LITERARY TERMS AND DEVICES

AActive voice

The voice used to indicate that the grammatical subject of the verb is performing the action or causing the happening denoted by the verb.Example: "`The boy threw the ball' uses the active voice"

Allegory

A story in which the literal meaning represents another level of meaning. It is a form of extended metaphor, in which objects, persons, and actions in a narrative, are equated with the meanings that lie outside the narrative itself. The underlying meaning has moral, social, religious, or political significance, and characters are often personifications of abstract ideas as charity, greed, or envy. Thus an allegory is a story with two meanings, a literal meaning and a symbolic meaning.

Example: Animal Farm”, written by George Orwell, is an allegory that uses animals on a farm to describe the overthrow of the last Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Communist Revolution of Russia before WW II. The actions of the animals on the farm are used to expose the greed and corruption of the revolution. It also describes how powerful people can change the ideology of a society.

Alliteration

The repetition of identical consonant sounds at the beginning of closely associated words. Example: "Peter Piper Pecked"

Allusion

A brief reference to a person, event, or place, real or fictitious, or to a work of art or fiction. Allusion is most typically a casual reference to a famous historical or literary figure or event. An allusion may be drawn from history, geography, literature, or religion.

Example: He was a real Romeo with the ladies. Romeo was a Shakespeare character Romeo and Juliet, and was very romantic in expressing his love for Juliet.

Analogy

A partial similarity of features on which a comparison may be based. Metaphors, similes and personification are forms of analogy.Example: In the same way as one cannot have the rainbow without the rain, one cannot achieve success and riches without hard work.

Antagonist

A character or force in conflict with the main character protagonist. This opposition can be a character or something that exists in the main character's environment, from an animal, to weather, to other people's beliefs, or prejudice which causes turmoil

Anticlimax

An event or conclusion that is an abrupt shift from the important to the comical or trivial.

Antithesis

A contrast, usually expressed with parallel sentence construction.

Example: "To err is human, to forgive, divine.

Apostrophe A figure of speech in which a person not present or a personified non-human

object is addressed (spoken to). An apostrophe contains an Old English “thou”, “thy”, or “thee” and has within it an exclamation mark.Example: Shakespeare’s Hamlet has the following apostrophe: “Frailty, thy name is woman!”

Argumentative Essay An argumentative essay uses evidence and facts to prove whether or not a thesis

is true. It presents two sides of a single issue, and covers the most important arguments for and against.

Anecdotal Evidence A short account (or narrative) of an interesting or amusing incident, often

intended to illustrate or support some point in an essay, article, or chapter of a book.

Archaic Language A linguistic form commonly used in an earlier time but rare in present-day usage

except to suggest the older time, as in religious rituals or historical novels.Examples: thou; wast; methinks; forsooth.

Aside A stage convention used to indicate words spoken by a character but heard only by

the audience and not by other characters on stage.Assonance

The repetition of identical vowel sounds in different, closely associated words.

Example, "in Xanadu did Kubla Khan"

Atmosphere (mood)

Words and details that create a feeling in the reader. Atmosphere and mood is the same thing. Atmosphere is the prevailing feeling of the scene; it sets up expectations in the reader about the outcome of the episode. It is created by description, diction, imagery, and sometimes dialogue. Some teachers may say that the atmosphere exists in the story, and the mood is the resulting feeling created in the reader, yet in the end they are the same.

Example, "Seize The Night" by Dean Koontz; Chapter1, pg. 1: "Elsewhere, night falls, but in Moonlight Bay, it steals upon us with barely a whisper, like a gentle dark-sapphire surf licking a beach."

Audience

The person or persons for whom a text is written or a play is performed. It is important to know the audience for whom you are writing and to write with the tone, diction and style appropriate for that group.

Autobiography

An account of a person's life written or otherwise recorded by that person.

B Ballad

A story/poem told in song, usually by an impersonal narrator and in a condensed form. Ballads are commonly written using a ballad stanza: a quatrain of alternating four- and-three-stress lines, usually rhyming on the second and fourth lines (abab).

Example: Richard Cory, by Edward Arlington Robinson

Whenever Richard Cory went downtown We people on the pavement looked at him: He was a gentleman from sole to crown, Clean favored, and imperially slim,

And he was always quietly arrayed. And he was always human when he talked, But still he fluttered pulses when he said,

“Good morning,” and he glittered when he walked

And he was rich-- yes, richer than a king, And admirably schooled in every grade: In fine, we thought that he was everything To make us wish that we were in his place.

So on we worked, and waited for the light, And went without the meat, and cursed the bread; And Richard Cory, one calm summer night, Went home and put a bullet through his head.

Ballad stanza

A four-line stanza consisting of unrhymed first and third lines in iambic tetrameter and rhymed second and fourth lines in iambic trimeter, often used in ballads.

Example:All in a hot and copper sky!The bloody Sun, at noon,Right up above the mast did stand,No bigger than the Moon.Coleridge, The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, lines 111 – 114

Bias

Prejudice in favor of or against one thing, person, or group compared with another, usually in a way considered to be unfairExample: an author consciously presents evidence that serves to tell only one side of an event or issue, purposefully withholding or ignoring information that may shed the opposing view in a more positive light.

Biography

An account of someone's life written by someone else.

Blank verse

Unrhymed verse, especially the unrhymed iambic pentameter most frequently used in English dramatic, epic, and reflective verse.

Example: The Ball Poem by John BerrymanWhat is the boy now, who has lost his ball,What, what is he to do? I saw it goMerrily bouncing, down the street, and thenMerrily over-there it is in the water!

