Karen AndersenFinal Project

CISL 550 Spring 2017

General Instruction for FINAL PROJECT:

This assignment will address two NCATE/TESOL standards namely; 1a:  Describing Language as a System and 1b: Language Acquisition and Development. In this written assignment, you are required to demonstrate your knowledge of the components of language and language as an integrative system (Standard 1a). You are also required to discuss how you support your English language learners with a clear understanding of the theories and research in language acquisition and development (Standard 1b).

Specific Instruction:

This written assignment has two parts. In the first part, you will discuss the components of language. In the second part of the assignment you will elaborate the theories and research regarding language acquisition and development.

Note: I have not yet had the experience of teaching ELL students neither in my classroom nor in my school, nor have I had the experience to observe other teachers with ELL students in their classrooms. Due to this fact, all answers that need to be based on personal teaching experiences will be based on my experiences teaching a second language to English speaking students as well as how I would apply these same ideas and strategies with ELL students learning English.

Part I

A. Discuss (in five paragraphs) the components of language as applied to creating instructional plans for ELLs. It is obvious that a system has subsystems. Think about all the subsystems in a language (example: grammar, syntax, etc.) when you discuss components of a language to create instructional plans for ELLs. Use citations whenever possible.

As discussed in our textbook, Why TESOL?, all human languages have something in common. Through the study of linguistics, researchers have found that all languages are comprised of five basic components: phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics (Ariza 39). It is vital that classroom teachers and ELL teachers understand all these categories, not just of the English language, but also of the native languages of the ELL students. It will aid in anticipating and understanding errors they make and not mistakenly assess the student as being learning disabled or perhaps at a level that is not an accurate reflection of their overall language abilities.

PHONOLOGY

Phonology is one of the basic components of language and is defined as the study of the sound system of a language and includes the rules for pronunciation as well as the function and patterning of the sounds of the language (Ariza 42). Phonemes are the distinctive sound units in a language that take on meaning when used in words (Ariza 43). In English, there are 44 phonemes (Reithaug), and as there is not a one-to-one correspondence of sound and orthography, non-native speakers have many difficulties with learning English when transferring their L1 knowledge of pronunciation to the L2 (Ariza 43). Every language has their own set of rules that determine how phonemes can be combined, which are called phonemic sequences (Ariza 38, 43). Through our understanding and research concerning pronunciation and phonology, researchers have found that non-native speakers often have difficulty with the native sounds of a second language because they are only exposed to the sounds of their language from birth (Ariza 43). They only hear and use those particular sounds and as they grow older, those are the only connections that are made in their brain if they are not exposed to sounds from other languages while they are still very young (Ariza 43). Understanding phonology and the skills of phonological awareness will aid the classroom teacher of ELL students to help them learn how the sounds are produced, which letters make the sounds, and gradually gain an increased literacy level (Ariza 50-51).

MORPHOLOGY

Morphology, in linguistic terms, is the study of words, their internal structure and how the words are formed (Aronoff & Fudeman). When studying words, one studies morphemes, which are the smallest linguistic pieces of words that have a grammatical function (Aronoff & Fudeman). Morphemes are also called linguistic signs that are arbitrary, meaning that the connection between the sign and its meaning is conventional (Ariza 55). There are two basic types of morphemes: free morphemes can stand on their own, can occur in different positions in a sentence, and have a meaning; bound morphemes do not count as words, cannot stand on their own, nor can their position in a sentence be flexible (Ariza 55). Words in human languages can be either simple or complex: simple words cannot be broken down into smaller meaningful units and consist of only one morpheme; complex words can be broken down into smaller identifiable and meaningful units and can consist of two or more morphemes which can be free and bound (Ariza 55). As a classroom teacher understands the components of morphology and morphemes, he or she can better teach ELL students about the structure and formation of English words which aids in understanding the various functions of the words and their parts of speech (Ariza 60).

SYNTAX

Syntax is the study of how words are ordered in a sentence and how those words are organized into different categories according to their function (Ariza 66, 62). For example, the basic syntax of English is Subject-Verb-Object, while other languages have different syntactical rules (Ariza 66). Syntax isn’t just about word order in a sentence. It also includes agreement between subjects and verbs, determiners and nouns, which prepositions and forms of them are needed, and the hierarchical structure of the sentence to understand what the modifiers are intended to modify (Hana). The study of syntax isn’t about meaning as a sentence can make absolutely no sense but still be grammatically correct (Hana). This point suggests the question of what is grammar? According to YourDictionary.com, grammar is basically the rules and the study of the way words are used to make sentences, both spoken and written, which includes the domains of: morphology, the forms and structure of words; syntax, the customary arrangement of words in phrases and sentences; phonology, the sounds of the language; semantics, the meanings of the words (Your Dictionary: Grammar).

SEMANTICS

Semantics is an area of linguistics that studies the meaning of words, phrases, and sentences where linguists address the core meaning or sense of individual linguistic expressions (Ariza 69). Despite the complexities and the array of different facts of deriving meaning, the general area of semantics can be divided into three basic categories: 1. the semantic relationship between words; 2. the semantic relationship between words and syntactic structures; 3. language as an expression of culture and worldview (Ariza 69). For the first category, one can analyze the semantic features of words through lexical decomposition (Ariza 69). There are semantic relationships between words that include: synonymy, which are different words that have the same meaning; antonymy, words that are opposite meaning; entailment, when word meanings are logically related to previous meanings; referent, meaning that is determined by the reference of the expression; extension, or overgeneralization; prototype, naming something that is an example of a larger set of referents (Ariza 69-70). The second category deals with the word order and syntactic structures that help determine word and sentence meanings (Ariza 70). Structural ambiguity arises when one sentence can have more than one possible meaning, and lexical ambiguity comes from words that are homonyms, with the same spelling and pronunciation but different meanings, and heteronyms, with the same spelling but different pronunciation and different meanings (Ariza 70). Second language learners will have difficulties with these situations if they are not given the opportunity to know the context of the words and see and hear the words as well (Ariza 70). The third category addresses the issue of deriving word meaning based on an individual’s own experiences as well as their cultural experiences (Ariza 71). This category deals with meanings that are connotative or non-literal, which can be based on emotions, associations of words in the cultural context of the second language, and especially idiomatic expressions (Ariza 70). Cultures have a strong influence on the idioms of a group of people, their specific and variety of vocabulary, the use of metaphors and various expressions, and the application of formal and informal language (Ariza 71-73).

