Global Development

of Technical College, Community College,

and Further Education

Paul A. Elsner

George Boggs

Judith Irwin

AACC Press

One Dupont Drive

Washington, D.C.

© 2007

Acknowledgements

This publication would not have been possible without the assistance of several people. In addition to the 38 contributing chapter authors, we received considerable editing support by Diane Merrell, assistant to Paul Elsner, Gayona Beckford-Barclay for review of format and editing, and further editing assistance from Laura Phipps Darr, assistant to Paul Elsner. We also were aided by James McKenney and Judith Irwin for securing both the German and Danish contributing chapter authors, Diana Kelly for referral to the Ireland contributing authors, the staff of The AACC Press, most especially Deanna D’Errico who gave special counsel to this enormous project. We also received numerous referrals to national ministries and policy agencies, such as OECD, UNESCO, and the World Bank.

ForewordGlobal Development of Technical College, Community College, and Further Education

George R. Boggs

Across the globe, countries are expanding and strengthening postsecondary education systems. In the increasingly global society and economy, education and training beyond customary compulsory primary and secondary education is now seen as essential to a nation’s competitiveness and the standard of living of its people. The need to open the doors of higher or further education beyond the relatively limited enrollments in elite and selective universities has spawned a movement to develop or expand institutions that are generally less expensive, more accessible, more flexible, and tied closer to business and industry. This book describes the systems that have developed in over 20 countries to meet these needs.

These institutions go by different names: community colleges, technical colleges, technical universities, polytechnics, further education (FE) institutions, technical and further education (TAFE) institutions, institutes of technology, colleges of technology, and junior colleges. Their evolution has been shaped by the needs that have emerged in various regions, political and economic pressures, and the visions of leaders. The institutions vary as to whether they are public, private, or private for-profit. The missions vary as to the level of degrees or qualifications they can award and their focus on vocational/technical education or academic liberal arts. In some countries, they are considered part of the higher education system; in others, there is a marked separation between higher education and further education. In some places, they are part of university systems; in others they stand alone. In some countries, students can transfer credits that they earn in these institutions to universities; in others, they cannot. In some countries, the institutions are governed centrally; in others, governance systems are localized. Some focus more on younger students; while others serve adults and their need for lifelong learning.

What, then, defines this sector? Common elements include, for the most part, open access, a non-elitist orientation, a focus on the success of students in their learning, responsiveness to the educational needs of local communities and their industries, and a willingness to be creative and to avoid bureaucratic processes. In most countries, the institutions lack the prestige of the elite universities even though the well being of a country and its people usually depend more upon the educational level of the majority rather than a small minority. In the United States, almost half of all students in higher education are enrolled in community colleges, and some of its alumni have received Nobel prizes or been recognized in other notable ways.

So far as we know, this is the first book that describes this unique sector as it has developed (and is developing) throughout the world. Because of the many differences in governance, funding, and structure, there is much to be learned about the successes and limitations of different systems in different environments. We hope this book will be useful to those who wish to develop or to strengthen the postsecondary education systems in their countries.

Table of Contents

Foreword…………………………..……………………………...…...…George Boggs

Introduction……………..………………………………………...………Paul A. Elsner

Framing an Analysis of Global Developments

of Technical, Community College, and Further Education

Australia……………………………………………………...…..……Antoine Barnaart

Australia’s Vocational Education And Training Sector

Canada…………………………………………………………..……Michael L. Skolnik

Community Colleges and Further Education in Canada

Chile………..…...…...Mary Crabbe Gershwin, Philip Cary, Marcelo Von Chrismar,

Cristobal Silva, and Shelley L. Wood

The Chilean Experience in Technical and Further Education:

Public Policies and Private Providers

China……………….……….Gerard Postiglione, Don Watkins, and Wang Liangjuan

Community Colleges and Further Education in China

Denmark…………………………………...Stuart A. Rosenfeld and Cynthia D. Liston

Community College and Further Education in Denmark

England……………………………………………………………………….. Geoff Hall

Further Education in England:“The Engine Room of Social Mobility”

French West Africa……………………………………….…………Geremie Sawadogo

Community Colleges and Further Education in French West Africa:Benin; Burkina Faso; Cote d’Ivoire; Mali, Niger; Mauritania, Senegal and Togo

Germany…………………………………… Volker Rein and Ute Hippach-Schneider

The Vocational education and training system in Germany -State of the art and trends

Hong Kong…………………………..…Gerard A. Postiglione and Steven S. K. Kwok

The Emergence of the Community College Associate Degree in Hong Kong

Ireland………………………………………………………………….Frank McMahon

Community Colleges and Further Education in Ireland

Japan.......................................................................…...Joyce Tsunoda and Yasuko Iida

Institutions in Transition: The “Community Colleges” of Japan

México……..…..Bertha Landrum, Verónica Murillo, David Valladares Aranda, and

Arturo Nava Jaimes

Universidades Technologicas de Mexico:Technical Institutions Extend Higher Education to the People

New Zealand……………………………………………………………………Jim Doyle

Community Colleges and Further Education in New Zealand

South Africa……………………………..……………Glen Fisher and Marianne Scott

Public Further Education and Training Colleges in South Africa

Spain…………………………………….. Sandra de Bresser, David Roldán Martínez,

and María Esther del Moral-Pérez

Survey of the Community College & Vocational System in Spain

Thailand…………………………………………Allen Cissell and Tanom Inkhamnert

The Community College System of Thailand

Turkey………………………………………………………………..…….Ahmet Aypay

The Vocational and Technical Schools of Higher Education (VSHE) in Turkey

United Arab Emirates ...……………………..……. Paul A. Elsner and James Horton

Higher Colleges of Technology in the United Arab Emirates

United States of America……………………………...……………….….George Boggs

Community Colleges in the United States of America

Vietnam………………………… Diane E. Oliver, Sandra Engel, and Analy Scorsone

Survey of Community College Development in Vietnam:A Global and Local Dialectic

Developments in Different Regions………………………………..……….John Halder

Community Colleges’ Development in India, the Dominican Republic, and Georgia

Two Case Studies

United Arab Emirates…………………………………………………….Tayeb Kamali

A case study of the Higher Colleges of Technology in the United Arab Emirates

Netherlands …………………………………………………………………..Coen Free

Moving from a Campus Centered Environment to a Learning Village

The Education System in the Netherlands

Summary Comments………………. Paul A. Elsner, George Boggs, and Judith Irwin

Framing an Analysis of Global Developments of

Technical, Community College, and Further Education

Paul A. Elsner

Unique Countries; Unique Solutions and Challenges

Early motivation for offering a global survey of developments in various

countries came from impressions that technical, community college, and further

education systems hold one hope for coping with and navigating through a complex and

ever-changing global economy. This book can, at best, provide a snapshot of several

diverse and varied solutions. Each country has their own perception of what works for

them.

This short preamble attempts to set the tone for this important publication. There

are no qualitative preferences for one system over another. Each country designs and

carries out its mission for educating its youth and adult populations for our most

challenging world economy. Moreover, it was impossible to feature every country – only

a snapshot of several could be accomplished.

Finding the right labor force, with the appropriate skills for ever-changing

industry and swiftly-changing economic and demographic conditions is a daunting task

for policy-makers and educational planners in every country our contributors attempted

to describe.

No Universal Solutions

Chapter contributors felt that each country reached their workforce and training

solutions in characteristic ways that matched the political and government structure in

their own countries. This variation constantly reminded us that there is no universal

7

definition of excellence, or even guidelines for best practices. Moreover, this publication

does not presuppose that a Denmark system, or a U.S. system of community colleges, or

a Canadian, largely provincially-driven system, is the only answer for meeting complex

technological and workforce demands. They are all worthy systems, whether it is a start-

up initiative in Thailand for the creation of community colleges, as discussed by Allen

Cissell, or the long-standing tradition of junior colleges in Japan, the fluctuations and

evolutions of which are so ably described by Joyce Tsunoda and Iida Yusako. In short,

there are no single models that everyone should follow; however, each country has

features of their system that most all of us would admire or attempt to emulate. Nor is this

a definitive survey. Hopefully, it will give reference and familiarity with the many varied

systems that occur around the world.