CCacophony

The use of harsh, jarring or discordant sounds in literary composition, as for poetic effect: heard a cacophony of horns during the traffic jam.

Caricature

A picture, description, or imitation of a person or thing in which certain striking characteristics are exaggerated in order to create a comic or grotesque effect

Case study

A process or record of research in which detailed consideration is given to the development of a particular person, group, or situation over a period of time.

Catastrophe

An event causing great and often sudden damage or suffering; a disaster.Example: Had they been accepted we would have had a local environmental catastrophe and a national commercial disaster.

Cause and Effect

A relationship between actions or events such that one or more are the result of the other or others.

Character

A person in a literary work.

The personality of a person in a literary work. (For example, you might be asked to "describe the character of the narrator".)

Character foil

A character that is used to contrast opposing traits with another character. For example, in Cinderella, the ugly stepsister's are foils to Cinderella, and their differences emphasize Cinderella's sweetness and virtue.

Character types

There are a number of different types of characters that can be present in a work of fiction. Each of these types serves a different role.

Sometimes the character's role is:

o to advance the plot (the character says or does something that moves the

action of the story forward, for example, Little Red Riding Hood's mother suggested she go visit her grandmother)

o to add to the understanding of setting (simply the character's presence can do this, or how the character acts or what he or she says--a character who appears in the story to talk using a dialect or local slang, or to show the common manner and appearance of the people surrounding the main character is there to add to our understanding of the setting)

o to develop the main character's personality (through the way the main character interacts with this person)

o to act as a foil (to emphasize traits in another character by having opposite traits, for example, Charlie Brown and Lucy are character foils)

o to develop a theme related to the story (for example, the cats in Pinocchio that lead him astray represent the temptations in his world that Pinocchio has to face; the theme they develop is "there are temptations that people may have to face")

Some labels for major character types are:

o protagonist

o antagonist

o character foil

o stereotype

Characterization

The methods a writer uses to develop the personality of a character. This is especially attained by description of the character's actions, gestures and general demeanour.

Example: Ed Johnson scratched his head in confusion as the sales rep explained Dralco’s newest engine performance diagnostic computer. The old mechanic hated modern electronics, preferring the old days when all he needed was a stack of manuals and a good set of tools.

Chorus

A group of performers who comment on the main action, typically speaking and

moving together.

Chronological Order

Arranged in order of time of occurrence.For example, the following paragraph describes the process of a how a hurricane develops. It follows the chronological order of the steps that lead up to the creation of a hurricane.Hurricanes are high-speed windstorms that start over the ocean and can have winds as fast as 250 kilometres per hour. Hurricanes usually happen over oceans, near the equator. They are formed when warm, wet air is forced upward by heavier, cool air. The air pressure drops quickly from the outer edge towards the centre. This causes the wind speed to rise. The winds move in a circular pattern around the centre, "eye", of the hurricane. In the "eye", the winds stop and the clouds lift, but the ocean below remains violent. The average hurricane covers an area of at least 240 kilometres. When the storm is over land, these winds destroy life and property.

Cliché

A metaphor or expression that has become overused. Sometimes referred to as a "dead metaphor." For example, "He is as strong as a bull."

Climatic order

Refers to the organization of ideas from one extreme to another-for example, from least important to most important, from most destructive to least destructive, or from least promising to most promising.Example: Consider the potential effect of just a small increase in the earth's atmospheric temperature. A rise of only a few degrees could melt the polar ice caps. Rainfall patterns would change. Some deserts might bloom, but lands now fertile might turn to desert, and many hot climates could become uninhabitable. If the sea level rose only a few feet, dozens of coastal cities would be destroyed, and life as we know it would be changed utterly.

Climax

The moment in a play, novel, short story, or narrative poem where the conflict reaches its point of greatest intensity and is thereafter resolved. It is also usually the peak of emotional response from a reader or spectator and also the turning point in the action.

Colloquialism

A word or phrase that is not formal or literary, typically one used in ordinary or

familiar conversation.Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain, 1885Excerpt: "I didn't want to go back no more. I had stopped cussing, because the widow didn't like it; but now I took to it again because pap hadn't no objections... But by-and-by pap got too handy with his hick'ry, and I could't stand it. I was all over with welts. He got to going away so much, too, and locking me in. Once he locked me in and was gone three days. It was dreadful lonesome."

Colloquial language

Informal words, phrases, and sentences that are generally more appropriate for spoken conversations than for written essays. Examples: a bunch of numpties – a group of idiotsto bamboozle – to deceivego bananas – go insane or be very angrywanna – want togonna – going toy’all – you allgo nuts – go insane or be very angrylook blue -look sadbuzz off – go away

Comedy

Comedy depicts humorous plots whereby the protagonist is faced with a light-hearted challenge and in the end overcomes it and the story or play ends happily.

Comic relief

An amusing scene, incident, or speech introduced into serious or tragic elements, as in a play, in order to provide temporary relief from tension, or to intensify the dramatic action.

Compare and Contrast

Pertaining to a written exercise about the similarities and differences between two or more people, places, or things. In compare and contrast essays the writer highlights the existence of two elements by bringing out the similarities between them, and at the same time, marking what makes these two things different from each other. It is similar to finding out the pros and cons of something.

Comparison

The act of comparing or the process of being compared; a statement or estimate of

similarities and differences.

Conflict

A force of opposition and struggle found in fiction. Conflict may be internal or external and is usually one of the following scenarios: (1) Man against Man: (2) Man against Nature; (3) Man against self.

Connotation

The emotional associations and overtones related to a word. For example, a person who is underweight might be described as slight, or scrawny. Slight has a fairly positive emotional connotation, while scrawny has a negative connotation.