PRAGMATICS

Pragmatics is the branch of linguistics that deals with the study of how people use language within a context and why people use language in a particular way (Ariza 78). The context indicated in the definition can be divided into four types: 1. physical context which is where the conversation is taking place, what objects are present, and what actions are taking place; 2. epistemic context is the background knowledge that is shared by the speakers and the listeners; 3. linguistic context is the things that were said previous to the utterances under consideration; 4. social context is the social relationship and setting of the speakers and listeners (Ariza 78). Social context also refers to the cultural context that is represented by a learner and the rules and uses of language reflect the values of that culture (Ariza 84). In understanding pragmatics, it is important to include the concepts of direct and indirect speech acts as these can be confusing to L2 learners (Ariza 79). As described also in our textbook, Why TESOL?, an important part of learning a second language and how that language is used is also understanding the implied meanings of what is said (Ariza 80). These include how someone answers a question, whether is it is with too little or too much information, how we respond to what someone says based on whether we believe what they are saying or not, if we participate in a conversation by saying things that are relevant or not, and if we are specific or vague in our sentences (Ariza 83). These situations need to be understood and explained to ELL students as they may differ in their native language and culture.

B. Give five examples (one example for each of the linguistic systems) on how you teach phonology, morphology, syntax etc.  As we ESL teachers know, there are certain sounds that do not exist in English phonology. Likewise, some ELLs’ languages do not have the “th” sound in their language system. How do you teach, for instance, the ‘th’ sound to ELLs who are not familiar with the ‘th’ sound?

PHONOLOGY

As a teacher of a second language, I obviously deal with pronunciation errors daily. To teach the sounds of the L2 when there aren’t the same sounds in the L1, I must be creative sometimes. For example, the letter J in Spanish is a raspy H sound. We don’t have a letter for that sound in English. As I explain to my students, we do however make that sound when we are coughing, etc., and they can produce that sound. After they realize they can make that sound, we then try to put it in a word. That’s where the problem lies, not so much with the sound, but that they aren’t used to that sound being in a word. I can also foresee Spanish speaking students learning to pronounce the letter H in English as having difficulties since the letter H is silent in Spanish. If I were an ESL teacher with native Spanish speakers, I would compare the sound with their letter G as well as their letter J in certain situations has an H sound. To practice this sound, I would prepare some “tongue-twisters” for the students using words they may already know in English with the H sound, as well as having them put the palm of their hand or a tissue in front of their mouth when they make the H sound, maybe even making a puff of air sound like a heavy sigh. What I try to show students is that they can make the sound in various situations of something they can relate to, then they need to put it in a word. These sounds are a bit easier to teach since the sound exists in both cultures, it is simply a matter of learning the letter that makes that sound in words. Another example is the sound of the letter Z as it doesn’t exist in Spanish. In Spanish, it is a soft S sound and in some places, it is a bit of a TH sound. Again, I would have the students make the Z sound independently and try to come up with a situation where they might make that sound, maybe like a bee, then practice putting it into words. Having students to put their fingers on the front of their throats to feel vibrations that various sounds make would also be helpful. This would also be a good time for practicing tongue-twisters again. I always try to provide a visual for the students to see when they hear the pronunciation, and when they pronounce the words themselves. This activity also aids in learning to read in the L2. The more senses that a teacher can involve the students in, the better they will remember what they are trying to learn. Students may benefit from seeing how a sound-letter is made by looking a native-speaker’s mouth when they make that sound and then looking at themselves in a mirror as they try to recreate the sound. When my English-speaking students are trying to roll their Spanish Rs, I encourage them to make the car noises they may have made as children and then show them where my tongue is when I roll an R. If mirrors were available in my classroom, I would have them look in the mirror when they try to make the same sound. I always try to find some similar sound the student is familiar with whether is it a letter or just a sound. In the beginning, it is a bit chaotic trying to put sounds together they are not used to putting together, but gradually they do get it. When phonemes, distinctive sound units that change words and meaning, are alike in both languages, they can cause problems, such as B and V in Spanish. Both these letters make the same slight B sound in Spanish, but are different sounds in English. To help ELL students learn these two distinct sounds, showing the students what your lips and teeth do for each letter as well as the mirror exercise would probably be very beneficial. Again, practicing with tongue-twisters may also help.