Merging Multiple Stakeholder Interests

The Netherlands, for example, appears to have a more thorough compact designed

around parent participation, the students’ aptitudes and interests, and the institutional

services of their further education functions. In early years after leaving middle school,

students are examined and diagnostically assessed with regard to ability, interests, and

personal and career goals. Parents participate with counselors and advisors on the

decisions that young people will later confront, should the student have interest in the

university, technical education or successful trade occupations. These decisions are sorted

out with parents present and solid advisement and data provided by professional staff. As

described by Coen Free, by the time a student reaches the age to enter a college such as

King William I College in Hertogenbosch, much of the decision-making about career

goals and aspirations have been responsibly worked out. Compared to the U.S.

community colleges’ huge numbers arrive at the college with exploratory aims to succeed

without specific goals for career placement. They may find their specific niche, but often

without the professional planning and guidance one sees in the Netherlands’ system. Both

systems work in their own way, and the openness of the American community college

matriculation pattern works in its own way, but looking at other countries’ methods of

matching students’ goals with available options seems much more clearly developed than

in the U.S. system.

8

Governance and Decision-Making

Each country has different governance and decision-making mechanisms for

starting colleges and the governance system varies from powerful central mandates to

more decentralized autonomous decision-making at the state, provincial, or local and

even municipal levels. China, for example, has very specific approval powers for all

institutions. The central ministries in China assert full power over certain constitutionally

formed universities, but encourage direction but less control over provincial and local

institutions. We were surprised to learn from chapter contributors for China that the

names applied to technical institutes and vocational training centers are sometimes called

“community colleges,” without much resemblance to what other countries call

community colleges. The term community college is actually discouraged by some

central ministries and some principals have been advised to drop the name “community

college” and go back to the term “technical institute” or “vocational school” as

descriptors of what are now sometimes called “community colleges.”

The movement of students also differs country to country. In Denmark, students

have multiple options to attach themselves to further education, vocational education,

technical institutes, adult centers, and even steps towards university education. A

remarkable feature of Denmark’s system is that there is always an option for students at

many levels and at many kinds of educational service providers. Also, money follows the

students in Denmark, and the student, if earnest, can achieve at many levels and is not

abandoned and left unconnected with an educational solution.

Stronger Central Assertion of Policy

Most countries assert national priorities in much clearer and more focused ways

than American national governing bodies demonstrate. It is hard to find clearly focused

national policy for workforce or technical training, emanating from the United States’

federal government. Each of the states has their own preferences in the U.S. for specific

goals. Basically, U.S. states are not consistent regarding accountability standards, and in

most cases, even how money flows to the community colleges. Contrast this with Britain,

where accountability and funding criteria are paramount considerations. British further

9

education institutions undergo periodic inspection, and it is possible for institutions to be

lined out of existence if they do not meet quality and performance goals set down by

funding authorities.

Countries in Major Evolution

We saw many shifts of philosophy, emphasis, and focus in such countries as

South Africa, to such a bewildering degree, that in South Africa it was hard to track the

historical evolution of mergers, consolidations, and even redirecting old philosophies of

universities, vocational schools, technitrons, and a bewildering array of complex

governance issues.

Many countries face evolutionary challenges. The chapter contributors for Spain

expressed concern that students from Spain will not be trained at the competitive levels

sufficient to succeed against well-developed western European countries, who have

dominated the European Union as major economic and globally based commercial forces.

At the same time, several former soviet bloc countries have students that test high in

traditional math and science exams, allowing them to move to Ireland, England, and other

high technology-centered western European countries for better jobs. Some policy

leaders in former Soviet bloc countries decry the loss of their talented youth to other

countries’ economies. The general feeling is that such youth are more likely to seek

employment in London, Toronto, and U.S. cities. Jim Doyle, the contributing author for

New Zealand, discusses the history of the poly-technical colleges, once called community

colleges. Evolutions in name and function are common throughout the world.

Complex Issues, Relevant to Each Country

Other countries revealed even more complex issues. In the Higher Colleges of

Technology, set in place in the United Arab Emirates (UAE), one of the central

preoccupations is to adequately train Arab nationals for participation in the robust UAE

economy. The native Arab population in the UAE approximates only about 20% of the

population. The other 80% of the workforce include expatriate professionals, such as

engineers, doctors, specialized contractors, high and mid-level managers, college and

lower school teachers, investment brokers, and other technical and professional fields.

10

The expatriate workforce comes from all over the world. There is a large presence of

huge construction firms, high-tech companies, employing great numbers of Canadian,

Australian, American, and European professionals, but it also includes contract workers

for clerical, technical, labor, and trades occupations. Many labor and less skilled contract

workers come from a wide region of less developed countries, such as Sudan, Ethiopia

and other African Horn countries. While the economy in the UAE, especially in places

like Dubai, are phenomenally robust.

The participation of students from the Higher Colleges of Technology attempt to

gravitate toward government, police, and other structured jobs, but do not move as

readily into the open-market economy. Some government agencies were oversupplied

with United Arab Emirate workers. Women, however, in the Higher Colleges of

Technology seem more open to competing in the open job market in such fields as

banking, computer programming, communications, television, and graphic design. The

Higher Colleges of Technology are regarded as somewhat of a jewel in the higher

education system in the UAE, ably presided over by visionary rulers such as His

Excellency Sheikh Nahayan Mabarak Al Nahayan. In other sectors of the economy, the

brightest and well trained development genius of a city like Dubai results from younger

ruler families, who have been educated at Cambridge, Harvard, Oxford, the Wharton

School, and have come to develop Dubai and the nearby Sharjah Emirate to the degree

that the region has become regarded as an “Emerald City.” From a technical and

vocational education challenge, Dr. Kamali and the principals of both the women’s and

men’s Higher Colleges of Technology must worry about how the native Emirati

population gets to participate in a fiercely competitive globally-centered economy in the

Persian Gulf.

Geremie Sawadogo of the World Bank traces the long-standing influence of the

French Colonial culture in several of the French West African countries. Geremie’s

concern is that French colonial influences stressed assimilation of Africans into the

French culture more than they set up an adequate economic development infrastructure

and a training apparatus for bringing Africans into successful and gainful employment.

With the absence of such import of industries, French West African citizens often were

passed over when too few jobs were created. Sawadogo emphasizes that if more attention

11

had been given to both job creation and the prospecting for industries within an economic

development framework, such countries as Mali, Burkina Faso, Senegal, and Niger

would not have the poverty levels they have. Absent job availability in such West African

countries, other than the tourism industry, French West Africans often rely on limited

agricultural subsistence and international aid and support.

Explosive Growth and Development

This publication should make readers more aware of the dynamism in several

regions of the world. Diane Oliver and her co-authors describe plans to build ten

technically oriented community colleges in the Mekong Delta in Vietnam. The Vietnam

Chapter shows us how political ideology corresponds with developments of its countries’

educational system .The developed or developing, first world or third world terminology

has less and less relevance to the real world. Like Vietnam, Thailand, Malaysia once

regarded as less developed and in some cases experiencing political turmoil, Pakistan

serves as an example of how cautious we must be in describing undeveloped or

politically disarrayed countries.

On September 13, 2002, Dr. Atta ur Rahman, former minister of science and

technology, reported at the Education and e-Learning Conference in Abu Dhabi, UAE,

that Pakistan intended to be a fully wired country, and told of extensive technology and

communication outlays.

His speech was shortly after two failed assassination attempts were made on

Pakistan’s president. To westerners, the impression that Pakistan was in political disarray

was not born out in their visionary technology agenda. Moreover, math achievement

levels in many good schools, clearly surpasses many western countries, including that of

the U.S.

