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Reading material source: European Environment Agency

http://www.eea.europa.eu/soer/countries/gr/soertopic_view?topic=biodiversity

Nature protection and biodiversity (Greece)

Why should we care about this issue

Published: 26 Nov 2010

Greece is in a biodiversity ’hot spot’ region, with more than 1 500 endemic species and more than

70 % habitat loss in historic times (EEA, 2007), hosting a notable biodiversity, while its flora and

diversity in certain animal groups (e.g. birds, reptiles, terrestrial mollusks, isopods) is amongst the

highest in Europe and the Mediterranean (e.g Legakis et al., 2006; Strid and Tan; 1997, Strid, 2006).

Nature protection needs in Greece arise from urban sprawl, infrastructure development, over-

exploitation of species and natural resources, pollution, eutrophication, desertification, intensive

agriculture in the lowland,s and land abandonment in more remote regions, often of high nature value.

In coastal areas, the uncontrolled expansion of tourism and/or illegal fishing activities, the invasion of

aquatic alien species due to rising sea temperature constitute additional factors threatening our

ecosystem biological functions and processes.

The state and impacts

Knowledge of the state of Greece’s biodiversity is still very poor (Tables 1 and 2). There are

approximately 30 000 animal species (Legakis, 2004) with endemism reaching 17.1 % (Fauna

Europaea, 2004), increasing to 64 % in specific animal groups (Legakis et al., 2006).

According to a 2009 assessment (Table 3), threatened species in Greece face α short-term or mid-

term risk of extinction. The increased expected rate of avian species extinctions in Greece (Red List

Index) over the last 17 years (Table 4, Figure 1) is related mainly to the loss of natural habitats and

their structural or functional degradation, pollution and disturbance. Most threatened avian groups are

wetland birds and raptors.

The reduction of cattle genetic diversity is alarming. Only 0.64 % of the total cattle population

consists of native breeds. This reflects an almost complete homogenisation of the cattle genetic pool,

restricting the alternatives for future genetic improvements and mitigation of disease outbreaks or

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changing climatic conditions. Sheep genetic diversity is high, with 92.2 % of the population consisting

of native breeds, but 61 % of breeds are endangered (Table 5).

In 2008, Greece hosted 538 terrestrial invasive alien species (Figure 2). In 2009, Greek marine and

brackish waters and inland freshwater systems hosted 193 and 87 aquatic invasive alien species,

respectively (Figures 3 and 4; Table 6).

The Marine Trophic Index of Hellenic Seas has not significantly changed since 1950 (Figure 5).

The downward trend in the period 1980-2004 may be due to the end of the positive effects of

technology and eutrophication on fisheries catches.

Greek legislation provides for protection of a large number of native flora and wildlife species (916

plants, 139 vertebrates and 82 invertebrates). However, the share of habitats and species of

Community interest, whose conservation status is reported as ’inadequate’ or ’unknown’, is still high

(Table 7).

In 2007, the total area of nationally designated sites was around 20 432 km2 - around 15.5 % of the

total area of Greece and around 2 % of the total European nationally designated site area (e.g Northern

Pindos, Mount Nympheon, National Marine Park of Zakynthos, National Park of Dadia. By 2009, the

total area of nationally designated sites covered 23 999 044 km2 (Figure 6; Tables 8 and 9).

The key drivers and pressures

The main drivers of biodiversity decline in Greece are related to past and current policies on land

use, agriculture, fisheries, forestry, transport and tourism, and to the prevailing consumption and

production patterns of contemporary Greek society. The most important pressures on threatened

avifauna in Greece are given in Table 10.

Land take

Urban sprawl and land taken up by development activities in Greece (1990-2000) has increased by

15 %. 63% of the land uptake has affected natural (23 %) and semi-natural (37 %) areas with

consequent impacts on species and ecosystems (Figure 7).

Climate change

Species that are quite abundant in the Greek seas (e.g. anchovy (Engraulis encrasicolus) and sardine

(Sardinella aurita and Sardina pilchardus)), are affected by regional temperature variations, riverine

inputs and wind-induced mixing. Impacts of climate change on forest biodiversity are linked to

temperature increase and precipitation decrease and to forest fires (MINENV, 2010).