MORPHOLOGY

There are several areas of linguistic problems in morphology for Spanish speakers learning English and vice versa. One is the aspect of gender of nouns in Spanish. Every noun in Spanish has a gender, either masculine or feminine, that does not exist in English. When introducing new vocabulary words in Spanish to my English speakers, I always include a noun marker, a definite article (the) or an indefinite article (a, an or some) with the noun. Those articles are different depending on the gender and the number as well of the noun. This idea of gender and gender and number agreement is quite difficult for English speakers to learn. When I want to teach the lesson on gender and number and agreement of such to my students, I specifically use nouns that they know already as well as nouns that follow the general rule in Spanish of determining gender and number. I hold back on the exceptions as they can make an already confusing situation even more confusing. Usually I present this lesson as I present the other lesson on syntax that is described after this section. I put several nouns that the students know on the board with the articles that match the gender and number of the noun. I then ask them by using leading questions to look for patterns and see if they can figure out the rule. I have found that this strategy works well with my English students. We continue practicing with easy examples where they pick the appropriate article that goes with the nouns that they are given. As far as teaching in reverse to ELL Spanish speakers, it would be easier since we only one way to say THE and in Spanish there are four. They would however, probably make mistakes where they give a gender to a noun in English and use pronouns such as HE or SHE to replace that noun in a sentence rather than a neutral pronoun IT. To say, “the book is on the table”, an Hispanic ELL may say “he is on the table” as the word for book is masculine. This type of error and lesson is probably best dealt with through grammatical explanation, subtle correction, and practice. Over time, this error may correct itself and the learner will gradually learn the correct way through repeated practice and exposure to this language concept. To help ELLs learn the proper use of pronouns such as HE, SHE and IT, I would use vocabulary words that the students know already and then discuss and practice the substitution of the word with the correct pronoun. To explain this, I would ask the student to first identify if the word represents something that is living. That narrows the choice to HE or SHE, otherwise it is IT. Sometimes a variety of examples and allowing the student to process the example to come up with the pattern or rule on their own, then check for understanding. Depending on the student and their proficiency level, this method can work very well.

SYNTAX

In my experience of teaching Exploratory Spanish, one of the most confusing syntactical rules for English speakers to learn, and probably the same for Spanish speakers to learn about English, is the placement of nouns and adjectives. In English, the adjective comes before the noun that it modifies and in Spanish, the adjective comes after the noun that it modifies. It is often difficult to explain the grammar rules of Spanish to my students using the linguistic terms of nouns, adjectives, verbs, etc., as they often don’t know those terms. So, I usually present the grammatical structure with examples of words in Spanish that they know, both nouns and adjectives. I then show them examples of a sentence or noun phrase in English and ask them to explain what the words tell us and where they are in the sentence. Then I show them the same sentence or noun phrase in Spanish and ask them to point to the noun and the adjective and then explain where they are in the sentence. Almost immediately they pick up on the placement difference and then we continue with more examples where they point to the words and explain again where they are. Keeping the examples available on the board, I give them some nouns they know and some adjectives they know and ask them to put them together and they usually can because they have figured out the syntactical rule of nouns and adjectives. I would try this same strategy with ELL students with English examples. I have found that students who can figure out the grammar rules “on their own” with this strategy typically remember them better. A common activity that I have also used with very young students after they have learned this pattern is to reinforce it with a translation of the popular Brown Bear, Brown Bear What Do You See children’s book. They are familiar with the story and after learning the colors in the L2, they see the noun-adjective pattern in print and reading as well as listening as I read the story to them. For ELL students, the activity would work the same but with examples in English. It is essential to use examples with words that the students know in English already so not understanding the vocabulary does not create another problem.

Another problem area for Hispanic ELLs is the omission of subject pronouns. In English, subject pronouns must be used. However, in Spanish, they may frequently be dropped. An Hispanic student may take a sentence that should be “It is on the table” to “Is on the table”. To teach this to ELLs, I would use examples sentences that show the original sentence with the noun, then another sentence, either the same sentence with the pronoun substituted or a follow-up sentence with the pronoun. After several practices, if the students seem to get it, I would then have them create some examples of their own to put on the board. I would also try to find short stories, particularly picture books, to use as examples and practice as well.

SEMANTICS

Common semantic problems that occur for students learning Spanish include the ability to drop pronouns from sentences as the verb tells who or what this subject is. For Hispanic ELL students, the problem will be in making sure to keep them. Teaching this concept as well as correcting these errors would best be addressed by frequent use and practice, both oral and written, depending on the proficiency level of the learner, as younger learners in our country, are acquiring our language through contextual usage. This situation is also described in the previous section of syntax. Another semantic difference for Hispanic students is the use of the verb TO HAVE with various expressions where English uses TO BE. In Spanish, “I have hunger, I have thirst, I have – years old, I have sleepy” all use “I am” followed by a change in the “hunger, thirst, age, etc. Again, frequent use and practice of these expressions will enable the ELL student to learn their correct usage. I would try to implement short conversations, based on their English proficiency abilities, that would include me as the teacher modeling the correct usage, and then asking the student questions where they would answer. If their answer were incorrect, reflecting their L1 knowledge, then I would use subtle correction with repeating their answer but with corrections. I would also practice the correct sentences with pictures of people and have the student tell me “He is hungry” or whatever expression is being studied and practiced.

I would also include weekly mini-lessons on various idiomatic expressions that would be commonly used in the area where the students are living. I would choose an expression, explain the meaning behind it with pictures and discussion from the students. After the students understand the expression, I would ask the ELL students to share a similar expression in their language, if possible, as part of our classroom project of learning some of the ELL’s native language. A more advanced activity would include the students making some of their own expressions based on the one that is being studied. A very humorous example is “that’s as useful as a two-story outhouse”. Students could create other ways to finish the sentence depicting something that is not very useful.