Consonance

The repetition of similar consonant sounds at the ends of closely associated syllables or words such as, gored/bored, given/heaven OR the repetition of consonant sounds before and after differing vowels, such as “flip-flop” and “feel-fill.”

Contrast

To set in opposition in order to show or emphasize differences.

Couplet

A two-line stanza.

Example: Sudden Baldness"Oh my!" the portly gent called out. "I cannot find my hair.I washed and put it out to dry, and now it isn't there!

D Denotation

The literal dictionary definition of a word.

For example, “home” denotes the house where one lives.

Denouement

The events following the climax of a drama or novel in which such a resolution or clarification takes place.

For example, in the play's denouement, the two lovers kill themselves.

Description

Description is how a writer describes a scene and events. Description can be very plain, or rich in imagery.

Descriptive Essay

Descriptive essays use the senses of sight, smell, touch, hearing, and taste to provide the reader with a mental image or feeling about the subject.

Dialect

A regional or social variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary, especially a variety of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists.

Example from “To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee

Walter: Reckon I have. Almost died first year I come to school and et them pecans — folks say he pizened ‘em and put ‘em over on the school side of the fence.

Translation: I suppose I have. The first year I came to school and ate those pecans, I almost died. Some people accuse him [Mr. Radley] of poisoning them and keeping them over on the school side of the fence.

Dialogue

Conversation between characters in a drama or story.

Diary

A daily record, especially a personal record of events, experiences, and observations; a journal.

Diction

Diction is the vocabulary chosen by the writer. It can reflect the level of education of the speaker (narrator), the attitude of the speaker, and can directly influence the atmosphere through connotative meanings.

Didactic poetry

Poetry intended to teach a lesson, especially a moral one.

Dilemma

A situation that requires a choice between two equally unfavourable options.

Direct and indirect presentation

Direct presentation means the speaker is telling us about the character, for example, "Jodie was a shy girl." Indirect presentation means the speaker is showing the character's actions, or words through dialogue, or another character's dialogue.

Dissonance

Lack of agreement, consistency, or harmony; conflict. The use of discordant sounds either to create an unpleasant effect or to create an interesting variation from what is rhythmically expected.

Drama

A prose or verse composition, especially one telling a serious story, that is intended for representation by actors impersonating the characters and performing the dialogue and action.

Dramatic irony

Refers to a dramatic situation in which the audience knows something a character does not.

In literature, a plot device in which the audience's or reader's knowledge of events or individuals surpasses that of the characters. The words and actions of the characters therefore take on a different meaning for the audience or reader than they have for the play's characters. This may happen when a character reacts in an inappropriate or foolish way or when a character lacks self-awareness and thus acts under false assumptions.

For example: In Harry Potter and The Goblet of Fire, the fourth book in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter series, the reader remembers the details of Harry's visions over the summer, while Harry himself has trouble recollecting them.

Dramatic monologue

Literary form in which a character, addressing a silent auditor at a critical moment, reveals himself or herself and the dramatic situation.

A prolonged talk or discourse by a single speaker, especially one dominating or monopolizing a conversation.

Dramatic form

Employing the form or manner of the drama; characteristic of or appropriate to the

drama especially in involving conflict or contrast; vivid; moving.

Dynamic character

A character who changes significantly during the story (growing older is not a significant change).

EEditorial

An article in a publication expressing the opinion of its editors or publishers.

Elegy

A poem of serious reflection, typically a lament for the dead.Example: AN ELEGY FOR IOLANDA'S LOSSWhen we lose someonewe have loved so much,especially the onewho made a differencein our past life...we lose something of our own.And our sorrow reflects everythought cherished by the deepnessof that love; and for some time, consolationwill not be found: unless we realize,we are bound for the same destinyin our predestined time.(Copyright 2010 by Andrew Crisci)

Emotional Appeal

An emotional appeal is a method of persuasion that's designed to create an emotional response.For example: "If you care about your children's success in school, and in fact if you care about your children's future at all, you will buy this set of encyclopedias." This argument appeals to your love of your children and guilt about what you do for them.

Epic

A long poem, typically one derived from ancient oral tradition, narrating the deeds

and adventures of heroic or legendary figures or the history of a nation.For example: Hiawatha's Departure from The Song of HiawathaBy the shore of Gitchie Gumee,By the shining Big-Sea-Water,At the doorway of his wigwam,In the pleasant Summer morning,Hiawatha stood and waited.By Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

Epilogue

A section or speech at the end of a book or play that serves as a comment on or a conclusion to what has happened.For example, in Romeo and Juliet a post play description is given describing the gloomy atmosphere after the tragic death of the two lovers.

“A glooming peace this morning with it brings; The sun for sorrow will not show his head. Go hence to have more talk of these sad things, Some shall be pardoned, and some punished, For never was a story of more woe Than this of Juliet and her Romeo.”

Epiphany

An instant of revelation or insight in which a character suddenly recognizes a previously unknown truth; a feeling, a thought, a realization that strikes from within. This is the essential last piece of the puzzle that brings forth a completely different outlook to the whole picture and sets forth a new perspective to life

Epigram

A pithy saying or remark expressing an idea in a clever and amusing way.

Example the last two couplets of Sonnet 76 by William Shakespeare:

So all my best is dressing old words new,Spending again what is already spent:For as the sun is daily new and old,So is my love still telling what is told.

Those four lines are packed with epigrams. Twice he refers to items and ideas as being both old and new at the same time, and he states that he is spending something that has already been spent. The purpose is to show his confusion with

the lover, and perhaps about his own feelings.

