CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Digital usually refers to something using digits, particularly binary digits.

(Wikipedia, 2018). There is pressing need for dentistry to move to the level of

using digital devices or equipment’s to carry our oral health care services both in

clinical procedures and laboratory procedures.

Digital transformation is not necessarily about digital technology, but about the

fact that technology, which is digital, allows people to solve their traditional

problems. And the prefer this digital solution to the old solution. (Dado et al.,

2014). In that case the introduction of the Digital art waxer with bursen burner

can help to eradicate the conventional ways of wax pattern making during

appliance or a prosthetic restoration in other to achieve a well-fitting prosthesis.

The transformation stage means that digital usages inherently enable new types

of innovation and creativity in a particular domain, rather than simply enhance

and support traditional methods. (Michele et al., 2008). In a narrow sense, “digital

transformation” may refer to the concept of “going paperless”, and reaching a

“digital business maturity” (Heinze et al., 2018). This affects both individual

businesses (Keyur & Mary, 2000). And whole segments of society, such as

government, mass communications, art, medicine and science (Baker, 2014).

The use of dental technologies or devices that incorporates digital or computer-

controlled components to carry out dental procedures rather than using

mechanical or electrical tools is paramount to a successful dental restoration. The

use of digital dentistry can make carrying out dental procedures more efficient

than using mechanical tools, both for restorative as diagnostic purposes.

'Godfather' of Digital Dentistry is the French professor François Duret, who

invented dental CAD/CAM in 1973. (Wikipedia, 2018). Some of the technologies

used in digital dentistry include but not limited to;

CAD/CAM and intraoral imaging both laboratory and clinician’s controlled.

Photogrammetry based intraoral scanning (software driven)

3D printing of the digital images taken with intraoral scanner

Caries diagnosis

Computer aided implant dentistry, including design and fabrication of surgical

guides

Electric and surgical/implant hand pieces

Digital radiography- intraoral and extra oral, including cone beam computed

tomography (CBSCT)

Occlusion and TMJ analysis and diagnosis

Photography –extra oral and intraoral

Practice and patient records management –including digital patient education.

Shade matching

3D printing to make appliance, temporaries and surgical guides

Diagnodent

Dental lasers

The wand –used to carry anesthesia

A digital art waxing device (digital wax carving pencil) is an electrically driven

device that is designed to carve and mold a variety of waxes used in the dental

laboratory. The digital art waxing device has variety of wax carving and adding tips

and easy temperature control which allows for precise waxing work. (Michelle,

2014).

A Bunsen burner is a common piece of laboratory equipment that produces a

single open gas flame, which is used for heating, sterilization and combustion

(Wikipedia, 2018). The gas can be natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas, such as

propane, butane or a mixture of both. While the Bunsen burner is driven by gas,

the Bunsen burner attached to this digital art waxing device is electrically driven

to generate heat, thus it can be called an electrical Bunsen burner. Electrical

Bunsen burner combines the advantages of a regular gas burner with the clean

easy operation of the Electro mantles.

This electric Bunsen burner uses radiation to bring about heat transfer. The heater

directs radiation upwards to a focal point. This attached electrical Bunsen burner

is ideal for flaming modeling wax, heating dental hand pieces and instruments.

The heat generated from the heater is controlled by the control panel of the

digital art waxing machine since it is attached to it.

The digital art waxing machine with attached Bunsen burner will foster better

appreciation and practice of digital dental technology in the practice of digital

dentistry.

1.1 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

There is an increasing need to enlighten the dental professionals on the use of

advanced techniques in manipulating wax from a digital regulated heat source in

other to make precised and accurate wax patterns. The Introduction of a digital

art waxer and perhaps a Digital/ electrical bursen burner will help the dental

world to fabricate a well-fitting prosthesis. In some cases, dental professionals or

dental technologist have had cancers as a result of the inhalation of carbons and

gases using the various conventional sources of heat to make wax patterns in the

course of their work practice. In other to prevent the rate of dental professionals

suffering from these problems there is need for the invention and production of

the digital art waxing devices in the country. This will help reduce the cost of

importation of these devices which some professionals are not even able to

afford. Static and dynamic occlusal interferences frequently need to be corrected

by selective grinding of the occlusal surface of conventional cast, porcelain fused

to metal and all-ceramic restorations. Proper dimensional contours and occlusal

morphologies of these restorations is an important consideration in overall

success of the case. There are cases that some prosthesis was not properly fitted

in the patient mouth as a result of occlusal morphology discrepancies, and with

the use of the digital art waxer for wax pattern designs accurate morphology can

be achieved.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVES

The main aim of this project is the design and fabrication of a digital art waxer and

Bunsen burner.

The specific objectives are:

1. To eliminate carbon found on wax patterns prior to fabrication of

appliances.

2. To reduce the rate at which bursen burners are imported.

3. To help facilitate wax pattern making and achieve accurate occlusal

morphologies.

4. To reduce the exposure of dental professionals to gases using the

conventional ways of wax construction in the dental laboratory.

1.3 RESEARCH QUESTIONS

How can this device be used in the fabrication of prostheses in the dental

laboratory?

How can effective wax manipulation be achieved better with respect to the

device?

Will this device guarantee successful fabrication of dental prosthesis?

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This work covers every aspect of a digital art waxer construction, fabrication and

digital Bunsen burner production using stainless steel,

1.5 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

Despite the efforts made in making this work easy, a lot of challenges were

encountered in the course of carrying out this work.

The challenges are;

Financial constraints: The needed capital to get the apparatus and the materials

needed for the design was huge and not raised on time.

Unavailability of materials: some of the materials were not found in the market

and how to be imported from foreign companies which delayed the work and also

increased cost.

Malfunctioning apparatus: In the course of the fabrication of the device, most of

the equipment’s and materials got faulty and this lead to the yield of improper

output.

1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY

This study will significantly enlighten dental professionals on how important

a digital art waxer and Bunsen burner can help in effective wax manipulation in

the success of a dental prostheses. It will also provide and foster in-depth

knowledge on digital dental technology in the dental practice.

1.7 DEFINITION OF TERMS

DENTAL: This means pertaining or relating to the teeth in the oral cavity (Eyarefe

and Ugwuda, 2015).

FABRICATION: This is the process of creating a new material from existing

substances. It involves utilization of materials, tools and equipment to obtain a

target appliance (Eyarefe and Ugwuda, 2015).

LABORATORY: A place equipped and used for experimental study, research,

analysis, test or preparations in any branch of science.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK

2.1 PRODUCTION THEORY

Production is basically an activity of transformation, which connects factor inputs

and outputs (Mishra 2014). Production makes use of resources to make provision

of service that is suitable for use, exchange in a market exchange economy. This

can include manufacturing, construction and packaging.

Some economists define production broadly as all economic activity other than

consumption. They see every commercial activity other than the final purchase as

some form of production.