Exploring Autonomy and Decentralization

The survey also emphasizes the tensions between traditional, previous colonial

influences. Chilean contributors stressed the primacy of academic studies over vocational

training. The reality of preparing a country’s citizens for commercial advancement and

modern capacities to survive in a competitive global economy is clearly present in

12

Chile’s history. Both Thailand and Chile found it advantageous to support greater local

initiative. This shift from centrally driven solutions exclusive of local preferences caused

a deregulation in both countries.

One of our contributing chapter authors, Allen Cissell, advised Thailand

community college planners on local governance procedures. He had hoped to assist in

creating an effective chemistry of local lay communication and governance. The Chilean

chapter even emphasizes that insofar as possible, the “guiding principle of the

government was that state action with regard to civil society would be limited.”

Contributing author Mary Gershwin, et al, emphasized in the Chilean Chapter that

1980s reform called for transfer of financial responsibility should be shifted to the

students and that comprehensive freedom from government regulation for establishing

funding and institutions are local.

This governmental posture is in contrast to many developed and undeveloped

countries. Gershwin adds that Chile’s general standard of living is the highest in South

America, and exceeds some developed countries.

Cooperation and Assistance

John Halder, who has been an architect and a major leader of the Community

Colleges for Institutional Development (CCID) describes numerous partnerships and

cooperatives with many diverse countries. Their partnerships derive from deeper inter-

institutional cooperation to program-to-program sharing and development, to single

faculty-to-faculty exchanges.

John Halder points out that many countries’ developments of technical and

community colleges have been assisted by cooperation and support from other countries.

Australia, the Netherlands, Canada, the United States, England and Denmark aid many

other countries and have histories of cooperation with partner countries.

Halder points out links between the USAID support and U.S. colleges in the

assistance to developments in India, the Dominican Republic, and Georgia. Each country

again represented different and quite unique circumstances, from Georgia’s need to

expand its role of formerly Soviet-dominated technitrons to providing conference-type

13

catalysts to discussing India’s workforce and greater community college purposes and

functions.

As Halder points out, there are several disparate initiatives in India. One of the

contributing factors to a greater U.S. Knowledge of India’s technical and community

college developments has been the presence of both American Association of

Community Colleges (AACC) and the Community College for International

Development (CCID). Both organizations have led study groups and direct involvement

in India’s efforts to both formulate and put in operation community college systems.

A March 2007 visitation to India by AACC and CCID staff, ably led by Robert

Keener of Sinclair Community College in Dayton, Ohio, connected with several

universities policy planning entities and U.S. consulate staff in determining the interests

in developing a community college movement in India. There have been some earnest

efforts by Father Xavier Alphonse who has created a community college center to discuss

and publish developmental material for an Indian community college system. The CCID

team were briefed on the efforts Fr. Alphonse has achieved in gaining the attention of

certain ministerial policy leaders about a community college system modeled after many

U.S. community college characteristics.

Another serious overture has been made by an All India Association of Technical

and Vocational Training Institutes called Skills for Progress (SKIP). The SKIP

organization acts as an agent of change in India and a process for planning for the future.

Its efforts include capacity building of its member technical institutes and to seek

international partners to solve such problems as rural poverty, preparation for training to

match the need for India’s skilled workers. SKIP has already forged overseas partnership

with the Netherlands and Germany for more than 2 decades. SKIP proposes and has

worked on achieving a direct partnership with CCID and has fostered earnest interaction

with some American community colleges, particularly under the umbrella of CCID.

India’s weaker commitment at the national level, however, has not assisted the interest in

community college type development. Policy studies have been cited that call for the

need of 1,500 new universities; however, the mental model for building higher education

capacity which is much needed in India (only 7% of the India population attend

14

universities) omits the mention of community colleges and even technical institutes. Such

institutions do not seem to emanate from the national or federal level. India’s frame of

reference for a higher education centers on universities, generally not technical or

community colleges.

However, earnest efforts to partner with community colleges do come from some

universities. A good example is SRM University in Chennai. Highly productive

discussions have also occurred in Stella Maris College in Chennai, a women’s college

offering applied degrees including programs to PhDs.

Canada had long-standing relationships with foreign contract training through

their further education institutions such as Humber and Seneca Colleges. The same could

be said of the United Kingdom and Scandinavian countries.

Western Canadian technical colleges established wide reaches into Pacific Basin

needs before U.S. colleges began working with China, Southeast Asia, and Pacific Island

colleges.

European colonial ties have long provided assistance and guidance to African and

Middle Eastern countries.

Workforce Training and Standards

All of the countries surveyed showed central preoccupation with preparation of its

citizens for an increasingly complex and technologically-driven global economy.

The New Commission on the Skills of the American Workforce mirrors the

concerns of many other countries. Its webpage, www.skillscommission.org states the

challenge as follows:

Sixteen years ago, the National Center on Education and

the Economy released the report of its Commission on the

Skills of the American Workforce. The title of the report,

America’s Choice: high skills or low wages!, told the whole

story. The Commission’s report played a key role in

launching the standards movement in the United States. But

now, countries like India and China are turning out large

numbers of highly skilled workers ready to compete for

15

low wages. NCEE has created the New Commission on the

Skills of the American Workforce, to chart a course for the

United States in a much more complicated global economy.

Like many other countries, the United States must keep pace with the production

of math and science oriented graduates at both technical and professional levels.

For western developed countries, the challenge of globalization is of paramount

consideration. Developed countries are not immune to swift changes such as the advent

of a digitized world, and a networked workforce. Huge technological advances have

created automation of routine work and as the National Center on Education and the

Economy has stressed to the above “New Commission,” entire industries are now

threatened.

A Flat World?

Thomas Friedman uses the analogy that the world is flat because, among other

developments, countries can outsource virtually anything to anyplace. Moreover, search

engines have distributed information more equitably than ever before, so the centers of

information intensity and expertise, once controlled by only certain nation states or

economic powers, have so decentralized that the world economies have become much

more self-organized than hierarchy-controlled.

It is obvious to observers of developments in most of the countries surveyed that

free market capitalism, availability of markets to virtually anyone in a digitized world

web and an expanding internet-based commerce calls for new, as yet to be discovered

training paradigms. All countries are in this challenge together. So this publication can

serve us well, by just learning more about each others’ national challenges.

Just as New Zealand and Australia must gain a foot hold on Southeast Asia and

Chinese markets, a former Soviet bloc country must navigate its relationships in the

European Union with well-established world market leaders, such as England, Finland,

France, Germany, Ireland, and the Netherlands.

One of the challenges that Germany faces regarding workforce strategies, is best

exemplified by contributing authors Volker Rein and Ute Hippach-Schneider. Germany

faces a falling demand for basic qualifications and rising demand for higher

16

qualifications. Basically, the need for skilled workers will probably stagnate in Germany

and the availability of high skilled workers will be scarce.

The pressure for higher skills is also reflected in Antoine Barnaart’s chapter on

Australia. While the late 19th Century established mechanic institutes, schools of mines

and schools of arts, Australia’s economy has moved away from extractive industries and

Industrial Era mechanic and machine trades. In contrast, Australia’s current demands

require more focused setting of standards and a typically more assertive direction from

both their National ministries and its training authorities. Its foothold in Southeast Asia

and throughout certain countries in the Pacific regions, and more particularly in China

and Japan, are critical for Australia. Australia sees much of its technical training and

workforce capacity being tied to international partnerships, often supported by

Australia’s Aid for International Development (AAID).

A flatter world must also presuppose more evenly distributed capacity among the

world’s countries. This snap-shot of global developments can help us to observe each

others’ technical, community college, and further education capacities.

17

Australia’s Vocational Education And Training Sector

by

Antoine Barnaart

Antoine Barnaart is the former Vice Chancellor and CEO of the Northern Territory University in Darwin, Australia. In the late 90’s , the Tertiary and Further Education (TAFE) system in Australia under went enormous structural and organizational revision, designating various TAFE programs to some Universities. In addition to presiding over such transition, Antoine Barnhaart is the Principal Project Director for a 20 million dollar Australian Aid for International Development grant to modernize technical and work force programs and capacity for several University, Poly-technical Institutes and municipal vocational training centres in the Chongqing, China metropolitan region.

