Documentary Commissioning Package (DCP): Initial Research. 5/10/16

Primate Archaeology;

‘The Planet of the Apes’ has begun! Primates other than humans (for reference all future uses of the word primate or primates will exclude humans to save confusion) are using basic stone tools and have been for potentially hundreds of thousands of years if not millions.

The stone tools that primate species are using are similar to the very oldest human tools discovered. The ‘Lomekwian’ stone tools were discovered in 2015 in Kenya, they consist of miniature stone blades blunted on one side and sharp on the other potentially being used for projectiles. They date back 3.3 million years which was 700,000 years older than the previously oldest known ‘human’ tools. The tools previously thought to be the oldest date from 2.6 million years ago and are known as ‘Oldowan’ tools, due to their place of discovery Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania, these tools can be classified primarily focusing on the manufacture rather than the usage of the tools as this can invariably lead to incorrect assumptions. A way of classifying ‘Oldowan’ tools is the ‘tri-model categories’ approach:

"Flaked Pieces" (cores/ choppers), "Detached Pieces" (flakes and fragments), "Pounded Pieces" (cobbles utilized as hammerstones, etc.) and "Unmodified Pieces"

(manuports, stones transported to sites)”

We need to understand the differences between the ‘Lomekwian’ tools and the ‘Oldowan’ tools in order to understand a fundamental of primate archaeology. A sizable change in technique and sophistication can be found in the 700,000 years that separate the ‘Lomekwian’ and the ‘Oldowan’ tools, but primates have never progressed past the ‘Lomekwian’ style of tools. Even if they have not had 700,000 years to develop their methods one would expect some sort of development in their use of stone tools, but no such development has occurred.

This documentary will ask the question, why has no change occurred in the way that modern primates use tools, whilst focusing on which primates use tools and how they use them.

Figure 1 - Lomekwian Tools

Figure 2 - Oldowan 'Chopper'

It would appear that only three species of primates use stone tools and in three distinct areas. Black-Striped Capuchins (BSC) in swathes of the Amazon, Western Chimpanzees (WC) in West Africa, and Crab-eating Macaques (CEM) (also known as long tailed macaques) which live on islands in south east Asia. It is worth noting the conservation status of each of these primates for future reference. The Black-striped capuchin is of ‘least concern’, Western chimpanzees are critically endangered, and the Crab-eating macaques is of ‘least concern’.

The location of each species adds another layer of intrigue and interest to the subject which is not visible upon first viewing. To have three different species in three different continents and different habitats. All three species live in rainforests but have different diets and different ways of using stone tools due to both physical capabilities and environmental restrictions.

It now is only right to give an overview of how each species uses stone tools for their own needs;

BSC

The BSC uses anvils and stone pounding tools in order to primarily crack nuts which are abundant in the Amazon. The anvils used by the BSC are large flat rocks loose on the ground or upon rock outcrops, boulders, or even logs collectively called anvils. These anvils can be identified by:

“Numerous shallow depressions on the surface… and the presence of loose stones of an appropriate size to pound a nut…” – research article: Wild Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus

Libidinosus) Use Anvils and Stone Pounding Tools.

Some of the stones used to crack nuts weighed up to 1kg which is surprising for a monkey that can weigh as little as 4kg. The amount of material and depressions found around and on the anvils indicates that this practice is not only common place but it has been going on for some time. The stones that are used to crack the nuts are even more intriguing as they are only found around the anvil sites and must

have been transported by the monkeys. The stones will usually come from nearby rivers. But the fact that the BSC purposefully takes these stones from the river to an anvil shows an intelligence rarely found in the animal kingdom. The reasoning behind why the BSC use tools in this way could be to do with the abundance of anvils and the limitations of alternative food sources meaning that they have had to develop a way of exploiting an important food source which can be difficult to obtain.

WC

The WC is probably the most interesting of all three stone wielding species as certain troupes have developed tools with which to hunt other mammals, a trait which was thought only applicable to humans. Also some have used caves as homes, shared plant foods, travel/hunt at night, submerge themselves in water and even play in it. Several troupes live not in the trees as most chimps do, but rather spending much of their day on the ground in savannah habitats. This could explain their use of tools, through necessity much like the BSC. Amongst the tools that they use is a very primitive spear with which they use to hunt mammals, an example of which can be seen in the above picture. The spear is a branch with a partially sharpened end that the chimp uses to ‘poke’ at mammals that hide in holes in trees such as bush babies.

Their use of stone tools however is very similar to that of the BSC but with, what some

would call, more sophistication. They, usually, use the right hand to hold the nut steady on an anvil and then the left holds the stone that is used to smash open the nut, rather reminiscent of hammering in a nail.

They have even been reported to have extremely good dexterity, using the back of their right hand to sweep away the remains of the previous nut before placing another on the anvil.

CEM

The CEM that live in the rainforests of south east Asia suffer from a misnomer. Typically, they do not consume crabs, the biggest proportion of their diet is made up of fruits and seeds. It is the CEM of Thailand and Myanmar who are most famed for using stone tools to not only open nuts but also oysters, other bivalves, and many species of sea snail. Generally, the environment that the stone wielding monkeys find themselves in is rich with both anvils and hammers. They use large rocks to smash down on their chosen meal in a similar way to the other two species.

The CEM have also developed ways of washing and rubbing their food either by soaking them in water or by rubbing them through their hands potentially to clean them. They also peal sweet potatoes with their teeth. It is apparent that many younger members of the species learn these techniques by observation.

It is obvious that each of the species has entered the stone age but through the study of tools both past and present we can start to identify the changes and developments that these species have gone through as well as potentially making assumptions about future developments. The field of primate

archaeology is still in its infancy but it is an exciting and unique field. To study something so different from yourself and how they learn adapt and grow as a collective and individuals is unfathomably fascinating which is why I feel that this documentary should be made.

Not much research has been done in this area, however there are enough experts and articles as well as continual research that is taking place that will inform and continue to inform us as to when primates started using stone tools and what makes them use such ingenious methods. It is clear though that because of human domination of much of the world it may be unlikely that primates may develop techniques and tools that rival those of early homo sapiens, due to shrinking environment, not being able to control fire, but also because their brains have developed in such a way as to not lend themselves to the development of further technologies. We are very different to other primate species. We are separated from the Macaques by around 25 million years of evolution, and from the Capuchins by around 35 million years. So we have to be realistic, it is not possible for any of the three species described above to develop technology rivalling our own, no matter how many years they are given as is evidenced by the preliminary research into the development, or rather lack of, of their tools. However, we can still learn so much from this study and the endeavour shall be fruitful.

Prominent names in the field:

- Michael Haslam, University of Oxford, leader of Primate Archaeology project

- Christophe Boesch, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig

- Sergio Almécija, George Washington University, Washington DC (study on development of human and chimpanzee hands)

Useful articles/studies:

4,300-Year-old chimpanzee sites and the origins of percussive stone technology - http://www.pnas.org/content/104/9/3043

Wild Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus Libidinosus) Use Anvils and Stone Pounding Tools - http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajp.20085/epdf

There Is More than One Way to Crack an Oyster: Identifying Variation in Burmese Long-Tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis aurea) Stone-Tool Use - http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0124733

World’s oldest stone tools discovered in Kenya - http://www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/04/world-s-oldest-stone-tools-discovered-kenya

Chimpanzees and monkeys have entered the stone age – http://www.bbc.co.uk/earth/story/20150818-chimps-living-in-the-stone-age

Useful Books

Chimpanzee Cultures by Richard W. Wrangham & W. C. McGrew, 1996.