Production is the process that combines various material and immaterial inputs

(plans, technical know-how) to make something for consumption (output) that

has value and contributes to the utility of an individual or group of people. This

imbibes personality trait. Coon (2004) defines personality traits as “stable

qualities that a person shows in most situations”. To the trait theorists there are

enduring inborn qualities or potentials of the individual that naturally make him

an entrepreneur.

The amounts of the various inputs used determine the quantity of output. In

relation to this study, the fabrication of these digital art waxer and Bunsen burner

has brought fort an impact in which it will be used to improve knowledge and

reduce cost for dental professionals all over Nigeria and also will improve accurate

reproduction of occlusal surfaces prior to crown and bridges construction.

Production is a process, because it is a flow concept, it is measured as a “rate of

output per period of time”.

There are three aspects to production processes:

1. The quantity of the good or service produced

2. The form of the good or service created

3. The temporal and spatial distribution of the good or service produced.

Economic study of production aims at finding an optimum between benefits and

expenditures of manufacture.

Basic concepts of production theory: classifications of Inputs include;

i. Labor

ii. Capital

iii. Land

iv. Raw materials

v. Time

These variables are measured per unit of time and hence referred to as flow

variables.

An input is a good or service that goes into the production process. As economists

refer to it, an input is simply anything which a firm buy for use in its Production.

This implies that in our study different raw materials which severed as an input

was bought in other to be used for the design and production processes which

includes example.

1. At mega 250

2. Micrometer wire

3. Seven-digit display

4. Thermocouple

5. Amplifiers

6. Stainless steel

7. Acrylic casing

An output, on the other hand, is any good or service that comes out of a

production Process. The successful fabrication of the Digital art waxer and Bunsen

burner was our successful output result within the study.

2.2 ENTREPRENUAL THEORY

According to Becker (1975), education and experience are the two factors

underlying the human capital entrepreneurship theory. The knowledge gained

from education and experience represents a resource that is heterogeneously

distributed across individuals and in effect central to understanding differences in

opportunity identification and exploitation (Anderson & Miller, 2003, Chandler &

Hanks, 1998, Gartner et al, 2005, Shane & Venkataraman, 2000).

Entrepreneurship is therefore the act of bringing into innovation a business idea

and strategies to generate profit (Nicole, 2017). It involves effecting social change

to bring about a new life changing solution. Entrepreneurship is an important

factor of growth in the economy. An entrepreneur puts together a business and

accepts the associated risk to make profit.

Murphy, Liao & Welsch (2006) contend that the movement offered a logic

dynamic reality. In explaining this, they point to the fact that knowledge is

communicated throughout a market system (e.g. via price information),

innovation transpires, entrepreneurs satisfy market needs, and system-level

change occurs. If an entrepreneur knows how to create new goods or services, or

knows a better way to do so, benefits can be reaped through this knowledge.

Entrepreneurs effectuate knowledge when they believe it will procure some

individually-defined benefits.

Entrepreneurship closes the gap between the inventors and the consumers.

However, scientists are known as inventors whose inventions have economic

values that need to be commercialized lying within the realm of

entrepreneurship.

Entrepreneurship is also sometimes considered a factor of production combine

with the other factors: land, labor, and capital (Sullivan et al, 2003).

Through the successful local fabrication of a digital art waxer that can be used to

improve the efficiency of wax manipulation in the dental laboratory for all dental

professionals, entrepreneurship could be encouraged. Furthermore, the cost of

treatment for patients can be reduced, the rate at which m gas burners are

purchased are been reduced and then this device is promoted and patronized by

all professionals.

2.3 THEORY OF HEAT

Energy is one of the most important factors to global prosperity in which its

importance cannot be over emphasized ranging from domestic purposes (heat

energy for cooking food and heating water), for industrial use (for heating

furnaces and running electric motors) and for transport purposes which run on

fuel. It is also important because it is the cornerstone of economic and social

development (Elsaeidy, 2004).

(Maxwell, 1872) stated that the distinction between hot bodies and cold ones is

familiar to all, and is associated in our minds with the difference of the sensations

which we experience in touching various substances, according as they are hot or

cold. The intensity of these sensations is susceptible of degrees, so that we may

estimate one body to be hotter or colder than another by the touch

There are many different forms of energy – heat, light, sound, electrical, kinetic,

potential. All of these forms of energy have the ability to do work. One form of

energy may be transformed into another. For example; potential (stored

chemical) energy is converted to heat energy during combustion. Kinetic energy

(as a result of friction) and electrical energy may also be converted to heat. It is

not possible to measure heat directly, Heat is a measure of the total kinetic

energy of the atoms or molecules in a body. Because heat is a form of energy the

units it is measured in are Joules (J) or kilo Joules (kJ). The heat content of a body

will depend on its temperature, its mass, and the material it is made of. What we

experience as heat is simply the kinetic energy of the great numbers of the

particles motion, as we know, this great numbers of the particles motion now is

called as thermal motion (Maxwell, 1872).

However, in thermodynamics, heat only denotes heat exchange or a form of

energy transfer between different temperatures, we don’t know which state

function can denote the energy of thermal motion because the concept of the

heat energy is ill-defined, the major reason for this issue is that the equation of

the first law is an equation of energy exchange

Transmission of Heat: Heat may be transferred from one place to another in three

ways:

1. conduction

2. convection

3. radiation

Often a combination of all four processes takes place at the same time, especially

in a fire situation. If we wish to contain heat, then these processes must be

prevented.

Conduction: conduction is most obvious in solids. All liquids (except mercury) and

gases are very poor conductors of heat. When a solid heat up, its particles gain

kinetic energy and increase the energy with which they vibrate. Conduction

occurs when heat energy travels through a body, passing from particle to particle

as they vibrate against each other. A good conductor must have particles which

are close enough together to collide with sufficient force for energy to be

transferred. Metals are all good conductors of heat especially copper, aluminum

and silver, because they have “free” electrons which are easily able to transfer

heat energy. the energy

Convection: Convection is the transfer of heat by the movement of the heated

particles themselves. This can only take place in liquids and gases because in

solids the particles are not able to move from their fixed positions. When a liquid

or gas is heated, it expands and becomes less dense. The lighter liquid or gas rises

allowing a flow of cooler material to take its place. This in turn becomes heated

and so a current is set up. Heat will continue to be transferred through the

available space in this way until it is evenly distributed conversion has not been

explicitly considered in this fundamental equation (Feynman, 1963).

Radiation: Radiation is the way we receive heat energy from the sun. It does not

require a medium for its transmission (i.e. it can travel through empty space) and

is in the form of electromagnetic energy waves which travel in the same way as

light or radio waves. When these energy waves fall on a body, the energy may be

absorbed, transmitted or reflected.