Australia is the world’s biggest island and smallest continent. With a population of

20 million, Australia is the only nation to govern an entire continent. It is the sixth

largest country in the world in land area after Russia, Canada, China, the United

States of America and Brazil.

Six colonies were created in the late 18th and 19th centuries. They federated and became

the Commonwealth of Australia in 1901 with the federation consisting of six States and

two Territories. Under a federal system, powers are divided between a central

government and the individual states. In Australia, power is divided between the

Commonwealth Government and the six state and two territory governments1. The

Federal or Commonwealth government is responsible for national affairs and

state and territory governments have a broad range of responsibilities including

education and health.

Australia's multicultural society includes its indigenous peoples and migrants

from some 200 countries. It is one of the world’s most urbanized countries, with about

85 per cent of the population living in urban areas, particularly along the eastern seaboard

and the south-eastern corner of the continent.

1 http://www.australia.gov.au

18

Australia has one of the strongest economies in the world—competitive, open

and vibrant. The nation’s high economic performance stems from effective

economic management and ongoing structural reform. Australia has a

competitive and dynamic private sector and a skilled, flexible workforce2.

Australia also has one of the most stable economic, political and social

environments in the region, which has led to increased investment from overseas

in recent years. As a result of major diversification in Australia's export base,

Australia is now not only a commodity exporter, it also has sophisticated

manufacturing and service industries. 3.

Development of VET in Australia

Many of the facts outlined in the previous section have had an impact on how

vocational education and training (VET) has developed in Australia. Its unique

geographic and demographic characteristics provide significant challenges to

Commonwealth, state and territory governments as they continue to reform and

improve Australia’s VET system.

Australia’s VET began to develop in the late nineteenth century through the

establishment of mechanics’ institutes, schools of mines and schools of arts. The

focus of these organizations was to develop the skills of Australia’s working

population in a fairly narrow band of trade related industries.4

In New South Wales the Sydney Technical College was established by 1882,

while in Victoria over 15 technical institutions were established between 1870

and 1890 including the Ballarat and Bendigo schools of mines and the forerunner

of the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology. In South Australia the South

Australian Institute, Roseworthy Agricultural College and a school of mines and

industries were established by 1889 and in Queensland the Brisbane Technical 2 http://www.dfat.gov.au/aib/competitive_economy.html3 http://www.dfat.gov.au/facts/aust_today.html4 www.dest.gov.au

19

College was established in 1882. In Tasmania the Hobart and Launceston

Technical Colleges were established in 1888 and in Western Australia, Perth

Technical College opened in 18905.

Technical education remained the sole responsibility of the States and Territories

after Federation in 1901. Technical education evolved gradually in each State

and Territory, generally remaining under-recognized and undervalued but with

increases in funding and support occurring mainly in times of crises such as

during the Depression years of the 1930s and World War II. Federal Government

financial assistance to the States for technical education began during World War

II and continued into some of the post-war reconstruction schemes. But in the

1950s and 1960s financial responsibility still rested mainly with the States and

Territories, although the Federal Government continued its support for technical

education in the Australian Capital Territory which had begun in 1928 as the

Canberra Trade School.

In the 1970s it became clear that Australia’s traditional manufacturing, mining,

and agricultural industries had started to decline and new industries like

communications, finance, and other service industries were emerging. More

women were entering or re-entering the workforce and undertaking post

secondary education and training6.. The Commonwealth Government recognized

the urgent need for an inquiry into Australia’s technical education.

The 1974 Kangan Report on Needs in Technical and Further Education defined

the roles and the mission of what is now known as the TAFE (Technical and

Further Education) system For the first time technical education, under its new

name TAFE, was given a status and a charter which gave it a recognized place

within the education sector. The acceptance of the report also gave TAFE access

to Commonwealth funds for both recurrent purposes and for capital works. Last,

but certainly not least, the Kangan report provided the impetus for the 5 http://www.griffith.edu.au/vc/ate/content_vet_hist.html6 http://www.griffith.edu.au/vc/ate/content_vet_hist.html

20

development of a national identity for TAFE and put TAFE on the national

agenda7. TAFE was delivered through publicly funded TAFE Colleges in each

state and territory

Major VET reform

Into the 1980s the services industries continued to expand at the expense of the

mining, manufacturing and construction industries --- TAFE’s traditional territory.

Networks of private training providers, largely providing training to service

industries, were also emerging. A number of reports pointed to the need for the

training system to be driven by the needs of the individual and industry so the

economy as a whole could prosper.

The big push for VET reform in Australia came in the late 1980’s when national

industry leaders, in the employer and employee organizations, became very

concerned that Australia’s skills development system was not able to meet the

needs of a modern economy operating in a world market. This concern was

triggered by a recession brought about through that large decline in the value of

the traditional natural resources and primary production export base and the

subsequent need to restructure Australian industry towards higher value added

manufacturing and service industries. This led to a fifteen year period of

conscious reform led by the Australian Government and industry.

Also prior to this period, VET was administered and developed by eight separate

state and territory based systems which resulted in a lack of consistency in such

fundamental aspects as:

Policy priorities between states

Course design and learning materials

Nomenclature and qualifications

7 www.austcolled.com.au

21

Physical infrastructure

Levels of investment

This resulted in poor transportability of qualifications across the country,

duplication of effort associated with the development of VET learning resources,

limited and/or uneven involvement of industry in determining VET outcomes and

reduced opportunities to promote a distinct quality assured VET product in the

international education market.

In 1992 all states, territories and the Australian Government agreed to the

establishment of the Australian National Training Authority (ANTA) and a co-

operative federal system of vocational education and training with strategic input

by industry.

ANTA was an Australian Government statutory authority established to provide a

national focus for vocational education and training. ANTA reported to an

industry-based board and was an administrator and adviser. It advised the

Ministerial Council (MINCO) of Australian Government, state and territory

Ministers responsible for vocational education and training on:

VET policy, strategy, priorities, goals and objectives nationally; and

VET plans, which states and territories developed each year. These plans

detailed how states and territories proposed to meet national priorities,

goals and objectives.

ANTA administered national programs and the Australian Government funding of

the national VET system. Some of ANTA’s key outcomes were the development,

management and promotion of the national training framework, establishment of

a strong industry training advisory structure, the introduction of VET in schools,

and the development of training packages.

22

In June 30, 2005 ANTA was abolished and its responsibilities transferred to the

Australian Government Department of Education, Science and Training (DEST).

Although DEST continues to drive VET policy reforms, the core national VET

structures developed and implemented during the last 10 years have been

retained, albeit with some modifications.

Australia’s existing VET system can now be described as a strong national

system, formally led by industry and government, supported with delivery by both

public and private VET providers and underpinned by a solid quality assured,

national training framework.

Registered Training Organisations

A significant characteristic of Australian VET system is the flexibility and choice

VET students have when choosing where and how they will undertake their

education, training and assessment. Previous VET sector reforms expanded the

delivery of formally recognized VET from public or state funded TAFE Colleges to

a broad range of Government recognized VET providers or Registered Training

Organizations (RTOs).

VET students may now undertake all their learning on an RTO campus, entirely

in a workplace, or in any combination of these two. Public RTOs (TAFE colleges)

provide the majority of VET but many other organizations have also become

RTOs. These include secondary schools, enterprises, industry organizations,

private VET providers, community organizations and universities. Registration of

an individual RTO is a state or territory government responsibility, however, an

RTO only has to register in one state or territory because registration has a

national effect.

23

When the early VET reforms provided opportunities for a greater number of

diverse organizations to become an RTO, many took the opportunity to register

so they could train, assess and award national VET qualifications. However, over

time, the number of new RTOs reduced because many realized that to comply

with the Australian National Quality Framework (AQTF) was costly and difficult.

