through. In

2014, the country accomplished a year of zero poaching. This was an astronomical achievement

that was only possible through a sharing of accountability, human understanding, and

cooperation. Biggs and experts assert that psychological principles of persuasion, attitude, and

Billings 11

behavior are effective in the movement, but have not been embraced within biodiversity

conservation (1168). It certainly is proven effective for Nepal, a country that was not alone.

International organizations aided Nepal in conservation. Just to name a few, Wildlife World

Fund and Google provided the technology and funds to combat poaching. Less recognized

conservation groups and individuals found a way to get involved. Dave Johnson, a pachyderm

zookeeper at the Denver Zoo, collaborates trips to Nepal to visit the communities that take an

interest in conservation. In a personal interview, he mentioned how he raises a little extra toward

his efforts by writing children’s books that teach kids about endangered species and of the

compassion humans have for protecting them (Johnson). In addition to this, he also supports the

Nepalese children to be their own voice in wildlife preservation by funding their educational

street performances. People like Dave Johnson recognize the crucial role that children have on

influencing change. Wildlife preservation is greatly dependent on the children because their

values will carry on into the next generation. So by teaching the youth to have respect and

empathy toward animals it increases the likelihood that conservation will carry on.

The Threatened Tigers

Parallel to the passenger pigeons, tigers were strong in their numbers before their time of

attention. According to wildlife activist and researcher, Sundeep Bhutoria, at the turn of the 20th

century India was home to 40,000 tigers but today there is less than 4,000 in the wild (41). Tigers

are a popular animal among cultures all over the globe. Children and adult are fascinated by the

tiger’s exquisiteness and potency. Charisma and strength are words that best describe the tiger,

yet, mankind struggles to reflect the charisma needed to keep the tigers thriving in a world they

both could coexist in. As it was stressed with the rhinos, if tigers were to become extinct

humanity would loses yet another generation without the cultural species of tigers.

Billings 12

Much like the passenger pigeon, the tigers are seen as threats to the communities, who

lose their livelihood to predatory

activity every year. As a result,

extermination becomes their

solution. Humans tend to forget that

they impose the most danger to species

and that these threats are greater than

what the tiger is capable of.

Humans must recognize that the tigers’ interactions with humans have increased because they

have been forced to come into contact with human beings as their habitat diminishes with human

expansion. Both habitat loss and tiger trades have caused populations to decline. Asian tigers

endure related complications as rhinoceroses with poaching that have severely put them into

endangerment. Tigers are sought after for their skin, bones, claws, and teeth. The skin and teeth

are used for fashion and decor such as

rugs (as shown in Figure 6) and for

clothing and jewelry. Bones and claws are

used as anti- inflammatories in

traditional Chinese Medicine (Duffy 30).

China, is a country responsible for the

farms that raise tigers specifically for

consumerism. The Chinese government

argues that the slaughtering is humane, while turning a blind eye to the ethical violations of

supporting these farms. Malnutrition, speed breeding, inhumane slaughter, and abuse are just of

Figure 6: India Tiger Trade

Figure 7: Tiger carcasses in cold storage at Xiongsen Tiger & Bear

Park, Guilin, China

Billings 13

few of the unethical approaches taken in these farms (see Figure 7). The unethical approaches go

against China’s claim to conservation efforts with these farms. Such false claims fail to regard

conservation as preserving the quality of life, rather than just not just the species’ numbers and

existence. Gaston and Fuller, biodiversity and macro-ecology analysts, articulate that it is

becoming increasingly apparent that common species are fundamental to the structure of most

assemblages and ecosystems (14). Dismissing the purpose that tigers have in their ecosystem for

the purpose they have had on the trade industry will further preclude social growth and only

foster corruption the power of humans.

In the face of poverty humans must ask themselves whether the animal trade is the only

option for economical feats and the only way to appreciate tigers. The point of origin in the

wildlife trade comes from the higher class. Tiger products are only esteemed in satisfying

inferior or competitive egos of the wealthy class. Humans appreciate the tigers’ beauty;

conversely, this beauty has been abused when it is transformed into materialistic attractions.