When radiant energy is absorbed the body will rise in temperature. A rack of

clothes left in front of a radiant heater will continue to absorb heat until it reaches

ignition temperature. Black and dull surfaces absorb (and radiate) heat much

more efficiently than white shiny surface The amount of heat energy received

decreases with the square of the distance from a radiant source, for example, if

an object is moved to twice the distance from a source, it will only receive a

quarter of the heat energy it would have received at the original distance. Radiant

energy is transmitted through clear materials such as glass. The glass does not

heat up. Radiant heat from the sun may be concentrated by means of a

magnifying glass, sufficient to ignite flammable material. Shiny, silver surfaces will

reflect radiant energy and not heat up. This is the reason for the silver coating on

a fire-fighter’s jacket.

Usually heat is transferred by each of these processes at the same time. It is the

fire-fighter's task to prevent this transfer taking place, if possible.

Therefore, the knowledge of the theories of heat energy and its application/ use

in wax pattern making is paramount in Dental technology prior to any denture,

crowns, bridges, skeletal plates fabrication is being carried out. Since the use of

acrylic resin as a denture base material in the fabrication of dentures, wax pattern

making is inevitable during heat cure denture fabrication process.

2.4 THEORY OF TEMPERATURE

Temperature is not the same as heat, Temperature measures the degree of

hotness of a body (“how hot”). It doesn’t depend on the mass or the material of

an object. It can be thought of as a measure of the average kinetic energy of the

atoms or molecules in a body. As the temperature decreases, the kinetic energy

of the particles will decrease. At some point the kinetic energy of the particles

will reach zero. The temperature at which this would occur is known as “absolute

zero”. Temperature is measured using a variety of temperature scales. The most

commonly used are described in the next two sections. The Celsius Scale (°C) This

scale puts the freezing point of water at 0oC and the boiling point of water at 100 oC. The temperatures in between are divided up into 100 units (degrees).

The disadvantages of this scale are:

There may be temperatures below 0oC. The pressures and volumes of gases do

not change in proportion to Celsius temperature. The Kelvin Scale (K)

This scale has absolute zero as the zero point on its scale. The size of the degree

is the same as a Celsius degree.

Advantages:

• There are no negative temperatures

• Pressures and volumes of gases will change in proportion to Kelvin temperature.

Absolute zero is 273 degrees below OoC. To convert from Celsius degrees to

Kelvin degrees: add 273. To convert from Kelvin degrees to Celsius degrees:

subtract 273. For example:

K 0 273 373 oC -273 0 100 There are many different types of thermometer used

for measuring temperature e.g. mercury, alcohol, bi-metallic strip, thermocouple,

electrical resistance, brightness thermometer etc.,

Temperature is an important theory in the design and fabrication a digital art

waxer with electrical burners because in depth knowledge will guide the dental

professional on how to manage this device.

2.5 THEORY OF WAXES

Waxes are esters of fatty acids with high alcohol usually monohydric alcohol. They

are thermoplastic substances of low mean molecular weight with low mechanical

strength capable of being softened on application of heat. (Eyarefe, 2013). They

deform easily when subjected to high temperature because of their amorphous

nature. But become plastic on removal from the source of heat. Waxes can be

natural secretions of plants or animals, artificially produced by purification from

natural petroleum or completely synthetic. In addition to beeswax, carnauba (a

plant epicuticle wax) and paraffin (a petroleum wax) are commonly encountered

waxes which occur naturally. Earwax is an oily substance found in the human ear.

Some artificial materials such as silicone wax that exhibit similar also described as

wax or waxy. (Eyarefe, 2013).

2.5.1 PROPERTIES OF WAXES

The knowledge of the properties of waxes is very paramount in the practice of

dentistry. This is because in depth knowledge on these properties will help a

dental professional know how to manipulate waxes with the Digital art waxer and

Bunsen burner prior to prosthetic fabrication. These properties Include;

Melting range: Waxes have melting range rather than melting points. Mixing of

waxes may change their melting range. Melting range varies depending on its use.

Thermal expansion: Waxes expand when subjected to a rise in temperature and

contract as the temperature is decreased. Dental waxes and their components

have the largest coefficient of thermal expansion among the materials used in

restorative dentistry. Temperature changes in wax patterns after removal from

the mouth can produce inaccuracies in the finished restoration.

Flow: flow is an important property especially in inlay waxes. When melted the

wax should flow readily into all the parts of the die. Flow is dependent on:

Temperature of the wax; this is dependent on the source of heat that is why the

Digital art waxer will help give out accurate and regulated temperature of heat

that will make the wax flow effectively.

Force applied; this is dependent on the professional making the wax pattern. in

that case good manual dexterity of using the device is very important for

accuracy.

The length of time the force is applied; it still goes down to the manual dexterity

of the professional using the device.

Mechanical properties

Residual stress

Ductility

2.6 WAX MANIPULATION

Wax manipulation refers to the ability to create into or have a physical body made

up of wax (Wikipedia, 2018)

METHODS OF WAX PATTERN MANIPULATION

There are two methods involve in wax pattern fabrication, and they include;

Direct method: This is a method of wax pattern fabrication in which the wax

pattern is waxed on the prepared tooth in the mouth.

Indirect method: This is a method of wax pattern fabrication in which the wax

pattern is waxed on a cast model from an accurate impression of the prepared

tooth or mouth.

2.6.1 IDEAL REQUIREMENTS OF A WAX TO ENHANCE EFFECTIVE WAX

MANIPULATION

i. It must flow readily when heated without chipping, flaking, or losing its

smoothness.

ii. It must be able to closely adapt to the surface it is being adapted onto.

iii. The wax must be rigid at a cool state.

iv. The wax should be uniform when softened.

v. The wax must be able to be carved in right precision without chipping,

distortin2.5g, or smearing.

vi. It should have good cohesion, but should not adhere to the cavity.

vii. The wax should be made of different color that differs from the color of the

cast model to distinguish between the wax and the cast model.

viii. It should be hard at oral temperature, but remain plastic at temperature

slightly above oral temperature.

2.6.2EFFECTIVE WAX MANIPULATION IN WAX PATTERN APPLIANCE

FABRICATION

The success of any appliance construction that goes through the wax pattern

process depends on a large extent on efficient and effective manipulation of the

wax to obtain the wax pattern. To achieve effective wax manipulation, the dental

technologist must have the knowledge of four basic factors, and they include;

i. A clear design of the intended prosthesis.

ii. The knowledge of the effect of temperature on wax.

iii. Instrument exposure and handling.

iv. Manual dexterity.

2.7A CLEAR DESIGN OF THE INTENDED PROSTHESIS

Every dental prosthesis which is to be fabricated in the dental laboratory must

have a clear design of what the work piece should look like. Design refers to a

plan or drawing produced to show the look and function or workings of an object

before it is made. It is at this design stage that pencil out lines are made to

determine margins and border lines on which the actual prosthesis must not

exceed. Designs helps to act as blueprint of the intended prosthesis.

The dental technologist must have a clear design of the intended prosthesis and

transfer this design onto the working cast using pencil preferably. This clear

design helps to guide the technologist while adapting wax on the working cast

model during wax pattern fabrication.