Some RTOs also concluded that training and assessment was not their field of

expertise and in some cases proved to be a distraction to their core business.

This has lead to a rationalization of RTOs, with Australia now having a good

complement of both private and public RTOs. Over four thousand VET RTOs are

now delivering VET to over 1.6 million Australians each year. Most importantly,

Australia’s new reformed system has provided more opportunities for RTOs to

work in partnerships with industry. This allows enterprises to access high quality

services from training and assessment specialists and also allows RTOs to

obtain access to advanced technology and the skills of enterprise staff to assist

in VET delivery and assessment.

This diversification of RTOs provides many flexible opportunities to VET students

regardless of their age, employment status or motivation for accessing VET

training and/or assessment. Of course, it also provides great challenges for

governments to develop registration and quality systems to ensure that the

training and assessment underpinning the award of a national VET qualification

is of consistent high quality, regardless of where and how the training and

assessment was delivered. This is important so that enterprises, individuals and

the community have full confidence in our national VET system.

Australian National Training Framework

A key part of Australia’s national VET system is the Australian National Training

Framework. Figure 1, below, shows that the framework is made up of three key

24

Australian National Training Framework

Australian Quality Training Framework

Training Packages(Competency Standards)

AustralianQualificationFramework

components: Training Packages, the Australian Qualifications Framework and

the Australian Quality Training Framework.

Figure 1: Components of the Australian National Training Framework

A Training Package describes the skills and knowledge needed to perform

effectively in the workplace. Each Package is made up of competency standards

linked to qualification levels and assessment guidelines outlining how a person

should be assessed as competent. The focus of Training Packages is on

assessment outcomes not training inputs. They do not prescribe how an

individual should be trained. Teachers and trainers develop learning strategies

depending on learners’ needs, abilities and circumstances.

25

Training Packages are developed by industry through National Industry Skills

Councils or by enterprises to meet the identified training needs of specific

industries or industry sectors. Training Packages complete a quality assurance

process and are then endorsed by the National Training Quality Council (NTQC)

and placed on the National Training Information Service (NTIS). In January 2005,

there were 81 endorsed Training Packages. Nine of these were enterprise

Training Packages, developed by enterprises for their own unique needs.

Training Packages have a set date for review - usually around three years after

they are endorsed. Information on each Training Package can be found at

www.ntis.gov.au 8.

The Australian Quality Training Framework (AQTF) provides the basis for

Australia’s nationally consistent, high quality vocational education and training

system. The standards provide the common foundation for ensuring the quality

and integrity of training and assessment services of registered training

organizations (RTOs) regardless of where the training or assessment occurs.

There are two sets of standards under the AQTF: Standards for Registered

Training Organizations and Standards for State and Territory Registering/Course

Accrediting Bodies 9.

VET qualifications form part of a suite of qualifications, each broadly defined in

the Australian Qualifications Framework (AQF). It covers qualifications issued by

secondary schools, VET providers and higher education institutions and all are

nationally endorsed. Because the Framework also includes senior secondary

school certificates and university qualifications it facilitates linkages and credit

transfer between the three education sectors. This promotes lifelong learning and

a seamless and diverse education and training system.

There are eight AQF qualifications in the VET sector:

Certificate I, Certificate II, Certificate III, Certificate IV8 www.dest.gov.au9 www.dest.gov.au

26

Diploma, Advanced Diploma

Vocational Graduate Certificate, Vocational Graduate Diploma

An AQF Statement of Attainment can also be issued to those VET students that

do not want to complete a full qualification. It is a record of recognized learning

which, although falling short of an AQF qualification, may contribute towards a

qualification outcome, either as partial completion of a course leading to a

qualification, attainment of competencies within a Training Package, or

completion of nationally accredited short course which may accumulate towards

a qualification through Recognition of Prior Learning processes10.

Detailed information on Australia’s AQF can be found at

http://www.aqf.edu.au/aqfqual.htm

A mechanism for formal industry input

Since the national VET system was formed, a range of industry advisory bodies

have been the key conduits of advice and information between the VET system

and industry. In 2003, the ANTA Board decided to take a new approach to

exchanging advice and information with industry. Under the new approach, a

new communication channel with industry was created through the establishment

of 10 new 'Industry Skills Councils', which have progressively replaced the

existing industry advisory bodies11.

Industry Skills Councils have the two key roles of:

providing accurate industry intelligence to the VET sector about current

and future skill needs and training requirements, including through

industry skills reports, and

10 http://www.aqf.edu.au/aqfqual.htm11 www.dest.gov.au

27

supporting the development, implementation and continuous improvement

of quality nationally recognized training products and services, including

Training Packages12.

VET in Schools

As part of the national VET reforms, ANTA encouraged strategies that increased

the delivery of vocational education and training in the schools sector. The

definition of VET in Schools under the “ANTA Principles and Guidelines for

Improving Outcomes for Vocational Education and Training in Schools” is:

‘Vocational education and training should be included as VET in Schools if

it is undertaken as part of a senior secondary certificate and its completion

by the student provides credit towards a recognized VET qualification

within the Australian Qualifications Framework.

Australian School-Based Apprenticeships are a unique initiative under the VET in

Schools policy area. They provide the opportunity for young people to gain VET

qualifications and undertake employment while also completing a senior

secondary certificate. Under these arrangements the student is both a full time

student and part-time employee, with the same employment and training

requirements as for other Australian Apprenticeships13.

VET in Schools continues to be recognized by all governments as a mechanism

to increase the number of school leavers who will enter vocational education and

training, particularly in the areas where Australia now has critical skills shortages.

Ongoing VET Reform

12 www.isc.org.au13 www.dest.gov.au

28

Reform in the VET sector in Australia is a significant and ongoing challenge.

Whilst there is a national VET system, education, including vocational education,

is still a prime responsibility of the states and territories. Being a federation there

is always the tension of Commonwealth versus state power which can vary

depending on the political status of each of the commonwealth, state and territory

governments. To get agreement on national VET strategies, reforms and policies

can be time consuming and frustrating for VET policy makers.

For this reason the core of Australia’s national VET system must be robust and

relevant to a broad range of Australians and enterprises to endure significant

political change at a national, state and territory level. A national VET system that

is subject to frequent major change will not function in the short term or

sustainable in the long term.

The Australian National Training Framework, described previously, is a strong

core that has withstood the political change of governments, substantial

bureaucratic change with the transfer of ANTA responsibilities to DEST and

ongoing changes to industry advisory structures. Modifications and

enhancements to this framework will occur on an ongoing basis but the

fundamental structure is relevant to Australia’s existing VET needs and is a good

model for other countries to consider when developing a national VET system.

Australia has a national VET strategy agreed to by the Commonwealth, state and

territory governments. The title “Shaping Our Future: Australia’s National

Strategy for Vocational Education and Training 2004-2010” indicates that the

strategy covers a longer than usual planning horizon. This national strategy is a

commitment by the governments to continue to work in partnership with industry

providers and other stakeholders to develop vocational education and training.

The four key objectives of the strategy are

Industry will have a highly skilled workforce to support strong

performance in the global economy.

29

Employers and individuals will be at the centre of vocational

education and training.

Communities and regions will be strengthened economically and

socially through learning and employment.

Indigenous Australians will have skills for viable jobs and their

learning culture will be shared14.

In accordance with the Skilling Australia’s Workforce Act 2005, DEST, on behalf

of the Minister for Vocational and Technical Education, produces the annual

national report for the national training system. These reports provide

assessment of the performance of the national training system during that year,

detailed information on the operation of the national system, and its

achievements and challenges.

“Shaping Our Future: Australia’s National Strategy for Vocational Education and

Training 2004-2010”, the latest annual national report and a large number of

other relevant VET policy documents can be found on the DEST web site at

www.dest.gov.au .

Prepared by: Mr Antoine Barnaart, VET Consultant and currently Australian Team

Leader, Australia China (Chongqing) VET Project, previously Pro Vice Chancellor

(TAFE & International), Northern Territory University, Australia.