Epitaph

A phrase or statement written in memory of a person who has died, especially as an inscription on a tombstone.Examples: Life’s a voyage that’s homeward bound. (H. Melville)Death is the golden key that opens the palace of Eternity. (Milton)

Euphemism

A mild expression used to describe an otherwise offensive word or topic. For example, dying can be euphemistically described as "passing away," "going to a better place," or "leaving us."

Euphony

The quality of being pleasing to the ear, especially through a harmonious combination of words.Example of Euphony in a Poem – Excerpt from “To Autumn” by John Keats

Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;Conspiring with him how to load and blessWith fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;

Expert Testimony

An expert witness, professional witness or judicial expert is a witness, who by virtue of education, training, skill, or experience, is believed to have expertise and specialised knowledge in a particular subject beyond that of the average person.

Exposition

A systematic explanation of a specific topic.

Example: The exposition in the movie “Star Wars” is the opening title sequence that gives information about the past events to the viewers. The opening lines begin like this: “A long time ago in a galaxy far away, far away…”

Expository essay

The expository essay is an extended piece of writing made up of a number of paragraphs. Moreover, it is a piece of nonfiction containing

o one main idea (thesis statement) usually expressed in the first paragraph (called the introduction)

o a number of paragraphs, each of which explores or supports the main idea (called the body)

o a concluding paragraph (called the conclusion) which summarizes or emphasizes the ideas presented in the body

o different types of paragraphs--narrative, descriptive, expository, persuasive--depending on the topic or the purpose of the essay

Extended metaphor

A metaphor that develops throughout a poem and that involves several points of comparison.

Example: “The Road Not Taken” by Robert Frost

Two roads diverged in a yellow wood,And sorry I could not travel bothAnd be one traveler, long I stoodAnd looked down one as far as I couldTo where it bent in the undergrowth;...

In this poem by Robert Frost, life is being compared to a road. He talks about a fork in the road which leads to two paths, and he needs to choose one path to follow. He cannot choose both and walk on them at the same time. Similarly, in life, one might be faced with difficult decisions to make, and one can only take one decision, not both. The poem continues for several more verses and each verse carries forth the extended metaphor of life being compared to a road.

External Conflict

Struggle between a literary or dramatic character and an outside force such as nature or another character, which drives the dramatic action of the plot:

The most straightforward type of external conflict is when a character in a story physically struggles against another character. In William Golding’s novel “The Lord of the Flies” for example, Ralph (the leader of the “good guys”) steadily comes into conflict with Jack (a bully who later forms a “tribe” of hunters). Jack and his “tribe” give in to their savage instinct and make attempts to hunt or kill the civilized batch of boys headed by Ralph.

FFable

A short tale to teach a moral lesson, often with animals or inanimate objects as

characters; for example: the tale of the tortoise and the hare.

Falling action

The part of a plot that falls after the climax, in which the complications of the rising action are untangled; the denouement.

Fantasy

Fantasy novels create settings and characters that do not exist in our world. Wizards, castles, dragons, orgs, fairies and unicorns are all figures of fantasy novels. Fantasy can be a form of entertainment and escape, but the author will use fantasy to illuminate truths about human experience. For example, Tolkien’s fantasy novels were hugely popular after the release of movie versions of his Lord of the Rings trilogy.

Figurative language

Figurative language is the use of figures of speech in writing to attain a special effect. A figure of speech is a rhetorical device that achieves a special effect by using words in distinctive ways. It is usually associated with poetry, but it is a useful prose-writing tool, as well, if it is not overused. Figurative language can strengthen your writing if it is used sparingly and with care.

For example, common expressions such as "falling in love," "racking our brains," "hitting a sales target," and "climbing the ladder of success" are all metaphors--the most pervasive figure of all. Likewise, we rely on similes when making explicit comparisons ("light as a feather") and hyperbole to emphasize a point ("I'm starving!").

First person

The story is told by one of the characters who is referred to as "I". The reader generally sees everything through that character's eyes. Very occasionally the first-person can be used with an omniscient narrator

Flashback

A shift in a story to events that took place earlier, needed to fill in background details.

Flat character

A simple or one-sided character in a story; one who does not change or develop. Characters who reveal only one personality trait.

Foil

In literature, a foil is a character that shows qualities that are in contrast with the qualities of another character with the objective to highlight the traits of the other character. The term foil, though generally being applied for a contrasting character, may also be used for any comparison that is drawn to portray a difference between two things.

Example: In the novel “Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde”, “Hyde” is not only an evil double of the honorable Dr. Jekyll but also qualifies as his foil. “Jekyll” creates “Hyde” by a series of scientific experiments in order to prove his statement: “Man is not truly one, but truly two.” He means that the human soul is a mixture of evil and good. In other words, every man’s foil exists in himself.

Foreshadowing

The literary device foreshadowing refers to the use of indicative words or phrases that set the stage for a story to unfold and give a hint of something that is going to happen without revealing the story or spoiling the suspense. Foreshadowing is used to suggest an upcoming outcome to the story.

Example: "It was a grey and humid morning. Pascal remembered it well later on, that ominous backdrop. It was as if the sky was pressing down, refusing to allow any fresh air or light to pass through, in an attempt to suffocate all living things." The foreshadowing lies in the phrase "remembered it well later on, that ominous backdrop." At the time of the event itself (the morning), the conditions suggest something bad/unpleasant is about to happen, but the character does not yet realize it.

Form

The "shape" or organizational mode of a particular poem. In most poems (like sonnets), the form consists of a set number of lines, a set rhyme scheme, and a set meter for each line. In concrete poetry, the form of a poem may reflect the theme, topic, or idea of the words in the actual shape of the text on a piece of paper

Formal Essay

A short, relatively impersonal composition in prose. The formal essay (also known as the impersonal essay) is typically used for the discussion of ideas. Its purpose is generally to inform or persuade.