2.7.1 THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON WAX

To effectively manipulate wax, one must have firsthand knowledge of the effect of

temperature on wax, this knowledge helps the dental technologist to know how

and how long to heat a particular wax to achieve optimum manipulation. To this

effect some thermal parameters are considered and they include;

COEFFECIENT OF THERMAL EXPANSION (CTE)

This is a thermal property of wax that describes how the size of wax changes with

a change in temperature. Specifically it measures the fractional change in size per

degree change in temperature at a constant pressure. (Wikipedia, 2018)

Thermal expansion: This is the tendency of matter to change in volume in

response to change in temperature, through heat transfer.

Linear coefficient of expansion: This refers to change in length per unit of the

original length of a material when its temperature is raised by 1k.

For most solid materials, the volumetric CTE can be considered to be thrice that of

linear CTE of wax. Waxes have very high CTE, particularly around the melting

range, and very high residual stress. Waxes have the highest CTE as compared to

all other materials used in dentistry. The CTE of a typical wax pattern is 323x10-

6/oc, but that of dental porcelain is twenty times less 14x10-6/oc. Therefore, changes

in temperature can cause a sufficient change in dimension to make the pattern

inaccurate.

Thermal conductivity of wax is low, and sufficient time must be allowed both to

heat them uniformly throughout and to cool them to body or room temperature.

Waxes have solid transition temperature

Solid-solid transition temperature (Tg): This is the temperature at which a sharp

increase in coefficient of thermal expansion occurs indicating increased molecular

mobility.

This is also called softening temperature or glass transition temperature, it is at

this temperature in waxes that transition from a stable crystal lattice

(orthorhombic) to hexagonal forms occurs, which is present below the melting

point of wax, and thus it allows the wax to be manipulated easily without flaking

or tearing. Wax at this stage is softened and not melted. For instance, inlay wax

may be softened over a flame in water at 54-60oc (130-140of) to enable their flow

in the liquid state and adaptation to the prepared tooth or die.

A harder or medium type inlay wax that has low flow property is indicated for use

in warm weather, (Phillip’s science of Dental materials, 11th edition.)

Wax does not melt immediately on heating but passes through several

intermediate states. Eyarefe. (2013) enlisted various stages waxes undergo with

the application of heat; they are solid-plastic-semi plastic-semi liquid-liquid. A

typical wax undergoes these phases of change unlike other homogenous chemical

compounds.

2.7.2 INSTRUMEMENT EXPOSURE AND HANDLING

An instrument is a tool or implement, especially one use for a precised work.

Instruments are specially built or manufactured to carry out a precised work.

Instrument exposure and handling refers to the knowledge about particular

instruments and its mode operation. It entails having a sounding knowledge of

what a particular instrument is made for and how best that instrument can be

used to achieve optimum satisfaction of desired intent.

To achieve effective and efficient wax manipulation the dental technologist must

have instrumental exposure (knowledge) and how best to handle those

instrument to best manipulate wax, during wax pattern fabrication.

2.7.3 SOME HAND INSTRUMENTS USE FOR WAX MANIPULATION IN THE DENTAL

LABORATORY

The instruments use in the dental laboratory for wax manipulation during wax

pattern fabrication can be grouped as follows;

WAX ADDERS: This refers to instruments basically use for adding wax onto a work

piece , they are as follows,

PKT #1(large) – This hand instrument is designed and used to add large amount of

wax to a work piece.

PKT #2 (smaller) – This is a hand instrument designed and used to add small

amount of wax to a work piece.

Wax spatula #7 – This is used to hold small bit of wax over a flame.

Wax is added by heating the in the Bunsen flame, touching it to the wax and

quickly reheating its shank in the flame. Wax flows away from the hottest part of

the instrument, so if the shank is heated a bead of wax will flow off the tip,

however if the tip is heated the wax will flow up the shank of the instrument.

WAX CARVERS: This refers to instrument basically use for shaping and carving

wax into various forms, they are as follows;

1. Half Hollenbeck – This hand instrument is designed and for carving and

shaping the wax.

2. PKT #3 – This is used to perfect and enhance the supplemental grooves and

developmental grooves.

3. Lecron carver – This has a small spoon at one end and a knife at the other,

used for carving and trimming.

4. Discoid cleiod – These instrument are used to incorporate and enhance

concave surface and grooves respectively.

5. PKT #4 – This instrument is designed as an all-purpose carving instrument,

but it is modified to perfect external contours and remove excess wax at the

cavo-surface margins.

6. PKT #5 – This instrument is designed to be used to refine triangular ridges

and occlusal grooves, it helps to remove excess wax as cusp ridge are

developed, it maintains desired convexity at these ridges.

7. Tanner

8. #3 Hollenbeck carver.

WAX SOFTENING INSTRUMENT/EQUIPMENT: This refers to

instruments/equipment’s used in bringing wax to its solid-solid transition

temperature (softening temperature). There are various instrument/ equipment’s

which uses heat in softening wax, and they include;

Bunsen burner – This involves softening of wax over the flames of a Bunsen

burner of gas.

Warm water bath – This involves the softening of wax with warm water in a bath.

Infra-red lamp – This is an equipment that uses an electric current of 250w to

soften wax used in standardization testing of wax. The distance of the wax from

the lamp must be carefully controlled in order to cause softening but not melting.

Wax annealed – This is a thermostatically controlled oven that can be set at

constant temperature, just above softening temperature of wax to soften and

keep the wax in a softened state ready for use. This method of wax softening is

regarded as the ideal method of softening wax. This equipment is most useful for

inlay waxes.

Instrumentation gives the dental technologist enhancement while manipulating

waxes, because with the knowledge of various instrument used to soften wax,

add and carve wax, and how to use these instruments, the dental technologist will

know and have better ways to manipulate wax efficiently and effectively to

achieve optimum desired intent.

2.7.4 IMPORTANCE OF EFFECTIVE WAX MANIPULATION

The importance of effective wax manipulation cannot be over emphasized, to

achieve optimum success during dental prosthesis fabrication, effective

manipulation of wax is paramount and pertinent. Here is some of the importance

of manipulating waxes;

i. Effective wax manipulation engenders no or little trimming and polishing of

a denture after processing.

ii. Effectively manipulated wax pattern serves as a blueprint of what the

intended final restoration would look like.

iii. Effective manipulation of wax helps to enhance efficiency during dental

laboratory practice.

iv. Effective manipulation of wax helps to save time during dental laboratory

appliance fabrication.

v. Effective wax manipulation fosters better appreciation of dental prostheses

fabrication.

vi. Effectively manipulated wax pattern fosters successful appliance fabrication.

2.8 ADVANCEMENT OF WAX MANIPULATION; DIGITAL ART WAXER IN FOCUS

There are several mediums in which heat is produced in the dental laboratory for

wax patterns to be made. And this heat may vary from different conventional way

to another. And the advancement of these heat forms which is used for this

dental wax pattern making is very vital in dental technology in other to achieve a

well neat, smooth and accurate wax patterns.