14 www.dest.gov.au

30

Community Colleges and Further Education

in Canada

Michael L. Skolnik

Michael L. Skolnik is currently a Professor and William G. Davis Chair in Community

College Leadership at the University of Toronto.

Community Colleges in Canada

Canada is a bilingual, multicultural country consisting of ten provinces and three

territories. It is the second largest country in the world, spanning almost 10 million square

kilometers. With a population of about 32 million, it has one of the lowest population

densities in the world, 3.3 people per square kilometer. However, over 43 per cent of the

population lives in six major metropolitan areas (Toronto, Montreal, Vancouver, Ottawa,

Calgary, and Edmonton), and a large proportion of the population lives within 300

kilometers of the border with the United States.

Politically, Canada is a federation in which education, including postsecondary

education, is within the jurisdiction of the provinces. There is neither a federal

department of education nor an integrated national system of education. There is no

national legislation pertaining to the establishment, governance or missions of higher

education institutions. However, the federal government has had a significant influence

on the development of postsecondary education owing to its responsibility for national

economic policy and its superior capacity for raising revenue. In the 1960s, the

Government of Canada provided much of the capital funding for the establishment of

community colleges in the provinces, and for a time it shared the costs of operating

funding with the provinces. The federal government still provides funding for

postsecondary education in numerous ways including payments for occupational

retraining and acquisition of official languages, student financial assistance, research

grants, and support of programs for aboriginal students.

In spite of the financial support that the federal government provides for

postsecondary education, matters such as the governance, mission, structure, and content

31

of postsecondary education are fully under the control of the provinces. The

contemporary community colleges were established by the provinces to serve as

instruments of provincial social and economic policy, and in contrast to the universities

which have been given considerable autonomy, community colleges are subject to a great

deal of direction and regulation by provincial governments. Because of the differences

among the provinces in regard to the management of their respective community college

systems, it is difficult to offer many generalizations about Canada’s community colleges

as a whole.

By way of introductory comment, one final point, regarding terminology, may be

helpful for readers who wish to delve further into the literature on community colleges

and postsecondary education in Canada. The practice in Canada is to use the term

“college” without any modifier to refer to a community college type institution. That is,

to an institution that offers programs mainly or entirely below the baccalaureate level for

which completion of secondary school is a normal admission requirement. The term

“university” is used in Canada to refer to any postsecondary institution for which the bulk

of programs are at the baccalaureate or higher level. The terms, two-year and four-year,

institutions are not used in Canada to differentiate between the two principal sectors of

postsecondary education. This would not be appropriate, as several community colleges,

including all of the ones in Ontario, offer some programs of three years’ duration. As

well, historically baccalaureate degrees in some provinces were normally of three years’

length, and many three year baccalaureate programs still exist. Thus, in Canada, the

phrase, “going to college”, means attending a community college, not a university. I shall

follow that convention in this chapter. Where I use the word, college, I mean community

college, though I will also use the prefix, community, where there is any doubt as to what

type of college is meant. Also, the word, degree, is generally used to refer to a

baccalaureate or higher degree, since associate’s degrees are not awarded in most

provinces.

Origins and Varieties of Provincial College Systems

The origins of community colleges in Canada lie in two distinct historical periods

of quite different length and specificity. The first was the period prior to the 1960s when

32

a variety of types of non-university postsecondary institutions came into existence and

developed through what Campbell called “a process of quiet evolution” (Campbell, 1971,

p. 3). The second period was largely between the early 1960s and the early 1970s when

most provinces created systems of community colleges with precise mandates and

comprehensive arrangements for funding, governance, and programming.

It is unclear just when the first period actually started. D. McCormack Smyth,

who was a member of the inaugural governing board of a college that was opened at the

beginning of the second period, traces the origins of Ontario’s community colleges back

to the Mechanics Institutes that were first established in 1830 (Smyth, 1970, pp. 3-4). In

the first book on Canadian community colleges, Campbell identified Victoria College in

British Columbia as the first junior college in Canada. Under an affiliation with McGill

University in Montreal, about 4,000 kilometers away, Victoria College began offering

lower division Arts and Science courses in 1903. The College continued as a junior

college subsequently changing its affiliation from McGill University to the University of

British Columbia, and in 1962 it became the independent University of Victoria. As of

1958-59, the national statistics agency in Canada reported that there were 49 junior

colleges, over half of which were in Quebec, forty of which were under the control of

churches, and only two of which used the term, junior college, in their titles (cited in

Campbell, p. 5). One of the two was Lethbridge Junior College in Alberta, which was

established in 1957. In their authoritative 1986 book on Canada’s community colleges,

Dennison and Gallagher named Lethbridge Junior College as Canada’s first community

college, though they said that a case could also be made for Lakehead College of Arts,

Science and Technology in Ontario, which was formed in 1956 from a predecessor

institution, Lakehead Technical Institute, which had started in 1948. (Dennison and

Gallagher, 1986, p. 301).

Whereas in the first period the impetus for the establishment of an individual

community college type institution came from a municipality, church, or other group of

interested persons, in the second period it was provincial governments that provided not

only the will but also the direction and design for emerging systems of community

colleges. In most cases, the blueprint for these new provincial systems of colleges came

from a royal commission or other type of comprehensive study of provincial needs and

33

resources. For example, in British Columbia, the influential study was a report prepared

by the President of the University of British Columbia, John B. Macdonald, which

recommended the establishment of six community colleges in the context of a broader

plan to address the postsecondary educational needs of the Province (Macdonald, 1962).

In Quebec, a royal commission on Education, headed by Alphonse-Marie Parent,

recommended a new system of colleges as part of a major overhaul of the entire

educational system (Royal Commission of Inquiry, 1963-1966). Between 1963 and 1973,

six provinces enacted legislation pertaining to the establishment, funding, and operation

of new systems of community colleges.

Although there were differences in the timing and nature of the new college

systems among the provinces, Dennison and Gallagher identified some common factors

that contributed significantly to these developments. The first and most urgent was the

projected increase in the number of secondary school leavers. Even if the postsecondary

participation rate did not continue to increase, postsecondary education systems would

have had to expand substantially in order to accommodate the increased numbers in the

relevant age group. Enrolment in college and university programs in Canada was 120,000

in 1960, but was projected to increase to 250,000 by 1967 and to over 350,000 by 1970

(Dennison and Gallagher, 1986, p. 12).

Although plans were being made to increase the capacity of the university sector,

there was a consensus that some other kinds of postsecondary institutions should be

created to handle a substantial portion of the expected increase in postsecondary

enrolment. One reason for this was that as a result of changes in technology, there was

thought to be a great need for workers who were trained at a level that was intermediate

between high school and university. For example, some industry leaders were arguing

that the optimal ratio of engineering technicians and technologists to engineers was 3:1,

whereas the actual ratio in Canada in the 1960s was 1:3 (Skolnik, 1970, pp. 287-288).

Another concern was that while more individuals needed some postsecondary education

than in the past in order to cope with the increased complexity of the modern economy,

many of these individuals neither needed nor were adequately prepared for a university

education. Tied in with the latter concern was the mater of finding the resources for an

unprecedented expansion of postsecondary education. As an historian of the development

34

of postsecondary education in Ontario observed in a comment that would fit other

provinces also, "It was clear that the province could bankrupt itself in a vain attempt to

provide the most expensive of post-secondary facilities [i.e., universities] to all comers,

regardless of evidence of ability to benefit from them” (Fleming, 1971, p. 492). A yet

additional factor identified by Dennison and Gallagher was the strong influence of human

capital theory on government and public opinion. A number of studies were appearing

that showed the high returns that society could expect from increased investment in

higher education, including one that attributed about a third of the 25 per cent income per

capita gap between the United States and Canada to the fact that the postsecondary

participation rate in Canada was substantially below that of the United States (Skolnik,

2005a, pp. 108-109).