PRAGMATICS

As pragmatics involves the study of language and how it is used in various contexts, such as the physical, epistemic, linguistic and social contexts, the cultural component must also be included. When ELL students are learning English, not only do they need to develop an understanding of our culture and how our language is used in our culture, but we as teachers must also have an understanding of their native culture and how they perceive things. This is an integral part of communication between teacher and learner and provides important insight into helping them adjust to our culture while learning the language in various contexts. As pragmatics can vary greatly from culture to culture, teachers of ELL students must be careful with their learners and the language they use with their students. First and foremost, teachers need to be as direct, literal, and simple as possible with their statements to the learners to avoid confusion and misunderstandings (Ariza 84). Teachers must also remember that ELL students must be aware of their culture and behaviors and the students must be taught how to behave with their language and actions in our culture. What they are used to could be drastically different from how we do things (Ariza 85). These social behaviors and language can often be taught through role playing and practicing classroom routines (Ariza 85). For my Exploratory Spanish students, I have a bulletin board display with classroom directions in Spanish accompanied by pictures of a student performing the expected tasks. We also actually practice the expected behaviors as I, the teacher, say the commands in Spanish. If I were an ESL teacher, I would have the same bulletin board but with English directions and we would practice in English as well. I would apply this method and strategy to all the expected behaviors in the school and the playground, not just what is expected in my classroom. Part of teaching socially acceptable language and behaviors to ELL students includes preparing the rest of the class for potential errors the ELL students may make as well. For example, it is common in Hispanic cultures to shake hands, hug, and even kiss someone on the cheek when you greet them as well as say good-bye. Even though students don’t do this with their teachers, they may do this with their peers in the classroom. Our culture isn’t necessarily accustomed to this, so I would take the time to share this cultural concept with the regular students in my class so they are not taken by surprise or offended if it were to happen. As a class, we would role play various scenarios among the students to practice how to greet people, friends and adults, as well as aspects of conversations. The use of props and small clothing items to help the students pretend to be other characters would also be very useful. I see activities such as these to be helpful for all students, not only ELL students, to learn manners and correct ways of behaving. Because of potential confusion and differences in understanding, teachers must be sure to be specific and clear with their words and explanations. ELL students should be encouraged to ask their teachers for explanations about any situation that they may encounter that they don’t understand. This would be another opportunity for some role-play activities as well as some journal writing.

C. ESL teachers use rhetorical modes such as critical analysis of fiction, and argumentative essay writing and discourse analysis for teaching writing. How do you incorporate rhetorical and discourse structures in your instructional activities? (Give at least two examples)? 

As I currently teach Exploratory Spanish to English speakers, and have previously taught French to English speakers, and having no experience with ELL students, I do not have any concrete examples of incorporating rhetorical and discourse structures in my instructional activities. I have, however, tried to research definitions of rhetorical structures and discourse to create potential lessons that I may use in the future.

Our textbook, Why TESOL?, mentions the importance of including free writing activities and shared or independent reading activities so that students can learn the appropriate conventions of written communication, and that these activities should not be delayed until a student has developed good oral and listening skills in English (Ariza 96-97). From my own experiences of learning a second and third language, as well as improving my first language, I believe that good readers make good writers. When a learner is exposed to seeing the written language, they will in turn learn to, and improve, their vocabulary and their writing skills in whatever language they are studying. Based on that idea, I would incorporate writing activities that are somehow paired with reading activities. I particularly like journal-type writing for students where they can write and express ideas without the stress, and sometimes fear, of being graded. A teacher should make a few corrections in a student’s journal writing, but not to the extent that a student may become discouraged and eventually stop writing or even trying to write.

I prefer two types of informal journal writing activities. The first is a sort of written communication between the teacher and the student. I would give the students a specific question to answer or topic to write about. The criteria would be somewhat relaxed as the levels of English proficiency may vary greatly among the students, even the English-speaking students. The question or topic that students are given would be a starting point for this written communication, almost like a pen pal type of situation, that would allow for the teacher to correct student errors as well as provide a type of assessment to see what an individual student may need to work on. These would be written in a notebook so that the teacher could see what a student had written before and how that student is progressing. A teacher would be able to create additional activities for students based on their needs, both individually and as a group. I think that an activity such as this would be beneficial for both the student and teacher to be able to “talk” with each other and create a non-stressful learning environment.

The second journal activity would include some paired writing activities with students. These would coincide with reading activities that are being studied in class. A variety of story themes and topics would be explored, including any that I could find that reflects the cultural of the ELL students in the class. After reading a story or passage, students would be given a topic question to answer that would reflect their own personal ideas, feelings, or opinions. A second writing topic would be for a pair of students to work on together, such as writing an alternate ending to the story, adding another event in the story, making up a conversation between two characters in the story, etc. Assignments would include a variety of activities from the four basic categories of discourse of exposition, narration, description, and argument (Literary Devices). A few pre-writing activities include comprehension activities to make sure the students understood the passage or story, general oral discussions about their personal ideas that they wrote about previously, making charts and graphs of various aspects of the story as a type of outline or summary, and teacher made vocabulary lists from the story as well as supplemental vocabulary that could be used in their writing activity.

Journal writing could also be used for students to practice using various rhetorical devices. Students could be given an example of one of the many rhetorical devices used in common everyday language and then create some of their own (Your Dictionary: Examples of Rhetorical Devices). A few examples could be written on the board after a class brain-storming session and then they can write some of their own. Examples could also come from the story or passage that they read. ELL students could also be encouraged to share some that may be common in their native language.

D. It could be argued that some students like or dislike learning English as a second language based on the behavior and attitude of their ESL teachers towards the ELLs. In most cases, model teachers impress and motivate their students by their words and actions. Discuss (in three paragraphs) how you serve as a good model for ELLs and how you support ELLs as they acquire English language and literacy to achieve in the content areas. What words and actions would make a teacher a good model for ELLs? Give examples from your own teaching experience.

I personally believe that a good ELL teacher needs to have certain characteristics. First and foremost, they must be sincerely open-minded to other cultures barring any type of prejudice regardless of the ethnic background of the ELL student. Whether it is intentional or not, children can sense and pick up any negative feelings and negative attitudes that a teacher may have. The words and actions of a teacher also have a lot of influence on a student. Understanding that, words need to be chosen carefully and used just as carefully in the teaching of lessons and correcting of errors. Words need to be building up the confidence of the young learner, not tearing them down. Words need to give value and worth to the young learner, not excluding or making them feel as if they are not a part of the classroom community. A teacher’s actions must also reflect those same values.