Perhaps, if this particular class knew, in detail, about the exploitation that occurs when

smuggling a tiger, then they would prioritize their wealthy expending to conservation. The

participation of the higher class becomes vital in conservation. Shifting attitudes from the

indifference of the tiger trade toward conservation may alter the wildlife trade significantly

because the demands will fall. Economical inequalities pose problematic, yet not impossible,

solutions to solve. In the Earthscan’s book, Poverty and Biodiversity in Conservation, it is

believed that former poverty leads to increased environmental degradation caused by ignorance

or overexploitation of resources (34). Although conservation may temporarily worsen financial

poverty by excluding the financially wealthy from their exotic resources, such focus may inspire

Billings 14

a change of heart in persons to value an animal’s innocence and life. As a result this would drive

more demand for the solutions to preserve the biodiversity and improve the poverty.

Poverty as well as biodiversity are major components that must be heavily considered in

conservation efforts. Wildlife tourism may be an alternative in flourishing the biodiversity as

well as the economic stance of an underdeveloped country. In their critique in the Economics of

the Wilds text, Barnes, Burges, and Pearce suggest that great thought should be taken toward the

management of wildlife tourism in developing countries (136). Tourism gives purpose to

preserving animals while utilizing the land to engage in economic developments. This brings

attention to the appreciation for nature and wildlife in its natural surroundings. Tourism

generates revenue and employment which build sturdier foundations in destitute countries.

Visitations and attractions employs the animals in less harmful ways as well as educates locals

about their environments. In short, wildlife tourism is one of the conceivable solutions in

managing poverty and biodiversity instantaneously; but tourism must be managed at sustainable

capacities so that both the local communities and animals are not compromised from it.

A change in roles may be a strong component in conservation, especially for poachers.

There have been successful transformation where poachers have altered their lifestyle against

prior poaching and for bettering conservation. In the video, Confessions of a Tiger Poacher,

World Wildlife Fund interviews the ex-poachers Plot Chien and Lean Kha Both, like most

poachers, are locals who are most familiar with noting where the promising habitats and

conditions that these exotic wildlife can be found. Their tenacity for poaching was for the profits

involved. Ultimately, it is the merchants who drive the trade while the poachers are at the

merchants’ every command. According to the ex-poacher, if the merchants did not come to

locals and set the prices for these animals, then a lot of species would not have been hunted by

Billings 15

locals (WWF 2:24). The poverty in these countries lie mostly in the local villages because the

money lies mostly in the hands of the wealthy class. Befallen agriculture and animal disruption

in these regions encourage rash outlets for more turnover. In the documentary both ex-poachers

consider themselves as hunters, rather poachers and consider their old trade as hunting, rather

than poaching. This consideration further supports that idea that the line of hunting and poaching

are still hazy in these societies. Nevertheless, Lean Kha was approached by conservationists who

ended up convincing him to give up poaching and join them in protecting endangered animals

(4:00). Since then, Lean has convinced fellow poachers to join him in his new found adaptation.

Anti-poaching laws in Asia and conservation work to protect the wildlife, their habitats, and the

other animals they prey on. Rhoit Singh, technical advisor-enforcement of the WWF Cambodia,

relates that the struggle faced for conservation organizations is having enough human resources

to manage the areas where these species reside. Some poachers, like Plot and Lean, are more

willing to convert while others are not. Since conservationist and patrols cannot be present all

24/7 (6:35), persistent poachers have learned to be mindful of the timing and location to which

they will be less likely to get caught. The ex-poachers that were interview admitted they regret in

damaging the biodiversity and only hope that others will comprehend crucial preservation is. The

impression behind this shift in poachers becoming ex-poachers offers hope to humans that they

may find refuge in conservation-if given right motives to do so. Such results would entail a

future without violent retaliation or execution against poachers because the resolution is based on

the sharing of core values.

The mere aesthetic value and the fascination that human beings get when seeing an

animal up close may be all it takes to remind humans of the significance for preserving animals.