2.8.1OVERVIEW OF A DIGITAL ART WAXER

According to Whip Mix, all options for the Digital Wax Carving Pencils have built-in

circuitry to accurately maintain desired temperature. The silicone cool-grip handle

reportedly reduces hand fatigue and temperature transfer when in use. Previous

working temperatures can be stored in the memory which is designed to make

carving and waxing more efficient. Other features included are digital

temperature display in either Celsius or Fahrenheit scales, 115V or 230V options,

and a translucent compartment in the rear of the unit to store carving tips (Note:

this feature is not included with the Digital Wax Carving Pencil – dual line). Both

dual-line circuit units reportedly are designed for simultaneous work, minimal

temperature deviation, and include a convenient magnetic cradle on the unit’s

surface where the hot silicone handle is placed so as not to burn the cover tops.

2.8.2 DEFINITION OF DIGITAL ART WAXER

The Digital art waxer is a digital device that is designed to carve and mold a

variety of waxes used in the dentistry. The easy, touch-style temperature control

and variety of carving tips enable precise waxing work.

Fig. 1: Digital art waxer (source: Wikipedia, 2018)

The digital art waxer has various Tips which helps for effective wax manipulation

during wax up and they include the following below.

2.8.3TIPS OF A DIGITAL ART WAXER

1. Offset explorer

2. Pkt 1

3. Pkt 3

4. Hollen back

5. Cleoid carver

6. Discoid carver

7. Large beaver

Fig. 2: Carving tips (Pinterest, 2018)

Some additional tips can be incorporated for effective wax up which includes the

Pk Thomas instruments 4 and 5, small beaver and half (1/2) hollen back.

Fig. 3: Carving tips (Pinterest, 2018)

PKT 1: Itis used for positioning of functional and nonfunctional cusps. The

marginal, cusp and triangular ridges are also added with PKT No. 1

PKT 2: Itis used for eliminating voids remaining on the occlusal surface

PKT 3: Developmental and supplemental grooves are smoothened with this tip

Fig. 4: Waxing technique using PKT instruments (Wikipedia, 2018).

Smoothening of axial surfaces is done with PKT No. 4. and PKT No. 5 is used to

refine the ridges (Dawson, 1974).

Hollenback carver: To contour and carve occlusal and interproximal anatomy in

amalgam restoration. It has sharp stiff metal blade, sharp point; ends are protrude

at different angles; carves other restorative materials.

Discoid-Cleoid Carver: To carve occlusal anatomy into amalgam restorations.

Discoid is disk shaped; cleoid is pointed, sharp.

Half-Hollenbeck Carver: To contour and carve occlusal and interproximal

anatomy in amalgam

restorations Characteristics: Half the size of Hollenbeck; double ended, sharp

stiff metal blade, sharp point; ends are protrude at different angles; carves other

restorative materials.

2.8.4 FEATURES OF A DIGITAL ART WAXER

1. Touch controlled temperature setting.

2. Clearly visible control buttons and indicator LED.

3. Easy to use.

4. Excellent heat conductivity.

5. Long service life.

6. Two-line circuit, designed for simultaneous work.

7. Accurate temperature maintenance with reset function.

8. Built-in digital CPU circuit accurately maintains desired temperature.

9. Digitally displays temperature in either Celsius or Fahrenheit.

10. Previous working temperature is kept in memory, even if the unit has

been turned off.

11. Usable with AC100-240V without additional adjustment.

12. Silicon handle reduces hand fatigue.

13. Convenient magnetic cradle on surface.

14. Translucent compartment in rear of unit for easy storage of carving

tips.

15. Comes complete with six of the most commonly used waxing tips

2.8.5 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS OF A DIGITAL ART WAXER

Plug in unit and press the ON/OFF switch.

Green light appears and a temperature reads in the display window.

After the first use, this number will be the last temperature setting used.

Insert desired tip into the pencil and insert cord into the “OUT” jack.

Set the desired temperature by using the UP/DOWN buttons. Press the M1 or M2

button. LED will blink.

Temperature of the blinking line will be changed.

Press C/F to select either Celsius or Fahrenheit scale (C/F will appear in display

window).

If an error occurs, a buzzer will sound and the window will display ERR. Turn

Power switch off and then back on to reset.

2.8.6 SAFEGUARDS OF THE DIGITAL ART WAXER

Caution: Failure to follow these safeguards may result in fire or electric shock.

1. Make sure that the unit is connected to a power source that is grounded.

2. To prevent burning, do not touch unit when in use.

3. Never touch unit, pencil, cord or plug with wet hands.

4. Protect the unit from bumps or scrapes, which may cause mechanical

problems.

5. If unit is on, do not leave unattended.

6. Do not use the unit if the power cord or plug is damaged in any way.

7. Make sure that the power cord is not twisted, bent or pinched.

8. To prevent possible overheating, do not block the ventilation openings at the

bottom of the unit.

9. Unplug the unit during storms and when it will not be used for an extended

period.

10. Do not pull on the cord when unplugging the unit.

11. Do not store or use the unit in a room with high humidity or near dust or

spraying water.

12. Keep unit away from heating instruments and other heat sources.

13. Always unplug the unit before cleaning. Do not spray water directly on the

unit. Avoid chemical cleaning products.

14. Keep power plug prongs free of dust and water.

15. If you detect noise or smell smoke coming from the unit, unplug immediately.

16. Do not disassemble or attempt to repair the unit.

17. Turn the unit off and let cool before changing carver tip.

18. Do not allow tip of carver to touch the wire.

2.9 WAXING TECHNIQUES TO DEVELOP PROPER OCCLUSAL MORPHOLOGY IN

DIFFERENT OCCLUSAL SCHEMES USING THE PK THOMAS TIP OF A DIGITAL ART

WAXER.

2.9.1AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SELECTING CORRECT OCCLUSAL SCHEME AND

GIVING CORRECT OCCLUSAL MORPHOLOGY WHILE RESTORING PATIENTS’ TEETH

ARE:

1. To direct the occlusal forces properly by minimizing lateral forces during

excursive movements of the mandible.

2. To make the occlusion stable.

3. To increase the masticatory efficiency.

4. To reduce the frictional wear.

5. Waxing Technique to Develop Cusp to Marginal Ridge Relationship.

To develop this relationship, functional waxing technique given by E.V.Payne is

used. It was the first wax added technique (Huffman, 1969).

Fig. 5: Wax pattern showing cusp to marginal ridge relationship (Wikipedia, 2018).