Formal Language

Speech or writing marked by an impersonal, objective, and precise use of language;

it does not include the use of slang, humour or contractions.

Example: A formal prose style is typically used in scholarly books and articles, technical reports, research papers, legal documents, official public notices, business situations, and polite conversations with strangers.

Frame Story

A literary technique that serves as a companion piece to a story within a story, whereby an introductory or main narrative is presented, for the purpose of setting the stage either for a more emphasized second narrative or for a set of shorter stories.

Free verse

Poetry with neither rhyme nor rhythm and meter.

Example: Beginning My Studies by Walt Whitman

Beginning my studies the first step pleas'd me so much,The mere fact consciousness, these forms, the power of motion,The least insect or animal, the senses, eyesight, love,The first step I say awed me and pleas'd me so much,I have hardly gone and hardly wish'd to go any farther,But stop and loiter all the time to sing it in ecstatic songs.

GGenre

Genre means "type" or "kind", as in "what kind of novel do you like?" It comes from the French word "genre" which is used especially to mean "independent style"

Examples: Drama, prose, suspense, action, fantasy, science fiction, horror.

Graphic Text

Text that does not contain prose but rather information is presented through charts, graphs or pictures.Example: “Bone” comic book series.

HHero

Broadly, the main character in a literary work. A hero is usually recognized in a work of literature as someone with great courage.

Historical fiction

In historical fiction, while the events and some of the people mentioned in the novel may have existed in the past, the situations in the book are fictional. If they were factual, the book would exist as a non-fiction retelling of an event, or as a biography or autobiography. Even so, readers can learn a lot about the history of an era by reading historical fiction. For example, Anne of Green Gables and Little House on the Prairie are historical fiction series.

Hyperbole

Deliberate overstatement or exaggeration to achieve emphasis. For example, I told you a million times to shut the door.

IIambic

Two-syllable “foot” The first syllable is unstressed and the second is stressed. For example, ab surd.

Iambic pentameter

A line composed of five iambic feet. Iambic pentameter is a commonly used metrical line in traditional verse and verse drama. The term describes the particular rhythm that the words establish in that line. That rhythm is measured in small groups of syIlables; these small groups of syllables are called feet.

Example: from “Twelfth Night” by William Shakespeare.

If music be the food of love play on;Give me excess of it, that, surfeiting,The appetite may sicken, and so die.That strain again! it had a dying fall:O, it came o’er my ear like the sweet sound,

Idiom

An expression that means something other than the literal meaning of its words; an expression whose meaning is not predictable from the usual meanings of its constituent elements.Example: kick the bucket or hang one's head.

Image

Any concrete detail that appeals to any of our five senses: sight, hearing, smell, taste, or touch.

Imagery

The use of concrete details and figures of speech that appeal to the reader's senses. We can see, hear, touch, taste, smell, or feel the ideas through the images created by the writer. Often the images allude to more than the surface idea--and create meaning through metaphor.

Examples:

It was dark and dim in the forest. – The words “dark” and “dim” are visual images.The children were screaming and shouting in the fields. – “Screaming” and “shouting” appeal to our sense of hearing or auditory sense.He whiffed the aroma of brewed coffee. – “whiff” and “aroma” evoke our sense of smell.The girl ran her hands on a soft satin fabric. – The idea of “soft” in this example appeals to our sense of touch.The fresh and juicy orange are very cold and sweet. – “juicy” and “sweet” when associated with oranges have an effect on our sense of taste.

Indeterminate Ending

An ending from a piece of writing that is open to interpretation to the reader. Example: She had just turned her back on the forest when she heard a distant scream coming from the depths.

Indirect Presentation

A way by which an author's character in a story is described through his actions.Example: The little girl left the game with slumped shoulders and a frown on her face. This shows us the little girl is not enjoying herself and is upset

Informal Essay

The informal essay is written mainly for enjoyment. It is usually much more personal, than any other kind of academic writing, and may deal with such subjects as your religious beliefs, your opinion on some controversial issue or some personal experience. It should look or feel like a conversation.

Informal Language

Language use characterized by spontaneous speech in situations that may be

described as natural or "real-life”.Example: conversation with family and friends.

Interior Monologue

In dramatic and nondramatic fiction, narrative technique that exhibits the thoughts passing through the minds of the protagonists.Example: from an episode of James Joyce's Ulysses, Leopold Bloom wanders past acandy shop in Dublin and his thoughts wander back and forth. “Pineapple rock, lemon platt, butter scotch. A sugar-sticky girl shoveling scoopfuls of creams for a Christian brother. Some school great. Bad for their tummies. Lozenge and comfit manufacturer to His Majesty the King. God. Save. Our. Sitting on his throne, sucking red jujubes white.”

Internal Conflict

Psychological struggle within the mind of a literary or dramatic character, the resolution of which creates the plot's suspense.Example: John tried hard to convince himself that his Hollywood dreams were worth the struggle but his parents, and his inner voice of reason, failed to agree.

Internal rhyme

The rhyming of words within a line of poetry.

For example, "The sails at noon left off their tune"

Irony

A literary device whereby the appearance of things differs from reality, whether in terms of meaning, situation, or action. That is, it is ironical when there is a difference between what is spoken and what is meant (see verbal irony), what is thought about a situation and what is actually the case (see situational irony), or what is intended by actions and what is their actual outcome (see dramatic irony).

JJargon

Specialized language often characteristic of a particular subject. Using jargon should be avoided when writing for most audiences.