Worst Invasive Alien Species

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18 terrestrial species in Greece are among the 100 Worst Invasive Alien Species (WIAS), according

to the DAISIE database (2008) (Table 11). The most important pressure of terrestrial WIAS in Greece

is on natural ecosystems, through competition or predation on existing species and contamination

through the spread of diseases.

Shipping is the second-most important vector of the primary and secondary spread of alien species

(23 %) in Greek marine waters, preceded by entry through the Suez Canal (44 %). Aquaculture is the

most important mode of introduction of freshwater alien species in Greece (Zenetos et al., 2009). In

2009, Hellenic waters hosted 60 species of the aquatic WIAS threatening biodiversity in the

Mediterranean, a 20 % increase since 2000 (Table 12).

Nutrient loads

In the Aegean Sea, coastal waters with high concentrations of inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus

are linked to anthropogenic activities, sewage outfalls, and riverine outflows (Figure 8). A comparison

of nutrient loads between 1995 and 2007 is given in Table 13 and Figures 9-12.

Technology and eutrophication

Α general expansion of the Hellenic fisheries took place during the mid 1970s to the mid 1980s, due

to the modernisation of the Hellenic fishing fleet and the effect of man-made eutrophication on the

productivity of coastal waters. The positive effects appear to have subsided over the last 24 years.

The 2020 outlook

During the last 17 years, population trends for 50 % of the threatened avian species are very

negative to negative (Handrinos et al., 2009), implying the urgent need for targeted legislative

measures and conservation actions. 

The alarming reduction of cattle genetic diversity and the classification of several cattle and sheep

breeds as endangered reflect the urgent need for a drastic shift in relevant policies, before an

irreversible homogenisation of the livestock genetic pool occurs.

Mediterranean climate ecosystems are considered among the most threatened by invasive alien

species (Hulme et al., 2008b). The likelihood of future higher air temperatures and increasing drought

periods, which are expected to change fire regimes (Piñol et al., 1998; Lavorel et al., 1998;

Arianoutsou, 2007) could favor the establishment of more alien species (Vilà et al., 2001) or the

further expansion of established ones, influencing ecosystems and the economy.

The speed of marine alien species spread and response to global warming is apparently much faster

than temperature increase itself, presenting an important warning for the future of Mediterranean Sea

biodiversity.

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Existing and planned responses

Greek legislation (Table 14) provides for the protection of flora and fauna. Protected areas (Table 8)

represent an instrument for species conservation. Greece continues to extend the protected areas

network (Figure 6), holding a large variety of Mediterranean habitats included in the reference list of

the Natura 2000 initiative. The Natura 2000 network covers 21 % of the Greek land surface and 5.5 %

of the territorial waters. Other measures for species protection include regulation on the hunting

period, a binding fishing code, access restrictions, limited user rights, and compensations for income

loss.

However, a crucial step towards a targeted and planned protection of the natural environment and

biodiversity is the National Biodiversity Strategy. This is currently being re-evaluated and includes the

objectives of ‘Contribution to the response to climate change, adaptation to it and reduction of the

impacts on biodiversity through adaptation actions.’

Greece has no stand-alone sustainable agriculture strategy. The integration of nature conservation

objectives follows rules and instruments set under the EU Common Agricultural Policy.

Greek fisheries policy is based on sustainable management objectives and is heavily influenced by

the EU Common Fisheries Policy.

                                         

Table 1. State of Flora in Greece (Hatzilakou, 2009)

Τaxa  Endemic Uncertain endemic  Not EndemicNot threatened and not protected 558 43  Protected 122 3 168Threatened 181 6 120Threatened and protected 425 8 205

Table 2. State of Fauna in Greece (Hatzilakou, 2009)

  Number of species Endemic ThreatenedMammals 111 2 19Birds 442 - 10*Reptiles 62 6 8Amphibians 21 2 5Fish (freshwater) 108 35 41Fish (seawater) 447 - 12

* According to BirdLife International (2008α)-Global FactSheets and the Hellenic Ornithological

Society  (unpublished data)