A second very important quality of ELL teachers must also be a comprehensive knowledge of the English language, first and second language acquisition, and training in teaching ELL students. Even though the teacher may not have specialized in English as a teaching major, there still must be an adequate knowledge of English so that he/she can incorporate the teaching of English to the students. As a classroom teacher is responsible for a large part of assessing the ELL students, he/she needs an understanding of language development, the various stages and characteristics of language development so that an accurate assessment can be made. For example, a student that may be in the silent period of language development could be misdiagnosed as having a learning deficit. Classroom teachers and ESL teachers also need to have some understanding of the ELL learners, particularly their native language to better understand their L1 transfer to English. Teachers must also be willing to adapt their teaching methods and strategies to meet the needs of the learners. We can no longer keep doing the same things the same way just because that’s how we always did it.

I do not currently have any teaching experience with ELL students. However, I have studied two other languages and have had the opportunity to live in a foreign country, once for 5 and a half months and in another country for 3 weeks. I traveled in a few other places on week long excursions where I knew nothing of the language of that country. Through my experiences, I believe that I can understand somewhat of how ELL students feel when they come here to a totally new environment, new language, new culture, new friends. I can relate to the wide range of emotions they may feel from excitement, to anxiety, frustration, elation, loneliness, and so on. Through my language learning, I understand how a language can be learned and how one can be acquired. Through my language teaching, I have taught a wide variety of learners who progress through the learning stages at different rates and different times and had to adjust teaching methods, activities, and assessments for the learners. I have a personal positive outlook and attitude toward other cultures and an excitement for learning about other cultures and other languages that I see my students pick up on. I treat all my students with respect and dignity regardless of their background and expect my students to believe the same way towards others. I strive to create a classroom community that celebrates everyone’s different abilities and successes and hopefully my students have learned that mistakes are ok, it’s part of the learning process. Our class is not a race or a competition, it is a safe, comfortable learning environment where we try our best on a continual basis, never just give up, and provide positive encouraging words to each other.

Another problem that I too often encounter with my students is the attitude that differences in language, according to their inexperienced and immature thinking, reflects actions, attitudes, ideas, or people that are stupid, don’t make any sense, they are wrong, and sometimes a remark that expresses superiority comes out. Through all the activities that I have my students participate in, I consistently show value and respect to the second language and all aspects related to the people and the culture as well as draw comparisons of similarities between both languages and cultures. A lesson that I like to use is based on pencils. I have a variety of pencils that are different in color, texture, condition, etc. Students naturally make judgements about which pencils are “better” and which ones are “not so good”. The trick is I only show them the top half of the pencil. Revealing the bottom half of the pencil with tape covering the outside of the pencil and hiding the top half as well, students then only see what is inside the pencil and it turns out that all the pencils are the same on the inside regardless of what they look like on the outside.

Part II.

A.   There are several current theories (example: Krashen’s Theory of Second Language Acquisition) that describe the complexities of the teaching of English as a second language.  Discuss (in five paragraphs) some of the current theories and how you apply the theories to teach English literacy to ELLs in the classrooms so that they succeed in the content areas. Use citations whenever possible.

Over the years, there have been numerous scientists, researchers, and various studies done on language learning and language acquisition, both in infants, children, and adults, of native languages and second languages. This plethora of information and data has led to a wide variety of theories about language and methodologies stemming from those findings.

One of the most widely known theorists is Stephen Krashen. His theories, along with those of Tracy Terrell are often called the Natural Approach (Ariza 183). According to Mr. Krashen, there is a distinct difference between learning and acquisition. Language learning is a conscious process where the learner is in a formal instruction environment and they learn about the language, for example grammar rules (Schütz). Language acquisition, on the other hand, is more about a meaningful interaction in the second language (Schütz). This type of “learning” is more like the language “learning” when children are acquiring their first, or native, language, which is a natural communication (Schütz). The emphasis is placed on communication and not the form of the communication (Schütz). Included in this language acquisition is the need and use of “comprehensible input” which involves learning the language within a context, providing explanations and very importantly, visual cues and realia (Schütz). Krashen also describes an aspect of language acquisition that describes the equally important variables necessary for students. These include an atmosphere that encourages success, promotes a good self-image of the learner, and a low-anxiety environment that helps to raise motivation (Schütz).

Krashen’s ideas on language acquisition provide educators with a lot of reasons for considering the learner’s individual needs, the learning environment, and the methods and strategies used by teachers when instructing ELL students. Considering Krashen’s description and explanation of language acquisition as a natural communication process as a child is learning his/her first language, teachers should provide comprehensible input in the form of words and language is on the level of the child/student that includes pictures, realia, and a context. Error correction is usually not a conscious activity until the learner reaches a more mature learning age, has consciously learned and can understand grammar rules. Children tend to learn by example, what they hear modeled, and by trial and error. Thus, teachers should be good models of correct language and grammar. In creating an environment of low-anxiety, error correction should not be constant and not stressful for the learner of having every error corrected every time (Ariza 176). The focus needs to be on communication and corrections based on whether communication is impaired by the error (Ariza 177). The individual learner and his/her personality and level of language should always be considered in error correction (Ariza 179). A low-anxiety environment should also be one in which the student feels respected, welcomed and valued for their differences, and most certainly not embarrassed for their culture nor their language proficiency.

McLaughlin is another linguist whose theories are a bit contrary, yet similar, to those of Stephen Krashen (Ariza 149). McLaughlin proposes that for a learner to process information and store it in their long-term memory, he/she must be consciously aware of this knowledge and learning, which is the opposite of Krashen’s ideas of language acquisition being subconscious (Ariza 149). McLaughlin states that not all language learning cannot be subconscious; the terms “controlled processing mechanism”, which has a limited and temporary capacity, and “automatic processing mechanism”, which has a relatively permanent process (Ariza 150). For the classroom teacher, younger learners tend to acquire language skills naturally and they focus on communication of meaning and do not pay much attention to learning grammatical rules or forms (Ariza 150). McLaughlin’ s theory of this attention-processing model can help educators to understand that as a learner matures, he/she can receive specific instruction about the rules and vocabulary pertinent to what they are studying and have the cognitive ability to analyze and understand those rules (Ariza 150). McLaughlin supports the notion that learners can internalize language if they are engaged in meaningful, authentic, and learner-oriented activities appropriate to the student’s level of developmental process (Ariza 150). Again, educators must be aware of and recognize the different language abilities of learners at varying stages, and ages, and that the strategies and methods used must be adapted.