Examples: Backup (Computer jargon). Get me his vitals. (Medical jargon)

Juxtaposition

Juxtaposition is a literary device wherein the author places a person, concept, place, idea or theme parallel to another. The purpose of juxtaposing two directly or indirectly related entities close together in literature is to highlight the contrast between the two and compare them.Example: the opening lines of “A Tale of Two Cities” by Charles Dickens. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way…”In order to give us an idea of the factors responsible for the French Revolution, Dickens uses juxtaposition throughout the novel in which the have not’s and the haves are put side by side to highlight the presence of severe disparity and discord in the then French society that led to the revolution.

LLegend

Traditional story or group of stories told about a particular person or place. Formerly the term legend meant a tale about a saint. Legends resemble folktales.Example: “The Pied Piper of Hamelin”

Limited omniscient

The third-person ("he/she") narrator who reveals the thoughts and feelings of only one character is using the limited omniscient point of view.

Literal Language

Literal language refers to words that do not deviate from their defined meaning.Example: dictionary definitions are written in literal terms.

Lyric

A lyric is a relatively short non- narrative poem in which the first-person speaker expresses thoughts and feelings, not necessarily those of the poet.

Example: “Dying” by Emily Dickinson

I heard a fly buzz when I died;The stillness round my form

Was like the stillness in the airBetween the heaves of storm.

MMelodrama

A drama, such as a play, film, or television program, characterized by exaggerated emotions, stereotypical characters, and interpersonal conflicts.Example: “soap” operas, “Vampire Diaries”

Metaphor

Metaphor is a direct comparison. A figure of speech in which like and unlike things are brought together as if they were one.

Examples: His words were a knife that cut me deeply; anger is a caged beast.

Metre

When poetry is read aloud, there is often a recognizable flow of rising and falling sounds. This varying pattern of stressed syllables alternating with syllables of less stress is what makes up a poem's meter. Each unit of stress and unstressed syllables is called a "foot." There are many possible patterns of verse including the following types of feet: the iambic, anapest, trochee, and dactyl.

Monologue

A speech spoken entirely by one person.

Mood

Mood is one element in the narrative structure of a piece of literature. It can also be referred to as atmosphere because it creates an emotional setting enveloping the reader. Mood is established in order to affect the reader emotionally and psychologically and to provide a feeling for the narrative.

Mystery

A genre in which the plot is centered on an unsolved crime. The ending usually involves an unravelling of the plot, and ultimately solves the mystery.

Examples: Sherlock Holmes is a famous fictional detective of past literature, and more modern writers such as Agatha Christie and Tom Clancy rely on this formula. The childhood novels of Nancy Drew and the Hardy Boys rely on this formula.

Myth

A traditional story that is closely associated with a particular culture or group of people. The myth usually communicates the beliefs and values of that culture.

Examples: King Arthur, Robin Hood.

NNarrative

Narrative is another word for story. Narratives have plot, conflict, characters, setting, and point of view. Narration is storytelling, which is different from pure description or explanation.

Narration

A recital of events, especially in chronological order, as the story narrated in a poem or the exposition in a drama; an account, story.

Narrator

The character that is telling the story, or is speaking in a poem or novel. The narrator is not the author--one should not assume that a work is autobiographical.

OObjective Language/Point of View

The third-person ("he/she") narrator who reveals none of the thoughts and feelings of the characters is using the objective point of view. This narrator records the details of the story as a video camera would, devoid of thoughts and emotions.

Octave

An octave is a verse form consisting of eight lines of iambic pentameter.

Ode

A long lyric poem that praises a person or thing.

Example: “ Ode to a Nightingale” by John Keats

My heart aches, and a drowsy numbness painsMy sense, as though of hemlock I had drunk,Or emptied some dull opiate to the drains

One minute past, and Lethe-wards had sunk:

Omniscient

Omniscient literally means "all-seeing." The third-person ("he/she") narrator who can reveal the thoughts and feelings of several characters is speaking with an omniscient point of view.

Onomatopoeia

A word whose sound suggests its meaning.

Example, "the bee buzzes" or "plop," "smash," "bang," etc.

Oxymoron

A figure of speech in which incongruous or seemingly contradictory terms appear side by side.Example: original copy, conspicuous absence, found missing, alone together.

PParadox

A statement that first appears to be contradictory but actually states a truth. Example: History teaches us that we learn nothing from history.

Parallelism

Refers to using elements in sentences that are grammatically similar or identical in structure, sound, meaning, or meter. This technique adds symmetry, effectiveness and balance to the written piece.Examples: like father, like son; this is not only just what I wanted, but also just what I needed; she is sneaky and manipulative.

Parody

The imitation of either formal or thematic elements of one work in another for humorous purposes or ridicule. Not to be confused with satire.

Passive voice

The voice used to indicate that the grammatical subject of the verb is the recipient (not the source) of the action denoted by the verb.Example: `The ball was thrown by the boy' uses the passive voice".

Pastoral

A work of literature portraying an idealized version of country life.Example: “The Passionate Shepherd to His Love” by Christopher MarloweCome live with me and be my Love,And we will all the pleasures proveThat hills and valleys, dale and field,And all the craggy mountains yield.There will we sit upon the rocksAnd see the shepherds feed their flocks,By shallow rivers, to whose fallsMelodious birds sing madrigals.

Pathos

The quality or power, especially in literature or speech, of arousing feelings of pity, sorrow or compassion.Example: “If we do not leave this place soon, we will end up yelling for help. We do not see anyone to help us here. So, leave this place and live”- the statement evokes emotions of fear.