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Table 3. Threatened species in Greece

(The Red Data book of Threatened Vertebrates and Invertebrates, in press)Threatened species

No of species No of  threatened species

Percentage of  species assessed

Vertebrate species 422 171 15%Invertebrate species 591 297 50%Most threatened animal groups      Freshwater fish     37%Reptiles     27%

Table 4. Red List of the threatened birds in Greece (Handrinos et al., 2009)

IUCN Red List category of threat 

Number of species assessed in 1992

Number of species assessed in 2009

Extinct (EX) 6   1Critically Endangered (CR)  13  14Endangered (EN)  12  17Vulnerable (VU)  23  31Near Threatened (NT)  20  16Least Concern (LC)  -  26Data Deficient (DD)  26  17TOTAL 100 122

Table 5. Population composition of cattle and sheep breeds in Greece, 2008

 Native breed

population

Foreign breed

Population*

Total population

Number of native  breeds

Number of foreign breeds

Endangered breeds

Extinct breeds

CATTLE4,057 629,599 633,656 2 9 2 3

SHEEP8,363,484 700,000 9,063,484 18 3 11 7

* Crossbred animals are included in the foreign breed population.

Table 6. Alien species in Greece

  Total Invertebrates Primary producers VertebratesTerrestrial 538 38% 59% 3%Inland freshwater 87 48% 40% 12%Marine and backish water 193 53% 25% 22%

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Table 7. Conservation status of habitats and species of Community interest a) (YPEHODE, 2008)

Conservation status Habitats Flora species Fauna species Total Share (%)(number)

Favourable 49 5 25 79 24.4Inadequate 26 19 26 71 22.0Bad 7 2 13 22 6.8Unknown 3 32 117 152 47.0

a) EU Habitat Directive

Table 8. Protected areas, 2007 (YPEHODE, 2008)

Yeara Competent Authority Sites Surface area

(km 2 ) (%)b

National forest parks (inland) 1938 YAAT 10 689c 0.6Aesthetic forests 1973 YAAT 19 325 0.2

Protected forests 2006 Regional Authorities 1 417.42 0.4

Natural monuments 1975 YAAT 51d 167 0.1Landscapes of natural beauty 1950 YPEHODE & YP 507 .. ..Controlled hunting areas 1975 YAAT 7 1 028.12 0.8Game reservese 1979 YAAT - - -Game breeding stations 1976 YAAT 21 36.03 ..Zones of urban controlf 1989 YPEHODE 12 63.82 ..Nature reservesg 2006 YPEHODE 1 1.63 -National marine parksg 1992 YPEHODE 2 2 259.46h 0.1National parksg 2004 YPEHODE   7 542.80 5.6Eco-development areasg 2003 YPEHODE 1 418.29 0.3

Wildlife refuges 1998 Regional Authorities 606 1 0280.57 7.79

a)   Year of establishment of the first area in the category.b)   % of total land area; some protected areas overlap.c)   Including 343 km2 of peripheral zones.d)   15 areas and 36 historic trees or coppices.e)   The category “game reserves” has been replaced by the category “wildlife refuges”.f)    Including areas designated as Strict Nature Reserves and Nature Reserves.g)   Including peripheral zones.h)   The boundaries of the marine parks were redefined in 2003.

Table 9. Protected areas under international agreementsa, 2007 (YPEHODE, 2008)

  Sites (number) Area of sites (km2)  International agreement

SPAab 9 2 601.76 Barcelona ConventionBiogenetic reserves 16 222.60 Council of EuropeWorld heritage 2c 340.75 Paris ConventionBiosphere reserves 2 90 UNESCOEuropean diploma 1 51 Council of EuropeWetlands 10 1 687 Ramsar Convention

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a) Excludes SPAs and SCIs under EU Directivesb) Specially Protected Areas of the Barcelona Convention SPA and Biodiversity Protocolc) Including Mount Athos

Table 10. Main threats affecting avian species assessed in 2009 (Handrinos et al., 2009)