Being largely creations of provincial governments, these systems varied according

to the different ways that the provincial governments of the time perceived their

respective economic, social, cultural – and political – needs. In a later publication,

Gallagher and Dennison nicely categorized the different college systems into five models

(Gallagher and Dennison, 1995). The first was that of the most and least populated

provinces, Ontario and Prince Edward Island. The colleges there were intended to be

quite distinct and separate from the universities. Their role was mainly to serve young

people who were not eligible for university admission; their mission was to provide

terminal vocational education to prepare these youth for the workforce. In introducing the

legislation for the colleges in Ontario, the Minister of Education explicitly rejected the

idea of the colleges offering what he called “university-parallel courses”, though he

indicated that this function might be considered for the colleges in the future should

circumstances change (Davis, 1966, p. 14). In order to emphasize that the colleges were

not intended to be like American community colleges in that respect, the Government

deliberately avoided the term “community college,” calling them instead Colleges of

Applied Arts and Technology – though they soon came to called community colleges

anyway.

The second model, which of Alberta and British Columbia, was for

comprehensive community colleges, modeled on those in California, which combined

university transfer programs with technical-vocational programs. A difference between

35

those two provinces was that in British Columbia the community colleges also provided

second-chance opportunities for adults while in Alberta, "most second-chance students

were still directed to government-run vocational centers established throughout the

province" (Gallagher and Dennison, 1995, p. 385).

The third model was one adopted in Manitoba, New Brunswick, Newfoundland,

and the Yukon and Northwest Territories. Like Ontario and Prince Edward Island, these

provinces and territories opted for a postsecondary vocational-technical college that did

not have a university transfer function. However, these colleges differed from those in

Ontario and Prince Edward Island in having a much stronger emphasis on shorter term

work-entry training programs than on more advanced technological education. Later,

Newfoundland incorporated a more limited form of university-transfer than British

Columbia and Alberta had into the mandate of its colleges.

The fourth and fifth models were unique to Saskatchewan and Quebec

respectively. The Saskatchewan model was characterized by a combination of colleges

without walls in the rural areas and technical institutes in the urban areas. The former

operated as brokers rather than as service providers, with the responsibility to arrange for

provision of educational services by other institutions and community agencies. This

function was intended to meet the adult education and community development needs of

a populace that was widely dispersed in small communities that were experiencing

declining population. This part of the model was, as Dennison and Gallagher explain,

"effectively set aside in the late 1980s when four previously independent technical

institutes were reconstituted as a new multi-campus Saskatchewan Institute of Applied

Science and Technology and the more rural community colleges began to provide, as

well as broker, educational services" (Gallagher and Dennison, 1995, pp. 385-386).

Perhaps the most distinctive model was Quebec's in which a system of colleges of

general and vocational education (CEGEPs) that borrowed from European experience

was established. Situated after Grade 11, these colleges had two streams: a university

preparation stream of two years which was a requirement for a Quebec student intending

to go to a Quebec university; and a career preparation stream of three years. The Quebec

colleges were not originally intended to place much emphasis on adult education or short

term vocational training, but most soon became active adult education centers anyway.

36

Because it starts after Grade 11, and is compulsory for students going on to university,

the two year stream in the Quebec colleges is normally referred to as a university

preparation rather than a university transfer stream.

The remaining province, Nova Scotia, did not create a system of community

colleges during the period when all the other provinces were doing so. At the time, Nova

Scotia had the largest number of universities per capita of any province, and 70 per cent

of the population lived within 50 kilometers of a university. The province also had two

institutes of technology, a land survey institute, an agricultural college that offered both

university level and vocational courses and a junior college campus of one of the

provincial universities. While it was not until later that the Government saw benefit in

combining some of these institutions into a comprehensive community college, it made

an innovative merger between two them in 1974. In that year, the junior college campus

of St. Francis Xavier University was merged with the Nova Scotia Eastern Institute of

Technology to create University College Cape Breton, an institution that combines the

mission of a university and the mission of a community college. This institution changed

its name to Cape Breton University in February, 2005, but it continues to offer both

university programs and programs associated with a community college. Nova Scotia

Community College, a multi-campus institution with 19 campuses in 14 communities

was created in 1988.

Data on Numbers of Institutions and Enrolment

Determining the number of community colleges in Canada is not as

straightforward a matter as one might assume. At the root of this problem is the

ambiguity as to what a community college is. Campbell defined a community college as

“a non-degree granting public or private institution offering vocational or university

parallel studies, or both, in programs of one, two, or three years’ duration” (Campbell,

1971, p. 7). However, Campbell excluded for-profit institutions as well as many

institutions whose programs were predominantly in the form of short-term vocational

training for adults. Rather than offering a dictionary type definition of the community

college, Dennison and Gallagher listed ten characteristics which taken together could be

seen as distinguishing community colleges from other educational institutions in Canada:

37

curriculum comprehensiveness; student heterogeneity; open admissions; substantial

provision of student services; operational flexibility; decentralization of institutional

facilities; responsiveness to government; emphasis on teaching and learning; community

orientation; and their essential public character (Dennison and Gallagher, 1986, pp. 69-

80).

In practice there are two sources of information for determining the number of

community colleges in Canada. One is the membership list of the Association of

Canadian Community Colleges (ACCC), a national agency whose activities include

networking, lobbying, providing information and education pertaining to community

colleges, facilitating exchanges with other countries, and providing direct services for

member institutions. As of October, 2005, the ACCC listed 142 member institutions on

its web site (www.accc.ca). In contrast, Statistics Canada’s registry of community

colleges included 204 institutions (Orton, 2003, p. 7). One difference between the lists is

that Statistics Canada includes many small institutions that have a limited vocational

education mandate, for example radiation therapy training units in hospitals. Another

difference is in regard to the treatment of multi-campus institutions. For example, in New

Brunswick, formally there is a singe institution, New Brunswick Community College

which is operated directly by the provincial Department of Training and Employment

Development and has eleven campuses. In 2003, all eleven campuses were listed as

members in the ACCC directory, but in 2005, only two members were listed, the main

centers for administration of anglophone and francophone programming respectively.

Having gone over these lists with the Dennison-Gallagher characteristics of community

colleges in mind, my conclusion is that a stringent estimate of the number of community

colleges in Canada would be about 125, while a broader definition could take the number

to about 150 (Skolnik, 2004).

While the enrolment data provided by Statistics Canada are based upon a broader

definition, most of the institutions that might be excluded under a more stringent

definition are quite small. Thus, the Statistics Canada figures provide a reasonably good

estimate of enrolment in community colleges in Canada. However, Statistics Canada has

been in the process of revising its approach to postsecondary enrolment data, so the latest

comprehensive data available are for 1999-2000. In that year, college enrolment was

38

408,781 full-time and 85,396 part-time, for a total of 494,177 (derived from Statistics

Canada, 2003, pp. 348-349). While part-time enrolment constituted 17.3% of the total for

Canada, for one province, British Columbia, part-time enrolment was especially

prominent, comprising 54.9% of the total. Community colleges accounted for about 37

per cent of total postsecondary enrolment for Canada as a whole, and over 50 per cent in

British Columbia, and over 40 per cent in Quebec. It should be noted that the college

enrolment figures presented here are for only those college programs that are considered

to be of a “postsecondary” nature, that is, programs of at least one year’s duration which

may require completion of secondary school for admission. The ACCC has estimated that

the total number of persons served annually by Canada’s colleges in all their programs –

which include general adult education courses, apprenticeship, literacy, contract training

for industry, and so on – is about 2.5 million (Brown, 2002, p. 3).

Characteristics and Recent Emphases

Earlier I noted what Dennison and Gallagher described as the ten core

characteristics of community colleges in Canada. Here I would like to elaborate on a few

of these characteristics and indicate some significant shifts of emphasis in relation to

them. One of the most fundamental characteristics of Canada’s community colleges is

curriculum comprehensiveness. In terms of subject matter, program structure and

duration, method and format of instruction, location and scheduling, and target clientele,

the range is enormous but nevertheless continually increasing. Frequently internal and

external observers of the colleges express wonder at their ability to manage such a

bewildering variety of activities that take place on a daily basis, but colleges appear to

thrive on diversity and change. However, given the great range of actual and potential

areas and types of college activity, and the fact that funding always seems to be

inadequate relative to the number of persons that the colleges could usefully serve, it is

no easy matter to decide which activities to expand or strengthen, and as a consequence,

which not to expand or strengthen.