Like McLaughlin’s theories, Bialystok proposes ideas that language processing involves both explicit and implicit knowledge (Ariza 151). Implicit knowledge is automatically and spontaneously used in language tasks whether or not they can provide an explanation or analysis of the grammar (Ariza 151). Explicit knowledge is the knowledge the learner has about a language and the ability they have to use it, which supports L2 learners being able to explain the grammar but needing time to be able to produce it (Ariza 151). The implication for teachers is that they need to be patient and allow L2 learners time to process and think about what they want to say, especially in oral communications (Ariza 151). Teachers also need to provide a variety of techniques for learners to express themselves at varying stages of linguistic proficiency (Ariza 151). Both McLaughlin and Bialystok support the theory of communication being the ultimate goal of language learning, and that complex language structures and explicit teaching of forms of language should be done at a peripheral level when the learner has progressed to that ability (Ariza 151).

Another linguist of importance in language learning and teaching is Jim Cummins (Ariza 147). Cummins makes a distinction between social language and academic language: social language is the language used in everyday conversations that has a lot of context, uses realia, demonstrations, illustrations, explanations, etc., primarily deals with the here-and-now, and is often learned in about two years; academic language, on the other hand, is not acquired as quickly, usually taking about five to seven years, as it is more decontextualized and abstract than social language (Ariza 147). Ironically, ELL students may even have very good spoken English skills but have numerous difficulties in reading and writing (Ariza 147). Cummins also describes an aspect of language learning called CUP, or common underlying proficiency (Ariza 148). His theory explains that a learner’s knowledge and literacy skills in their L1, or native language, will transfer to his/her learning of an L2, or second language (Ariza 149). This is important for teachers to be aware of indicating a need for the teacher to research and gain even a basic understanding the ELL students’ native languages in their classroom to better understand the errors the student may make and the difficulties they may have in learning English. This knowledge can help the classroom teachers and other ELL support faculty to properly assess a student’s academic level and English proficiency level to prevent misdiagnoses of a student learning abilities. Cummins ideas support the theory that if a learner has a strong foundation in their native language, they will acquire a second language much easier, and is also strong validation for bilingual education programs where students are taught in both languages in varying proportions (Ariza 149).

Cummins has developed a quadrant of language and content activities that begin with cognitively undemanding and context-embedded activities and progress to cognitively demanding and context-reduced activities as a language learners acquires the L2 (Ariza 149). Activities in the quadrant A include developing survival vocabulary, demonstrated directions, simple games, and engaging in face-to-face interactions (Ariza 149). Quadrant B moves to including hands-on activities, making maps, charts, etc., understanding academic presentations and written texts with visuals, realia, active participation, discussions, etc., and making brief oral presentations (Ariza 149). Quadrant C involves phone conversations and reading and writing for personal purposes, such as notes, lists, etc. (Ariza 149). Quadrant D, the last quadrant, incorporates activities where the student can understand academic presentations and lectures without visuals or demonstrations, they make formal oral presentations, write compositions, essays, and research reports in content areas, read for information in content areas and take standardized achievement tests (Ariza 149). Teachers that understand these quadrant progressions will be better able to develop level appropriate lessons and methodologies to meet the needs of the both the individual learner and learner groups in promote a successful learning environment.

Similar to Cummins’ ideas are the CALLA learning strategies. CALLA stands for Cognitive Academic Language Learning Approach and focuses on the acquisition of academic language rather than social language (Ariza 164). Ana Chamot and Michael O’Malley are the principal founders of CALLA strategies and include, but not limited to, the following examples: metacognitive strategies of previewing materials, organization, selective attention and self-evaluation; cognitive strategies such as using contexts, relating new information to what is already known, taking notes, summarizing, and transferring knowledge; social affective strategies of working with peers, asking for clarification, and self-talk (Ariza 164-167)

B.    Acquiring first language and learning a second language have similarities and differences. Using current theories, demonstrate the similarities and differences in learning L1 and L2. Consider the following questions in your response to this question. Would children learn L1 faster than adults who learn L2? Would instruction be needed for both L1 and L2? In three paragraphs discuss the similarities and differences in learning L1 and L2.

When a person learns a language, whether their it’s their first or native language or it’s their second language, he/she will progress through certain predictable stages with some similarities and some differences (Ariza 123). There are a lot of factors that influence a learner’s ability to acquire a second language, such as age, L1 literacy skills and level, self-esteem, and the learning environment are only a few. Due to the variety of influences, learners will progress through the stages of language development at different rates (Ariza 129).

According to Stephen Krashen, a renowned second language linguist theorist, there is a distinctive difference between language learning and language acquisition: acquisition is a natural process of how children learn their first language without formal instruction while language learning is a conscious effort of learning vocabulary and rules of grammar of the language (Schütz). Second language acquisition will follow the same process, particularly for younger children with a few differences when it comes to learning a second language in older learners (Ariza 147). When acquiring a first and second language, younger learners need lots of context, pictures, realia, explanations, and meaningful communication and comprehensible input (Schütz). These younger learners may not respond well to error correction as they are more concerned with communication rather than form, nor will they acquire language skills through formal instruction until they reach a more cognitively mature stage of development. However, the young learners of a second language will be more likely to acquire a native-like pronunciation of the L2 than adults will (Ariza 136). As they have not been limited to only producing a certain group of sounds for a long period of time, they are able to easily produce a wider variety.