Threats Number of speciesHabitat degradation/Loss 51Pollution, pesticides, poisoning 38Disturbance (e.g. hunting) 32Hunting, persecution, trapping 28Small population/Limited distribution 14Lack/limited food resources 12Natural disasters 4Other (e.g. competition) 4Hybridisation 2Unknown/Undetermined 14

Table 11. List of the 100 Worst Invasive Alien Species recorded in the terrestrial environment of

Greece (DAISIE database, 2008)

Primary Producers Invertebrates VertebratesAilanthus altissima Aphis gossypii Lithobates catesbeianusCarpobrotus edulis Bemisia tabaci Myocastor coypusOpuntia ficus-indica Cameraria ohridella Psittacula krameriOxalis pescaprae Frankliniella occidentalis Rattus norvegicusPaspalum paspaloides Harmonia axyridis Trachemys scriptaRobinia pseudoacacia Leptinotarsa decemlineata    Liriomyza huidobrensis  

Table 12. List of the 60 worst aquatic invasive alien species recorded in Greece, 2009

Aquatic Marine Aquatic InlandPrimary Producers Invertebrates Vertebrates Primary

Producers Invertebrates Vertebrates

Alexandrium taylori

Amphistegina lobifera

Fistularia commersonii

Azolla filiculoides

Anguillicola crassus

Carassius gibbelio

Asparagopsis armata

Brachidontes pharaonis

Lagocephalus sceleratus

Ludwigia peploides montevidensis

Anodonta woodiana

Cyprinus carpio carpio

Asparagopsis taxiformis

Branchiomma luctuosum

Liza hematoheila*   Aphanomyces

astaciGambusia holbrooki

Caulerpa racemosa

Bursatella leachii

Micropterus salmoides*   Dreissena

polymorphaLepomis gibbosus

Codium fragile Callinectes sapidus

Saurida undosquamis   Pacifastacus

leniusculusLithobates catesbeianus

Colpomenia peregrina

Crassostrea gigas

Scomberomorus commerson   Potamopyrgus

antipodarumLiza haematocheila*

Halophila stipulacea

Crepidula fornicata Seriola fasciata     Micropterus

salmoides*

Ostreopsis ovata Ficopomatus enigmaticus Siganus luridus     Myocastor

coypusPhaeocystis pouchettii

Hydroides dianthus

Siganus rivulatus     Oncorhynchus

mykiss

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Stypopodium schimperi

Hydroides elegans

Sphoeroides pachygaster     Ondatra

zibethicusWomersleyella setacea

Marsupenaeus japonicus       Pseudorasbora

parva

  Mnemiopsis leidyi       Salmo salar

  Percnon gibbesi       Salvelinus fontinalis

  Petricola pholadiformis       Trachemys

scripta  Pinctada radiata        

  Portunus pelagicus        

  Rapana venosa        

  Rhopilema nomadica        

  Spirorbis marioni        

* Liza haematocheila and Micropterus salmoides can be found both in aquatic marine and aquatic inland environment.

Table 13. Change (%) in nutrient loads between 1995 and 2007, in selected Hellenic coastal waters

AREA/PARAMETER Psittalia Inner

Saronikos Elefsis Bay Thessaloniki Bay

Thermaikos Gulf

Nitrate 25.9 % decrease 41.4 % increase 52.0 % increase 24.8 % decrease 7.53 % increasePhosphate 13.5 % decrease 23.4 % decrease 56.3 % decrease 53.1 % decrease 31.1 % decreaseAmmonium 2.17 % decrease 50.7 % decrease 5.12 % decrease 75.3 % decrease 56.3 % decreaseDIN:P 18.7 % increase 14.2 % increase 149 % increase 20.2 % decrease 46.6 % decrease

Table 14.  Legislative framework for nature conservation, 1998-2007

Act number and year Act title/subjectLaw 2637/1998 Establishment of the Certification Account Organisation and of wildlife refugesJMD 33318/3028/1998 EU Habitat Directive (92/43/EC)

Law 2719/1999 International convention of the conservation of migratory species of wild fauna and other regulations

Law 2742/1999 Spatial planning and sustainable development and other regulations (including management bodies)

Law 2902/2001 Memorandum of understanding between the Hellenic Republic and the Republic of Turkey concerning the cooperation for the protection of the environment