Steps involved in the technique are (Shillinburg, Hobo, whittset, Jacobi & Brackett,

1997; Shillinburg, Wilson, Morrison, 2000; Tamura, 1987):

Functional and non functional cusps are located. Wax cones are placed for these

cusps with PKT No. 1. Cones for non functional cusps should be shorter than

functional cusps to provide easy disocclusion during excursion. Articulator is

closed and moved in various lateral and protrusive movements to obtain optimal

heights for the cuspal cones (Tamura, 1987). Then the marginal and axial ridges

are added with PKT No. 1. Marginal ridges should never be at a higher level than

cuspal cones. And proximal contacts with posterior natural teeth are located in

the occlusal thirds of the pattern Burch & Miller, 1973). Triangular ridges are

added next. They are necessarily triangular in shape extending from central

groove to the cuspal tip. Tip of the triangular ridge is at the cusp tip and base in

the central groove. They are convex buccolingually and mesiodistally. If triangular

ridges are developed correctly proper groove pattern will occur as a natural by-

product. Articulated casts are moved in all the excursions and unwanted contacts

are removed. Axial contours are then developed with PKT No. 4. Straight profile

should be developed in the gingival third of the axial contour [Tjan, Freed &

Miller, 1980; Koidis, Burch &Melfi, 1987]. Over contouring should be avoided

because of its destructive potential [Jameson & Malone, 1982]. Finally grooves are

smoothened with PKT No. 3 and marginal ridges are smoothened with PKT No. 5

to form the refined final wax pattern with proper occlusal morphology. Zinc

Stearate powder is dusted on the wax pattern intermittently before checking the

occlusal contacts. The contacts formed by each opposing cusp should form a

tripod configuration

Fig. 6: Occlusal morphology of the wax pattern (Pinterest, 2018).

Fig. 7: Tripodal occlusal contacts (Pinterest, 2018).

Waxing technique to achieve this occlusal scheme was developed by Thomas

(1967). In this occlusal scheme, mandibular functional cusps arise opposite the

middle of maxillary teeth; similarly maxillary functional cusps are positioned half

way between the mandibular buccal and lingual cusp tips. Hence occlusal forces

are transmitted parallel to long axes of teeth. The development of a cusp to fossa

occlusion is best accomplished by waxing two opposing quadrants simultaneously

in the following sequence [Shillinburg et al, 1997]. Location of cusps and the

contacts made by the cusps are identified and marked on the casts. Cones are

placed for the mandibular functional cusps first. They should be located

approximately one third the distance from the buccal to lingual surface. Also they

should fall into appropriate fossae mesiodistally. Then the cones for maxillary

palatal cusps are placed. Next non functional cusps are placed, i.e. maxillary

buccal and mandibular lingual. Then marginal ridges, cuspal ridges are developed

simultaneously for opposing teeth. Dust the occlusal surfaces with zinc stearate

and close the casts together on the articulator to remove unwanted contacts.

Fig. 8: Tripodal occlusal contacts on maxillary teeth (Wikipedia, 2018).

Fig. 9: Tripodal occlusal contacts on mandibular teeth (Wikipedia, 2018).

2.9.2 CONVECTIONAL WAYS OF HEAT SOURCE IN DENTISTRY

Different sources of heat had been used in the past for wax pattern making Ken,

2005. These sources of heat include:

Candle;

Hot plates/ stove;

Alcohol burners/ spirit lamps; and

Gas burners.

Fig. 10: Candle light (wikipedia, 2018)

Fig. 11: Hot plate (Wikipedia, 2018).

Fig. 12: alcohol burners (Wikipedia, 2018).

Fig. 13: Bunsen burner (Wikipedia, 2018).

Emphasizing on one the most commonly used convectional sources of heat is the

bursen burner.

Bunsen burner: This is used frequently in the laboratory as a source of heat. This

burner is designed so that gaseous fuel may be mixed with the correct amount of

air to yield the maximum amount of heat. The three principal parts of the burner

are: barrel, needle valve, and base. The quantity of gas admitted to the burner is

controlled by the needle valve, while the air needed for combustion is admitted at

the small opening around the bottom of the barrel. The air is controlled by turning

the barrel so as to make the air holes larger or smaller. Always open the desk

outlet valve fully and regulate the gas supply to the burner by the needle valve.

Light the burner in an open space on the lab counter ensuring that the match is lit

prior to turning on the gas. Always extinguish your burner by turning off the desk

outlet valve, and then closing the needle valve and barrel.

2.9.3 DISADVANTAGES OF THE CONVENCTIONAL SOURCES OF HEAT FOR WAX

MANIPULATION

1. Less accurate reproduction or the occlusal features of crowns.

2. Carbon generated makes the work look dirty on the wax patterns.

3. Explosion of gases can occur in the dental laboratory.

4. Inhalation of gas substances which can be toxic to the body.

5. Cost of gases.

6. The fire that is been generated sometimes can burn a dental technologist by

accident when in use.

2.9.4 REASONS FOR USING DIGITAL ART WAXER AS A PREFERED HEAT SOURCE

TO BE USED FOR WAX PATTERN MAKING

1. Heats wax tools fast without flame;

2. Reduces carbon build up-on instruments;

3. Energy efficient as power is used only at the moment of heating;

4. No gas lines required, making unit mobile and operational anywhere an

electric outlet is available;

5. Indicator light glows green for ready mode and red for when in use;

6. Safety light blinks if instrument is left heating too long; Replaceable inserts

keep unit clean of wax residue (5 included); and It helps for precise wax

pattern in other to achieve accurate occlusal harmony.

CHAPTER THREE

3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 INTRODUCTION

This chapter covers the description of the materials used and the processes

involved in the construction of the digital art waxer with Bunsen burner project

which is referred to as the methodology. The process of the development of this

project is divided into several parts. The block diagram below explains the process

flow. This project work is based on the design and implementation of a

microcontroller based art waxer which could effectively perform the waxing

operation.

3.2 PROPOSED SYSTEM MODEL

The following assumptions were taken into consideration for effective

performance of the design. These assumptions include:

The temperature of the waxer should not be less than 10 degrees

The temperature of the waxer should not be greater than 200 degrees

3.3 DESIGN

The different parts of the block diagram which are the materials used, they

include:

1. Four digit seven segment display with driver

2. Microcontroller (Arduino Mega)

3. 20A Relay

4. Power Supply Unit

5. Acrylic sheet casing

Fig 3.1 Block diagram of the system

3.3.2 ARDUINO MICOCONTROLLER

SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

RELAY UNIT AND HEATER

ARDUINOTEMPERATURE SENSOR

POWER SUPPLY UNIT

The Arduino got its start at the Interaction Design Institute in the city of Ivrea,

Italy, in 2005. Professor Massimo Banzi was looking for a low-cost way to make it

easier for the design students there to work with technology. He discussed his

problem with David Cuartielles, a researcher visiting from Malmö University in

Sweden who was looking for a similar solution, and Arduino was born. There have

been a number of Arduino versions, all based on an 8-bit Atmel AVR reduced

instruction set computer (RISC) microprocessor. The first board was based on the

ATmega8 running at a clock speed of 16 MHz with 8 KBflash memory; later boards

such as the Arduino NGplus and the Diecimila (Italian for 10,000) used the

ATmega168 with 16 KBflash memory. The most recent Arduino versions,

Duemilanove and Uno, use the ATmega328 with 32KBflash memory and can

switch automaticallybetween USBand DCpower. For projects requiring more I/O

and memory, there’s the Arduino Mega1280 with 128KBmemory or the more

recent Arduino Mega2560 with 256 KB memory.