According to McLaughlin and Bialystok, as learners mature, formal instruction is part of the language learning process where they are learning the rules and vocabulary of the L2 (Ariza 150). Adult learners who have a cognitive understanding of language can analyze the L2 (Ariza 150). According to Cummins, they can also transfer their knowledge of their L1 to learning L2 (Ariza 149). However, a disadvantage that adult learners may have is that they most likely will not develop a native-like pronunciation of the L2 (Ariza 136). Adult learners have been producing a certain set of language sounds for a long time and do not have the “flexibility” to produce new and different sounds like children can (Ariza 43).

Generally speaking, there are quite a few similarities between first and second language acquisition and learning. First and second language learners will also both go through a silent period, or pre-production stage where they will hear and understand more language than they can produce, also known as the comprehension stage (Ariza 129). They will continue to progress through an early production stage of one- or two-word productions, a speech emergence state of phrases and short sentences, and then intermediate fluency stage where they begin to engage in discourse (Ariza 134).

Other similarities include learners acquiring morphemes in the L2 just as they did in their L1, which are usually acquired according to their morphological function rather than their phonological form (Ariza 130). Syntax is also acquired in predictable stages beginning with producing longer utterances, making negatives, and forming questions (Ariza 131). Semantic development is similar between the types of learners as well. Learners will tend to overgeneralize words, misuse synonyms, use circumlocutions which involve substituting a descriptive phrase for a word, learn idioms and words that have one form but several meanings (Ariza 132). Errors that learners make in learning the L2 is developmental just as they are when they are learning their L1 (Ariza 134). L2 errors are usually based on a learner’s knowledge of their L1 rules (Ariza 134). Second language learners may have difficulty in producing the sounds of the L2 due to the influence of their L1 and the transfer of knowledge as it is normal to see a letter and produce the sound of that letter according to the phonological rules that we are already familiar with (Ariza 130).

C.     Languages could be identity markers. Hence, some ELLs would like to maintain their first language as much as possible. Provide three examples on how you give opportunities for ELLs to express themselves in their first language. In one paragraph, explain why it is a good idea to invite parents to come and talk about their language and culture?

I strongly agree that ELL students should be encouraged to maintain and continue learning and using their native language. There has been a lot of research indicating the benefits of students being bilingual. According to recent research, educational programs that systematically incorporate the use of an ELL’s native language results in higher levels of academic success, achievement in literacy and other academic subjects that is often as high as and better than that of an ELL in an English-only program (Genesee). Other studies have also shown a significant positive relationship between an individual student’s level of bilingual proficiency and their achievement in math and reading in English (Genesee). Bilingual children have also shown in extensive research from around the world, significant cognitive advantages in comparison to children who only speak one language (Genesee). It has also been found that children who are learning to read in a second language are able to transfer many skills from their first language thus facilitating their acquisition of reading skills in the second language (Genesee).

A few activities that I might include would be the ELL student teaching some of their language to the rest of the class. I would make this a small daily lesson, even if it were just a few vocabulary words or common phrases. Encouraging the students to use and teach their language to the other students helps create an atmosphere of ELLs feeling that their culture and language have value. It also provides an opportunity for the English-speaking students to learn another language and develop an empathy for the ELLs who are learning English.

Another activity could include the student writing daily journals or other written assignments in their native language. A teacher could add the option of then translating to English with the help of a bilingual dictionary. This would be very helpful for beginning learners who are initially adjusting to a new culture and new situation. The added frustration of only being allowed to communicate in English, may cause more harm than good. I would also allow them to communicate with their peers who also speak their native language in certain situations. It would be good to also pair them with a buddy in class who also speaks their native language to help them while they are learning English and adjusting to a new culture.

Another acceptable use of an ELL’s native language would be if the teacher or resource support personnel were bilingual, to allow the student to ask for clarification from that person in their native language as well as possibly allowing the teacher to answer in their native language. I would also allow the ELL learner who is having difficulty expressing themselves orally in English to insert some words from their native languages a way of encouraging their efforts to speak. Even if no one in the class understand their native language, it would provide a context that we may be able to figure out what they are wanting to say and help them learn the English words. Another activity ELLs, and the other students as well, could participate in would be “journal letters” that the students could write to their parents in their native language about what they did in school that day or special projects they are working on and have their parents to write back. It doesn’t have to be lengthy or without errors, it just needs to be communicating in their native language and maintaining it as much as they can.

By inviting parents, siblings, or other members of the community that represent the language and culture of the ELL students in the classroom, the teacher is emphasizing the value and importance of that language and culture. He/she is showing the students that people are people regardless of where they are from, what language they speak, what color they are, or what culture they represent. This type of activity celebrates the different culture and language and helps encourage empathy on the part of the English-speaking students, thus building better feelings of being welcomed into the classroom and community as well as educating the English-speaking students about a new culture. Including families as much as possible in their child’s education and gaining their support and respect will help the student to achieve academic success and feel good about themselves and their families. A strong home-school connection is crucial for student success particularly among Latino families where there is an alarming dropout rate; almost 80% of Latino students either dropout of high school or cannot pass the state required graduation tests (Robertson).

D.    Socio-cultural factors vary from country to country. In three paragraphs, describe how you apply knowledge of socio-cultural factors to improve communication with ELLs? For instance, socio-cultural factors such as etiquette vary from culture to culture. Describe how you incorporate socio-cultural factors such as American etiquette in your classroom.

As I consistently emphasize to my Exploratory Spanish students, learning a language isn’t just about learning a lot of vocabulary words or memorizing sentences. It’s equally important to learn the culture of the language, to learn about the people who speak that language; to gain a better understanding of the thoughts, behaviors, ideas, and feelings of the people is an important aspect of understanding the language and as a result, learning the language. The same is true for ELL students who are here and are learning English. As teachers, we need to learn as much as we can about the ELLs culture and behaviors, not just to better understand the ELL students, but so we can help them in learning our culture and behaviors.