Personal Essay

Takes one or more personal experiences or recollections, ruminates upon them, and often suggests a message to which the readers can relate.

Personification

A figure of speech that gives human characteristics to non-human things or abstractions. When we speak of nature as though it were human we are using personification.

Examples: The wind whistled through the trees; the tree wept with joy

Persuasive Essay

An essay that tries to get you to do something, like when you read an essay it makes you feel compelled to do something.

Persuasive Technique

Its main purpose is to convince a reader (or listener) to think, act, or feel a certain way. It involves appealing to reason, to emotion, and/or to a sense of ethics

Plot

The storyline in a play or story based on a sequence of events linked by cause and effect.

Point of view

The perspective from which we see the characters and events of the story. It involves several different ways in which a story is told: first person, omniscient, limited omniscient, and objective or dramatic character.

Example: In the Lord of the Rings book series, the stories are narrated in the third person and all happenings are described from an “outside the story” point of view.

Pro and Con Argument

Pros and cons are arguments for or against a particular issue. Pros are arguments which aim to promote the issue, while cons suggest points against it.

Prologue

An introduction or preface, especially a poem recited to introduce a play;an introduction or introductory chapter, as to a novel; an introductory act, event, or period.

Example: the opening lines to Romeo and Juliet

Two households, both alike in dignity (In fair Verona, where we lay our scene), From ancient grudge break to new mutiny, Where civil blood makes civil hands unclean. From forth the fatal loins of these two foes A pair of star-crossed lovers take their life, Whose misadventured piteous overthrows Doth with their death bury their parents’ strife.

Propaganda

The systematic propagation of a doctrine or cause or of information reflecting the views and interests of those advocating such a doctrine or cause.

Protagonist

The main character in a story. Generally the reader is made to sympathize with the protagonist.

Example: Little Red Riding Hood is the protagonist of the fairy tale.

Proverb

A short popular saying, usually of unknown and ancient origin, that expresses effectively some commonplace truth or useful thought.Example: “ too many cooks spoil the broth”.

Pun

A play on words where multiple meanings are deliberately suggested.

Examples: A horse is a very stable animal; an elephant’s opinion carries a lot of weight.

Purpose

Separate from developing a theme, a writer might have any of several purposes for writing a novel, for example, to recreate a certain moment or era in history, to portray a cultural or social tradition, to explore certain values or beliefs, to represent certain kinds of people, etc.

QQuatrain

A four-line stanza

RRefrain

A line or set of lines at the end of a stanza or section of a longer poem or song--these lines repeat at regular intervals in other stanzas or sections of the same work. Sometimes the repetition involves minor changes in wording.

Example: The words “Nothing More" and “Nevermore” are repeated in “The Raven” by Edgar Allan Poe.

Repetition

A device that repeats the same words or phrases a few times to make an idea clearer. It could be a word, a phrase or a full sentence or a poetical line repeated to

emphasize its significance in the entire text.Example:I looked upon the rotting sea,And drew my eyes away;I looked upon the rotting deck,And there the dead men lay.

These lines have been taken from the famous poem “Rime of the Ancient Mariner” by S.T. Coleridge. The poem tells a story where a seafarer tells about his adventures in the sea.

Research

Systematic investigation to establish facts or principles or to collect information on a subject.

Resolution

The event that resolves the conflict occurring in the story and provides a conclusion. The actions and events depicted in the story are building up the climax, which is usually the most dramatic, suspenseful, or action-filled part of the story. The resolution follows the climax and wraps up or explains the events that have just taken place.

Rhetorical question

A question which implies that the answer is obvious--the kind of question that does not need actually to be answered.

Examples: Is this the end to which we are reduced? "If practice makes perfect, and no one's perfect, then why practice?"

Rhyme

The sound effect created when the sounds at the ends of words are repeated. Example: ant/slant, dime/chime, given/driven

Rhyme scheme

The pattern of rhymed words at the end of the lines of a poem. Each new rhyme sound is assigned a letter from the alphabet beginning with "a." For example, An abcb rhyme scheme

Roses are red a

Violets are blue b

Sugar is sweet c

And so are you b

Rhythm

The shifts in the beat, speed, or loudness, or the pitch in a line of poetry.

Rising action

The events of a dramatic or narrative plot leading up to the climax.

Round character

Characters who show varied and sometimes contradictory traits.

SSarcasm

Sarcasm is an ironic or satirical remark that seems to be praising someone or something but is really taunting or cutting. Sarcasm can be used to hurt or offend or can be used for comic affect.Examples: Is it time for your medication or mine?Well, this day was a total waste of makeup.Whatever kind of look you were going for, you missed.

Satire

Satire is the literary art of diminishing a person or topic or human quality by making it appear ridiculous. This often involves the use of irony or sarcasm.

Example: the TV series Southpark uses satire as it primary medium for drawing attention to the flaws in society, especially American society at present. The scripts and writing for the show are an excellent example of satire in written form.

Sestet

A group of six lines of poetry, especially the last six lines of a sonnet.

Setting

The time and place of a story or drama, as well as the weather, the seasons, the physical props in the scene, and the clothing of the character(s). It is also the political or social situation of the scene. Setting includes time period (such as the

1890's), the place (such as downtown Warsaw), the historical milieu (such as during the Crimean War), as well as the social, political, and perhaps even spiritual realities. The setting is usually established primarily through description, though narration is used also. Some novels include an extended description of the setting (where a character is looking back to an earlier era, describing the characters or the context of the tale).

Example: In Poe’s The Fall of the House of Usher, the crumbling old mansion reflects the decaying state of both the family and the narrator’s mind.

Simile

An outright comparison using “like”, “as”, or “as if”.Example: The raindrops sparkled like diamonds on the window pane.