Law 2971/2001 Sea shore legislation and other regulations

Law 3010/2002Harmonisation of the Law No 1650/86 according to EU directives 97/11/EC and 96/61/EC, and other regulations (including Environmental Impact Assessment for natural areas)

Law 3022/2002Amendments to the 1970 Barcelona Convention for the protection of the Mediterranean Sea against pollution and to its 1980 protocol on pollution from of land-based sources

Law 3026/2002 Modification of the Article XXI of the Convention for the International Trade of species of flora and fauna that are threatened by extinction (CITES)

Law 3044/2002 Establishment of 25 management bodies of protected areas

Law 3071/2002Implementation of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea provisions concerning the conservation and management of straddling fish stocks and highly migrating fish stocks

JMD 11642/1943/2002 EU Directive 2001/18/EC on the release of genetically modified organisms into

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the environment

Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC)Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EC)

The Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC) requires achieving the effective protection of aquatic ecosystems and high quality standards for surface waters, including coastal and transitional waters, by 2015. The main requirement of the Marine Strategy Framework Directive (2008/56/EK) is the achievement of Good Environmental Status in the marine area by 2020.

Law 3165/2003 International Convention on phytogenetic resources for food and agriculture

Law 3208/2003 Protection of the forests ecosystems and compilation of forest cadastre, regulation of holding rights on forests and forest areas

Law 3233/2004 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety in the Convention on Biological DiversityJMD 38639/2017/2005 EU Directive 1998/81/EC on the use of genetically modified micro-organismsLaw 3495/2006 International plant protection convention – new revised textLaw 3568/2007 International Convention on the regulation of whaling and its protocolLaw 3585/2007 Environmental protection, agricultural security and other regulations

Law 3598/2007 Agreement on the privileges and immunities of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea

Law 3497/2007 Protocol concerning cooperation in preventing pollution from ships and, in cases of emergency, combating pollution of the Mediterranean Sea

JMD Η.Π. 14849/853 /Ε 103/2008

Update of the transposition of the Habitats Directive. 

JMD: Joint Ministerial Decision.

Figure 1. Red list index (RLI) for avian species survival in Greece in 1992 and 2009. (RLI1992=0.64,

RLI2009=0.68. The smaller the RLI, the greater the number of Greek avian species with an increased

extinction risk (Handrinos et al., 2009))

 

Figure 2. Cumulative number of alien species established in the terrestrial environment, Greece, 2008

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Figure 3. Cumulative number of alien species established in the marine environment, Greece, 2008

Figure 4. Cumulative number of alien species established in inland freshwaters, Greece, 2008

Figure 5. Marine Trophic Index of Hellenic Seas, 1950 - 2004

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Figure 6. Growth of nationally designated protected areas in Greece (cumulative area)

Figure 7. Relative contribution of land-cover categories in Greece taken by urban and other artificial

land development, 1990 – 2000

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Figure 8. Ecological quality of coastal waters based on seasonal (winter and summer) concentrations

of PO4, NO3 and NH4 (Pavlidou et al., 2005)

Unpolluted: <0.07 μΜ phosphate; <0.62 μM for nitrate and <0.55 μM for ammonium;

 Low Polluted:     0.07-0.14 μM for phosphate; 0.62-0.65 μM for nitrate and 0.55-1.05 μM for ammonium;

 Moderately Polluted: 0.14-0.68 μM for phosphate; 0.65-1.09 μM for nitrate and 1.05-2.2 μM for ammonium;

 Highly Polluted: >0.68 μM for phosphate; >1.19 for nitrate and > 2.20 for ammonium.

Figure 9. Mean Integrated values of phoshate in Hellenic coastal waters, 1995 and 2007

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Figure 10. Mean Integrated values of nitrate in Hellenic coastal waters, 1995 and 2007

Figure 11. Mean integrated values of ammonium in coastal areas of Greece, 1995 and 2007

Figure 12. Mean Integrated values of DIN:P ratios in Hellenic coastal waters, 1995 and 2007

References

Grant Agreement Reference Number: 2013-1-LT1-ERA10-09449

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