Communicating in a second language isn’t just about the words we use, but is also about the words we don’t use. Our “silent language” is just as important and can vary quite a lot from one culture to another causing some potentially embarrassing moments or situations of confusion and non-intentional insults (Ariza 88). The gestures or body movements we make, how much personal space we feel is appropriate, insufficient or excessive eye contact, and physical touch are all aspects of this “silent language” that is a part of every culture (Ariza 88-90).

Prior to welcoming a new ELL student to our classroom, I would learn as much as I could about the culture of the ELL, particularly things about the aspects of their “silent language”. If possible, I would teach and prepare my regular classroom students to the various aspects of the new culture, both similarities and differences. The other students need to have an understanding as well as; students can and do learn a lot from other students. The students are going to have more one-on-one time with the ELL students than anybody else and they need to know what to expect so they aren’t accidentally insulted or accidentally insult the new student. I would include the ELL student’s other teachers as well as other employees in the school in understanding the new culture.

Once the new ELL student arrives, part of their lessons will include such body language as raising their hand in class, how close to stand or sit next to other people, etc. We would practice as a class the actions and routines of the classroom and school, as well as some TPR (Total Physical Response) activities that allow the student to “answer” without words. Role playing and practicing the actions are some of the best ways to teach these behaviors. Drawing and coloring to help show comprehension of behaviors would be something I would use with younger learners. I would also assign the new ELL a buddy that he/she would feel comfortable with. I would choose a student in the classroom and/or another student in the school, particularly a student of similar L1, that they could ask questions or clarification. Depending on the age of the students, I would find appropriate and short stories that help teach manners and appropriate behaviors. These are beneficial for all learners, not just the new ELL students. Equally important to teaching these new and acceptable behaviors is handling the errors the student may make because they don’t realize or understand. A lot of patience and understanding is a necessity on the part of all who will encounter the student and, most importantly, if the ELL student does make a “faux pas”, nobody overreacts or makes the student feel humiliated or embarrassed over the mistake. A quiet, subtle explanation to the student alone would be the best solution.

It is also important to remember that some of these behaviors may be seen in their reading materials and the student may need to explanation when they encounter them. When preparing lessons and activities, a teacher must undoubtedly remember and keep these aspects in mind, particularly for the ELL students. We must be aware of and provide whatever background knowledge they may need since they come from a different culture and different life experiences.

E.    Everyone learns differently. As school teachers, you are aware that some students are visual, some are auditory and some are kinesthetic learners. In four paragraphs, discuss how you use individual learner variables in your classroom. Think of specific contents that you thought were essential particularly to your ELLs. Use citations whenever possible.

As teachers, we encounter and work with students with a wide variety of personalities, background experiences, moods, and learning styles every day and all day. If we want to be successful in teaching our students and we want our students to be successful in learning, we must be aware of the various learning styles in general and the learning styles of our individual students. The learning styles may also vary according to a student’s individual culture and what they are used to (Ariza 173). As Howard Gardner describes, learners come from a variety of intelligences that influence how he/she learns and processes new information and they may also have more than one preferred style of learning (Ariza 171). It is important also to include these intelligences when assessing students (Ariza 171).

With younger learners, regular students in the classroom and ELL students, I would create activities that include the bodily-kinesthetic intelligences and some from the spatial/visual as well (Ariza 172). As beginning learners most often understand more of what they see and hear than they are able to produce, also known as the “silent period”, TPR (Total Physical Response) activities such role-playing, demonstrations, drawing, coloring, or use hands-on realia are good for them. Some of these activities can also be used with older students who may have a higher level of English proficiency but prefer these types of activities. For younger learners, depending on their proficiency level, they could draw a response to a question rather than write an essay about a reading passage. For taking notes and organizing information about social studies, students could use diagrams, charts, maps, lists, etc. to simplify and organization information.

For those students who are linguistic and/or musical, they could write an alternate ending to a story, a skit that acts out a scene from a story or historical event with students as actors with props or with puppets, or write a song or jingle relating to a story or topic being studied (Ariza 172). If technology were available in the classroom, there are numerous resources that can be used to help students with these types of projects.

There are also the intelligence categories of students who prefer to work with and interact with others, interpersonal, and those who prefer to work alone and independently, intrapersonal (Ariza 172). These can be combined with the other intelligences for possible group projects. The student who likes to write stories or music can create their projects either alone or with a partner and then work with the students who may like to act and sing creating a group project. Both could be used with a variety of content areas in reading, social studies, and language arts.

Equally important to allowing students to work within their individual intelligence category is encouraging them to also work and try out the other intelligence categories. In my own experiences in my Exploratory Spanish classes, I incorporate as many activities from all the intelligences so students can feel successful and perhaps discover a new learning style or preference they didn’t realize they had. For example, when we are studying the countries around the world that speak Spanish, we label maps, we make charts and lists of the countries, we create flash cards of the countries and maps, we make silly sentences to help memorize the names of the countries, they make a power point presentation about a tourist attraction in one of the countries, and they also draw maps and label the countries. The students all have their personal preferences of activities, but usually find at least one more they didn’t realize would be helpful to them. When we are memorizing conversations, some students prefer to “act” them out in front of the class with props, and others prefer to recite them just to me, and they are allowed that option.

I also incorporate adaptations when assessing students. As we participate in activities that involve listening, speaking, reading, and writing, students are sometimes given some options. Even though they participate in all the activities, I will allow some variations for extra credit. For example, a student may do better at the listening activities than the reading activities for a vocabulary test. Even though they are expected to do both, I may allow them to do the listening as also a reading for supplemental points, or vice versa. This helps them to be successful as well as gaining practice in the other intelligence learning area. Students need to be experienced in as many different areas as possible as sometimes, later in life and other learning environments, they may be limited to what is expected for them to be able to do.

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