Slang

Slang refers to words that are used popularly, or in a particular class of society, but are not generally acknowledged as correct English. Slang is sometimes vulgar, as well.

Example: Calling someone an "airhead" is slang for stupid.

Soliloquy

An act of speaking one's thoughts aloud when by oneself or regardless of any hearers, especially by a character in a play.Example: from “Hamlet” by William ShakespeareTo be, or not to be–that is the question: Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune

Sonnet

A 14-line, tightly crafted lyric poem that focuses on a specific theme. The sonnet is usually written in iambic pentameter. The two most traditional sonnet structures are the Petrarchan (Italian) sonnet and the Shakespearean (English) sonnet.

Speaker

An imaginary voice taken on by a poet or a writer that tells you the poem or the story.

Stanza

A group of lines of verse in a poem that form a unit. Stanzas are named according to

the number of lines found in them.

couplet --two-line stanza

quatrain--four-line stanza

sestet--six-line stanza

octave--eight-line stanza

Stream of Consciousness

A person's thoughts and conscious reactions to events, perceived as a continuous flow. The term was introduced by William James in his Principles of Psychology (1890). A literary style in which a character's thoughts, feelings, and reactions are depicted in a continuous flow uninterrupted by objective description or conventional dialogue.

Statistical Evidence

The information that helps in the formation of a conclusion or judgment.

Static character

A character who remains primarily the same throughout the story.

Stereotype

A stereotypical character is one we are immediately familiar with, because we have seen the type before. This character is predictable, and one-dimensional: the smooth talking politician, the dreary librarian, the placard wielding university student straining for justice. These characters can sometimes symbolize the characteristics of an entire group in our society, and are often used in satire to poke fun at or ridicule ideas, people or institutions in society.

Style

Style is the "manner" of writing. Style is the way authors express what they have to say. Style can be formal or familiar, plain or pretentious. Style is the way the writer writes. More specifically, according to Discovering Literature, it is the manner in which the writer uses language to create his or her reality.

Stylistic Technique

The use of any of a variety of techniques to give an auxiliary meaning, idea, or feeling to the literal or written.Example: Stylistic Techniques include the use of irony, figurative language, sound devices, and structure

Subjective Language

Expresses an opinion rather than facts. Opinions, interpretations, and any type of marketing presentation are all subjective.Example: “I think dogs make better pets than cats”.

Surprise Ending

A plot twist occurring near or at the conclusion of a story: an unexpected happening.

Example: A trusted ally of the protagonist may be revealed as a traitor, for example, or killed off at a crucial moment

Suspense

The reader's state of excitement and anticipation regarding an outcome, such as the ending of a mystery novel. A “cliff hanger” is a good way to create suspense.

Example: “He was an innocent, this boy; the other boys were out to get him.” This evokes an anticipation of violence.

Symbol

Something that represents something else. A symbol uses an object or action or image that means something more than its literal meaning.

Example: An eagle can be a symbol for freedom, independence, etc.

Symbolism

The practice of representing things by means of symbols or of attributing symbolic meanings or significance to objects, events, or relationships that is different from their literal sense..

Examples: A red rose or red color stands for love or romance. A broken mirror may symbolize separation.

T Theme

A central idea or purpose in a poem or a short story that usually gives insight into human nature or human experience. A theme is not usually directly stated, but implied through the story.

Example: the main theme in the play Romeo and Juliet was love with smaller themes of sacrifice, tragedy, struggle, hardship, devotion and so on.

Thesis

A proposition stated or put forward for consideration, especially one to be discussed and proved or to be maintained against objections: He vigorously defended his thesis on the causes of war. A subject for a composition or essay.

Thesis Statement

A thesis statement summarizes the main ideas of a piece of writing. It is often just one or two sentences that sum up the point you intend to make. In many cases your thesis statement can also be the topic sentence.

Example: “It is a truth universally acknowledged that a single man in possession of a good fortune must be in want of a wife.” – Jane Austen, Pride and Prejudice

Third person

The speaker is a character outside of the main action of the story. The main character is spoken of as `he/she". The speaker may have unlimited or limited knowledge about the characters in the story.

Tone

The tone in literature reveals the writer's attitude toward the readers or toward the subject. A tone may represent any human emotional attitude from joyous to angry to melancholy to distant to detached, to any attitude at all.

Example:

“I want to ask the authorities what is the big deal? Why do not they control the epidemic? It is eating up lives like a monster.”

“I want to draw the attention of the concerned authorities toward damage caused by an epidemic. If steps were not taken to curb it, it will further injure our community”

The theme of both tone examples is the same. The only way we can differentiate between them is their separate tone. The tone in the first example is casual or informal while, it is more formal in the second.

Tragedy

A play dealing with tragic events and having an unhappy ending, especially one concerning the downfall of the main character.Examples: Macbeth; Hamlet.

UUnderstatement

The presentation of something as being smaller, worse, or less important than it actually is. The act or an instance of understating, or representing in a weak or restrained way that is not borne out by the facts

Example: The journalist wrote that the earthquake had caused some damage. This turned out to be a massive understatement of the devastation.

VVariety

The quality of writing with diverse vocabulary and sentence structure.

Voice

Voice is the "sound" of the characters, narrators, and personae of literature. See also persona, tone, point of view.

WWit

Mental sharpness and inventiveness; keen intelligence. Natural aptitude for using words and ideas in a quick and inventive way to create humor.Example: "I do not approve of anything that tampers with natural ignorance. Ignorance is a delicate exotic fruit, touch it and the bloom is gone." ~The Importance of Being Earnest, Oscar Wilde