Economical values are short-term and ever changing. But emotional and social values are for the

Billings 16

long-term and influence the human mind as well as innovate change. As observed with the

rhinos, humanity has the potential to remove the tigers from their threatened status. People need

to depend on and take great value in creatures like tigers. The tiger is a well-founded symbol in

Indian culture and are believed to be the protectors of children. With more awareness about their

kind and to their trade, perhaps the tigers will be protected by their very own kinfolk.

Small Steps into Significant Strides

The passing of the passenger pigeon, the revival of the rhinoceros, and the current threat

on the tiger species are representative paths of human verdicts. As the world continues to rely on

materialistic agendas, it becomes more important to emphasize the need for human cooperation

in order to save species that are threatened by human disturbances. Humanity tends to forget that

each region of the world is responsible for their own potentials in conservation. It is assumed that

it’s the job of the conservationist to preserve animals; and this is fairly true. Conservationists are

responsible for understanding the controversies such as wildlife trade, for identifying the roles

involved, and classifying the impacts on the ecosystems. Conservationists also raise public

awareness to the negative bearings that illegal (or perhaps soon legalized) trade has on species

and harmful cultural assumptions and traditions (Biggs at al. 1168). It must be recognized that it

is not a job for one party. Conservation is complex. It extends to all branches of society and all

types of circumstances. It needs great attention in the human-race because the values and

potentials of the human have not reached to their fullest potentials. Poverty and ignorance does

not have to surpass human compassion, in fact, it has been shown to attract cultural fusion.

Internal as well as external entities have come together to explore the possibilities of human

potentials in regards to preserving wildlife. This sharing of values brings a promising, non-

violent, future in the relationship and involvement between the regions of the world. That is why

Billings 17

persons should also be open to the possibility of change and of the unique communicators in

conservation. Ex-poachers have been known to turn away from their prior trade. Being given a

chance to make a better future, ex-poacher become the essence of influential change. Most

crucially, person should also be open to the idea that children must be shown a future with

conservation. Children must get involved in activities and organizations that support animal

conservation because they shape future generations.

As for the passenger pigeons, they were breathtaking in both their presence and in their

numbers. Yet, what is most alarming is that mankind managed to heedlessly remover all traces of

this bird from the sky. Humans must not focus on utilizing their knowledge and technology to

bring back these birds, but take prodigious warning from their extinction to impress upon

themselves how crucial their role is in environmental preservation. The conservation success

with the rhinoceros is far from reaching perfection, but the rival embeds a human potential that

offers many species at risk, a more secure future. Humans must recognize their successes in

order to continue to seek their potentials in preventing extinction. The rhinoceros is an example

of how thinkable the united effort of mankind really is and how power human understanding is.

For it is human understanding and compassion that is the most powerful weapon in conservation;

and the only tools in turning smalls steps into resilient strides in animal preservation.

Billings 18

Works Cited

Ariffin, Laura, and Harun Rahman, prod. Confessions of a Tiger Poacher. Writ. Chris Hale.

Narr.

Laura Ariffin. WWF International, 2012. Web. 23 Apr. 2015.

<https://youtu.be/BbepPhTd9fY>.

Bhutoria, Sundeep. "TIGER, TIGER Running Out?." UN Chronicle 51.2 (2014): 40. Web. 7

Apr.

2015. <http://unchronicle.un.org/article/tiger-tiger-running-out-0/>.

Biggs, Duan, Franck Courchamp, Rowan Martin, and Hugh P. Possingham. "Legal Trade of

Africa’s Rhino Horns." Science: Polic Form: Conservation 339 (2013): 1038-39. Web.

28

Mar. 2015. <http://www.sciencemag.org/content/339/6123/1038.full.pdf>.

Duffy, Rosaleen. Nature Crime: How We’re Getting Conservation Wrong. United States:

Yale University Press, 2010. Print.

Ellsworth, Joshua W., and Brenda C. McComb. "Potential Effects of Passenger Pigeon Flocks on

the Structure and Composition of Presettlement Forests of Eastern North America."

Conservation Biology 17.6 (2003): 1548-58. Web. 3 Apr. 2015.

<http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2003.00230.x/abstract>.

Figure 1. Figure 2. Mimico, "Martha", the Last Passenger Pigeon, and Us. Reproduced

Image(s). Friends of Sam Smith Park, 2014. Photography. Web. 3 Apr. 2015.