The boards have 14 digital pins, each of which can be set as either an input or out-

put, and six analog inputs. In addition, six of the digital pins can be programmed

to provide a pulse width modulation (PWM) analog output. A variety of

communication protocols are available, including serial, serial peripheral interface

bus (SPI), and I2C/ TWI. Included on each board as standard features are an in-

circuit serial programming (ICSP) header and reset button.

Fig.3.3: The example of Arduino MEGA microcontroller

3.3.3 TM1637 Seven segment display unit

The TM1637 display serves as the main display unit which displays the

temperature ranges and thresholds for the system.

Sensor unit

The temperature sensor is made of LM35 integrated circuit. TheLM35 is used to

acquire signal more especially, the body temperature while a microcontroller

processes it. The three common sensors used for this particular task are

thermistors, thermocouples and resistance thermometers but here, an LM35 was

used because it can measure temperature more accurately than thermistors and

generates a higher outputvoltage than thermocouples. LM35 sensor may not

require that the output voltage be amplified.

Fig. 3.5: Schematic Design of the System

3.4 POWER SUPPLY UNIT

This is about the most important aspect of the entire setup. Without power no

other part of the setup will function. Basically our power supply unit feed a 5V dc

to the other units of the liquid Level Monitor by stepping down the mains supply,

rectifying it and regulating it at 5V. Fig 3.2 below is the block diagram of the

power supply unit.

Fig. 3.2 Block Diagram of Power Supply Unit

240V/50Hz

REGULATORFILTERRECTIFIERL TRANSFORMER

N

3.2.1 The transformer Unit

This unit performs two basic functions

Isolates the mains power supply from the systems devices.

Steps down the mains voltage from 220V ac to I 2V ac

3.2.2 The rectifier unit

This converts the AC voltage from the transformer secondary into unidirectional

pulses. This is achieved by using four 1N4001 diodes configured as a bridge.

3.2.3 The Filter Unit

Following the rectifier is the filter unit which serves in smoothening out the pulse

received in the rectifier. Filter unit can have either a capacitive or an inductive

input. The inductive filter or choke input filter is more commonly used when the

power unit has to supply a large load current. On low power systems, like ours, a

capacitive input filter is more appreciated.

3.2.4 The Regulator Unit

The regulator is used to keep the output voltage constant irrespective of changes

in L c mains input voltage and of changes in the load current. Those two functions

are called line stabilization and load regulation respectively.

The circuit designed for the power supply section is shown in the figure 3.3 below:

Fig. 3.3: Diagram of Power Supply Unit

3.2.5 Transformer Circuit

The transformer used for the design is a step down transformer of a ratio of 20:1.

The following relationship applies

N 2

N1=V 2

V 1………………………………………………. equ.3.1

Where N2 is the number of turns in the secondary

N1 is the number of turns in the primary

V2 is the secondary voltage

V1 is the primary voltage

But N2 = 1

N1=20

V1 = 240V

Hence, 1

20=V 2

240

V 2=24020

=12V

The peak secondary voltage is given thus

Peak value = √2 x root mean square value √2 x 12 =16.971V

3.2.6 Rectifier Circuit

The rectifier circuit unit is operated on a full-wave bridge rectifier diode D1 to D4

are general purpose diode 1N4001. The four diodes are connected in bridge form

to rectify the 1 2V AC to I2V DC. The output of the bridge rectifier is s shown in the

figure 3.4 as follows:

VLM = maximum value of load voltage

VL = RMS value of load voltage

Fig. 3.4: Output of a bridge rectifier

The fact that the output of the rectifier circuit is pulsating should not be

overlooked. It has a DC value and sonic AC components called ripples.

u

V

t

D1 D2 D3 D4

This type is not useful for driving sophisticated electronic circuits/devices. In fact,

these circuits require a very steady DC output that approaches the smoothness of

a battery’s output.

Consider the rectifier and filter circuits of the figure 3.5 below where capacitor is

connected across a load resistance RL

Fig 3.5 Rectifier and filter circuit

The output of voltage waveform of the full wave rectifier is as shown in the figure

3.6;

Fig. 3.6: Output voltage waveform of the full wave rectifier

The ripple voltage which occurs under light conditions can be approximated by a

triangular wave which has a peak to peak value of Vr(p-p) and a time of Trcentered

around the DC level.

V r ( p−p)=dQC ………………………………………equ 3.2

But dQ=1dc x T r

V r ( p−p)=1dc X T rC

=V dc

f rC RL

Where

V r ( p−p)is the amount by which capacitor voltage falls during discharge period,T r

dQ is the charge lost in time,T r

The triangular ripple has an RMS value given by:

V r (rms)=V r (p− p )2√3

V r (rms)=V dc

2√3 f rC RL ……………………………………..…equ 3.3

The ripple factor of the shunt capacitor given thus

γ= 14 √3 f rC RL

……………………………………….equ 3.5

A shunt capacitor of ripple factor 0.01 is normally preferred

Assuming load resistance to be 280Ω

0.01= 14√3 x50 x C x280

C = 1.031x 10-3F

C = 1.031μ

But a capacitor of 100μF is chosen as it is readily available the limiting resistor

R1 = Vcd-Vd

Imax

Where

Vdc = 16.971V

Vd = voltage drop across D5 I 6V(given)

Imax = maximum current of 2OmA

Thus

R1 = 6.97−1.620x 10−3

A preferred value of I KΩ was used.

3.2.7 Regulator Circuit

The IC used for the regulator is LM7805. Manufacturer’s specification indicates

that the maximum input voltage to LM7805 is 35V and the minimum input voltage

is 7Vwhilethe output voltage is 5V. What LM7805 does is that it regulates the

output voltage to a steady 5V±O.5%. This helps in stabilizing the output provided

that the input voltage is within the manufacturer’s specification.

Capacitor C3 and inductor LI Forms a low pass Filter which filters the signals and

spikes that are still remaining in the 5V output of the voltage regulator. Voltage

spikes and surges as well as line noise are removed by this filter. The output of the

capacitor C3 goes to Vcc and ground. This is used to supply power to all other part

of the circuitory.

The Relay Unit

Figure showing the internal components of a relay

ULN-2003 Driver

ULN2003 is a high voltage and high current Darlington array IC. It contains seven

open collector Darlington pairs with common emitters.

A Darlington pair is an arrangement of two bipolar transistors.

ULN2003 belongs to the family of ULN200X series of ICs. Different versions of this

family interface to different logic families. ULN2003 is for 5V TTL, CMOS logic

devices. These ICs are used when driving a wide range of loads and are used as

relay drivers, display drivers, line drivers etc. ULN2003 is also commonly used

while driving Stepper Motors.

Each channel or Darlington pair in ULN2003 is rated at 500mA and can withstand

peak current of 600mA. The inputs and outputs are provided opposite to each

other in the pin layout. Each driver also contains a suppression diode to dissipate

voltage spikes while driving inductive loads. The schematic for each driver is given

above.

WORKING PRINCIPLE OF THE DIGITAL ART WAXER

The temperature sensor LM35 senses the temperature and converts it into an

electrical (analog) signal, which is applied to the micro controller through ADC.

The analog signal is converted into digital format by the analog-to-digital

converter (ADC). The sensed and set values of the temperature are displayed on

the 16x2-line TM1637. The micro controller drives control relays by means of ULN

driver circuit to control the fan speed with the help of high wattage tagged wire

wound resistor. Single pole double throw (SPDT) relays are connected to the

micro controller through a ULN driver circuit. The relays require 5 volts at a

current of around 50 mA, which cannot be provided by the micro controller. So

the ULN driver circuit is added. The relays are used to operate the electrical fan or

for operating any other electrical device. Normally the relays remain off. As soon

as pin of the micro controller goes high, the relays operate. This project uses

regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage regulator is used

for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac

output of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer. The circuit maintains the

temperature of the system in a particular range. A fan and a heater are used for

controlling the temperature of the system. The fan RPM increases with increase in

temperature and vice versa. The working of the heater is also the same. The

current temperature within the server room is measured by using a temperature

sensor. When the current temperature is below the lower limit of the desired

range, the system must be heated by using a heating element, air heater. When

the current temperature is below the lower limit of the desired range, the system

must be cooled by using a fan. When the current temperature is within or

successfully turned back to the required range, no control action is needed. The

current temperature of the room must be continuously displayed on the TM1637.

The controller should use LEDs as backup display to indicate the current state of

temperature. This makes user is easily to know current temperature of the

system. The Temperature Sensor detects the temperature of the system. The

Temperature Sensor consists of an LM35 IC. The temperature sensor is connected

to the ADC input of the MICROCONTROLLER µC. It converts the analog input to a

digital value. The MICROCONTROLLER is connected to a switching device relay. It

is used to switch on the heater. The MICROCONTROLLER generates PWM

according to the temperature sensor value. The PWM generated output control

signals are sent to the Motor Driver IC L293D. Motor Driver IC L293D is fed with

the PWM generated output from MICROCONTROLLER. By using the L293D, two dc

motors can be connected. The speed of the fan is controlled by the ON time of the

PWM generated by the controller. With increasing ON time, the speed of the fan

or the heater increases reducing the temperature of the system. The TM1637

module is also connected to the MICROCONTROLLER microcontroller. The

TM1637 module displays the current temperature of the electric Bunsen burner.

Software Requirement

Cross Compiler : AVR Studio 6.0

Atmel Studio 6 is the integrated development platform (IDP) for developing and

debugging Atmel ARM Cortex-M and Atmel AVR microcontroller (MCU) based

applications. The Atmel Studio 6 IDP gives you a seamless and easy-to-use

environment to write, build and debug your applications written in C/C++ or

assembly code.

Atmel Studio 6 is free of charge and is integrated with the Atmel Software

Framework (ASF)—a large library of free source code with 1,600 ARM and AVR

project examples. ASF strengthens the IDP by providing, in the same environment,

access to ready-to-use code that minimizes much of the low-level design required

for projects. Use the IDP for our wide variety of AVR and ARM Cortex-M processor

based MCUs, including our broadened portfolio of Atmel SAM3 ARM Cortex-M3

and M4 Flash devices.

Atmel Studio 6.2 is now available, adding advanced debugging features such as

Data and Interrupt Trace, improved RTOS integration, and better ability to debug

code that has been optimized.

With the introduction of Atmel Gallery and Atmel Spaces, Atmel Studio 6 further

simplifies embedded MCU designs to reduce development time and cost. Atmel

Gallery is an online apps store for development tools and embedded software.

Atmel Spaces is a cloud based collaborative development workspace allowing you

to host software and hardware projects targeting Atmel MCUs.

In summary, standard integrated development environments (IDEs) are suited for

creating new software for an MCU project. By contrast, the Atmel Studio 6 IDP

also:

Facilitates reuse of existing software and, by doing so, enables design

differentiation.

Supports the product development process with easy access to integrated tools

and software extensions through Atmel Gallery.

Reduces time to market by providing advanced features, an extensible software

eco-system, and powerful debug integration.

Programming Language: Embedded C looking around, we find ourselves to be

surrounded by various types of embedded system. Be it a digital camera or a

mobile phone or a washing machine, all of them has some kind of processor

functioning inside it. Associated with each processor is the embedded software. If

hardware forms the body of an embedded system, embedded processor acts as

the brain, and embedded software forms its soul. It is the embedded software

which primarily governs the functioning of embedded systems.

During infancy years of microprocessor based systems, programs were developed

using assemblers and fused into the EPROMs. There used to be no mechanism to

find what the program was doing. LEDs, switches, etc. were used to check correct

execution of the program. Some ‘very fortunate’ developers had In-circuit

Simulators (ICEs), but they were too costly and were not quite reliable as well.

As time progressed, use of microprocessor-specific assembly-only as the

programming language reduced and embedded systems moved onto C as the

embedded programming language of choice. C is the most widely used

programming language for embedded processors/controllers. Assembly is also

used but mainly to implement those portions of the code where very high timing

accuracy, code size efficiency, etc. are prime requirements.

Initially C was developed by Kernighan and Ritchie to fit into the space of 8K and

to write (portable) operating systems. Originally it was implemented on UNIX

operating systems. As it was intended for operating systems development, it can

manipulate memory addresses. Also, it allowed programmers to write very

compact codes. This has given it the reputation as the language of choice for

hackers too.

ACRYLIC SHEET CASING

The outer casing was done using 3mm acrylic sheet board of size 2’ by 4’. This was

chosen due to its ease of forming when heated by a heat gun. The design of the

system indicated that the usual rectangular pvc box would not be suitable rather a

new form was needed.

DESIGN OF THE BUNSEN BURNER

MATERIALS USED

a) Heating element

b) Fan

c) Relay

d) Integrated circuit

e) Stainless steel pipe

HEATING ELEMENT: the heating element converts electrical energy into heat

through the process of resistive or joule heating. Electric current passing through

the element encounters resistance, resulting in heating of the element.

FAN: the fan used in this case was used as an electrical device in moving air and

used in cooling the burner during work.

RELAY: they relay used in this case was used acts a switch

INTEGRATED CIRCUIT: this is a monolithic integrated circuit which is also referred

to as an IC, is a set of electronic circuits one one small flat piece of semiconductor

material, normally silicon.

STAINLESS STEEL PIPE: stainless steel pipe comprises of steel alloy and a small

percentage of chromium adds to the materials corrosion resistance. And it was

used here because of its resistance to corrosion.