<http://friendsofsamsmithpark.blogspot.com/2014/09/mimico-martha-last-passenger-

pigeon-and.html>.

Billings 19

Fichter, Amy. Simon, Passenger Pigeon. 2011. Photography. Web. 26 Apr. 2015.

<https://www.flickr.com/photos/xenializ/5604810950/>.

Gaston, Kevin J., and Richard A. Fuller. "Commonness, population depletion and conservation

biology." Elsevier: Trends in Ecology and Evolution 23.1 (2007): 14-19. Web. 3 Apr.

2015. <http://www.cell.com/trends/ecology-evolution/abstract/S0169-5347(07)00320-5?

cc=y>.

Graslie, Emily, narr. Year of the Passenger Pigeon. Prod. Emily Graslie and Tom McNamara.

By Hank Green. The Field Museum, 2014. Web. 14 Mar. 2015.

<https://youtu.be/FPRpX25L5DU>.

Guynup, Sharon, and Steve Winter. India Tiger Trade Vin Newswatch. 2014. Wildlife Protection

Society of India. Photography. Web. 22 Apr. 2015.

<http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/files/2014/02/india-tiger-trade-vin

newswatch.jpg>.

Johnson, Dave. Personal interview. 1 Mar. 2015.

Martin, Esmond B., and Chryssee Martin. "Insurgency and poverty: recipe for rhino poaching in

Nepal." Pachyderm 41 (2006): 61-73,87-98. Web. 17 Apr. 2015.

<http://www.rhinoresourcecenter.com/pdf_files/119/1194081577.pdf>.

Oxford University Press. Oxford Dictionaries. N.p., n.d. Web. 5 Apr. 2015.

<http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/poach?q=poaching>.

Pimm, Stuart L., and Robert A. Askins. "Forest losses predict bird extinctions in eastern North

America." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 92.20 (1995): 9343-47.

Web. 3 Apr. 2015. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC40981/>.

Rhino and Child. By Duncan Moon. N.p.: n.p., 2012. Photography. Web. 26 Apr. 2015.

Billings 20

<https://www.pinterest.com/pin/114208540520416529/>.

Roe, Dilys, and Joanna Elliot, eds. Poverty and Biodversity Conservation. Washington:

Earthscan, 2010. Print.

SaiKia, Uttman. A de-horned rhino slowly dies after poachers left the scene. 2015. Photography.

Web. 7 Apr. 2015. <http://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/2015/jan/07/

indian-one-horned-rhino-of-kaziranga-national-park-in-pictures#img-13>.

SaiKia, Uttman. A park ranger de-horns a rhino after it was killed by poachers. 2015.

Photography. Web. 7 Apr. 2015. <http://www.theguardian.com/environment/gallery/

2015/jan/07/indian-one-horned-rhino-of-kaziranga-national-park-in-pictures#img-14>.

Sartore, Joel. Martha, the Last Carrier Pigeon. 2012. Photography. Smithsonian Institution

Archives, Washington. Web. 3 Apr. 2015.

<http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/visions/field-test/sartore-biodiversity/dispatch-7>.

Smithsonian National Museum of Natural History. "Martha," The Last Passenger Pigeon.

Smithsonian Institution, 2014. Web. 1 Apr. 2015.

<http://www.mnh.si.edu/onehundredyears/featured_objects/martha2.html>.

Swanson, Timothy M., and Edward B. Barbier, eds. Economics for the Wilds. Washington:

Island Press, 1992. Print.

Workman, Ernesto. The Tiger and Child. 2012. Photography. Web. 26 Apr. 2015.

<http://purplerosee-a.blogspot.com/2012/05/the-tiger-and-child.html>.

Wright, Belinda. Tiger carcasses in cold storage at Xiongsen Tiger and Bear Park, Guilin,

China. 2007. Wildlife Protection Society of India. Photography. Web. 22 Apr. 2015.

<http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/files/2014/10/Tiger-bodies-in-cold-storage-Guilin-

Tiger-Bear-Farm-Jul-07-c-Belinda-Wright-WPSI.jpg>.