As colleges were established to serve as instruments of provincial policy, such

decisions are influenced considerably by their provincial masters. Often direction comes

in the form of regulations and policy guidelines reflecting a level of intrusiveness and

39

detail that provincial governments would rarely if ever apply to their university systems.

However, provincial governments have found that too much explicit direction can have a

stultifying effect, and instead have been encouraging colleges to behave in a more

entrepreneurial manner consistent with broad provincial social and economic goals, and

subject to oversight by the appropriate government ministry. Such an approach of

granting more latitude to college governing boards, subject to provincial oversight and

with explicit provision for the government to limit the powers of local boards should it

chose to do so, was in evidence in the 2002 Ontario Colleges of Applied Arts and

Technology Act which replaced the earlier legislation pertaining to the colleges in that

province. Increasingly, provincial oversight of the colleges has come to include the

annual production of ever more sophisticated performance indicators and in some

provinces the use of performance funding for the colleges. In keeping with the original

idea that the colleges should be able to respond quickly and flexibly to demands of

provincial governments, and also the more recent emphasis on colleges responding

similarly to the dictates of the market, participatory decision-making structures of the

kind associated with the university have largely been excluded from the design of the

colleges. An exception was when significant elements of shared governance were

introduced into British Columbia colleges in legislative amendments in 1991. While

some tepid moves toward giving faculty more voice in colleges’ academic decisions in a

few other provinces have occurred, the fact that university governance structures have

been under some criticism in Canada for allegedly impeding the ability of universities to

behave more entrepreneurially makes it unlikely that colleges will emulate universities in

this regard in the foreseeable future.

The factor that has had the greatest influence in shaping the colleges in the past

decade or so undoubtedly is globalization. Within the new global economy the

enterprises for which the colleges have traditionally provided graduates of two or three

year occupational education programs have come under greater competitive pressure to

be innovative and efficient. In turn, government has raised its expectations for

educational institutions to provide the kinds of services that will make local economies

more globally competitive, and these institutions have seen themselves more and more as

operating within an international environment subject to global competition in their

40

provision of various educational activities. Being expected to serve as engines of

economic growth is nothing new for Canada’s colleges: since their founding, this has

been one of the most important elements in the missions of colleges in all provinces and

the single dominant element of college missions in several provinces. However,

globalization has led all provincial governments to intensify their expectations for and

pressure on the economic service function of colleges, and it has stimulated major

expansions of certain types of economic services provided by the colleges.

One such type of service is contract training for industry. As Ray Ivany, President

of Nova Scotia Community College, notes, the vast majority of Canadian colleges engage

in the provision of customized training for particular enterprises and industries, and after

work force preparation, this activity “ranks as the second most important role for colleges

in economic development” (Ivany, 2004, p. 6). According to Gerry Brown, President of

the Association of Canadian Community Colleges, contract training with industry now

typically accounts for 20 to 30 per cent of a college’s revenue (Gadd, 2005, p. E4).

Examples include the petroleum industry in Alberta paying Keyano College in Fort

McMurray to train workers in extraction technology for the oil sands; and the east coast

shipping industry paying to have pilots trained in a two million dollar ship’s bridge

simulator at the School of Maritime Studies in St. John’s, Newfoundland. Sometimes the

services that colleges provide for industry and government clients go beyond training to

include the design and development of programming and infrastructure, and sometimes

the clients are overseas, as in the case of an $800 million contract that Newfoundland’s

College of the North Atlantic won in 2000 in regard to the establishment of a new college

for the Government of Qatar.

In many cases, contract training is provided in the context of a broader partnership

between colleges and industry which involve other activities of mutual benefit to both

parties including professional development opportunities for college faculty, as for

example, in the partnerships that some colleges, like Niagara College in Ontario, have

with the automobile manufacturing industry. Often industry contributes funds that enable

a college to obtain the state-of-the-art technology that it needs. For example, Sheridan

College in Ontario was able to build a new 18,000 square-foot Centre for Advanced

Manufacturing and Design Technologies with the combined financial assistance of the

41

provincial government, the city of Brampton, and local industry.  This new centre,

announced in October, 2005, will train students and workers in the latest design and

manufacturing technologies and, according to the mayor, help both to address the

shortage of skilled labor in Ontario and make Ontario industry more globally

competitive.

Another college activity that can produce significant economic benefits and which

has expanded substantially in recent years is that of applied research. In many areas

where colleges offer programs that are on the frontier of knowledge and technique in

applied areas of study, they have the technology and the faculty expertise that make the

conducting of applied research a natural complement to their related instructional

activity. In one example, applied researchers at Southern Alberta Institute of Technology

helped a new local firm develop a new type of highly efficient hot water boiler of which

about 250 are now produced monthly. Twelve students were involved in development of

the prototype, and six were eventually hired by the firm. Another example is the applied

research for the aviation and aerospace industry provided by Red River College in

Manitoba. Jim Madder, vice-president, academic, at Red Deer College in Alberta

estimates that more than half of Canada’s community colleges have a formal applied

research program, and at another thirty per cent some project-based research is being

conducted (Ryval, 2005, p. E1). An indication of the extent to which colleges are

involved in applied research is the funding that they have received from the Canada

Foundation for Innovation (CFI). The CFI is an independent corporation created by the

Government of Canada to strengthen the capacity of Canadian universities, colleges,

research hospitals, and non-profit research institutions to carry out world-class research

and technology development. As of the end of June, 2005, 30 colleges had received

funding totaling over $30 million (Canadian Foundation for Innovation, 2005). An

indication of how applied research has been recognized as a role of colleges is that the

new Colleges Act in Ontario, unlike the previous Act, lists applied research as one of the

core functions of the colleges – along with forming partnerships with industry.

The increasing involvement of colleges in externally funded research is reflective

of the high level of technical expertise of their faculty and the corresponding

sophistication of many of their occupational education programs, one consequence of

42

which is that many university graduates subsequently enroll in colleges to acquire job

ready skills. At one college in Ontario, for example, one in six applicants for

occupational education programs is a university graduate, and the college has developed

more than forty programs that cater specifically to university graduates. In a related vein,

colleges now offer many joint baccalaureate programs with universities which combine

courses from each type of institution. A particularly innovative example of such

collaboration is a new campus in Toronto that was established jointly by the University of

Guelph and Humber Institute of Technology and Advanced Learning (formerly Humber

College). Every program at Guelph-Humber is designed by a team of faculty from each

institution, and graduates earn both a diploma from Humber and a baccalaureate degree

from the University. The first six programs developed were Business Administration,

Computing, Early Childhood Education, Family and Community Social Services, Justice

Studies and Police Foundations, and Media Studies, the last four being areas where the

University did not have a program of its own. Another area of significant collaboration

between community colleges and universities is nursing education. A baccalaureate in

nursing is now required for registered nurses in most provinces, and many new nurses,

including the vast majority in Ontario, receive their education in programs that are

delivered jointly by colleges and universities.

Besides collaborating with universities in the provision of baccalaureate

programs, colleges in Canada now offer some baccalaureate programs on their own. This

trend started in the late 1980s when a handful of community colleges in British

Columbia, mostly in areas that were distant from the nearest university, were given the

authority to offer baccalaureate programs while maintaining their community college

focus. These institutions were renamed “university colleges” to indicate their combined

mandate. Now all community colleges in three of the four largest provinces – Ontario,

British Columbia, and Alberta – may apply to a provincial quality assessment board to

offer baccalaureate programs in applied fields of study, and as of October, 2005, about 40

colleges had obtained approval to offer over a hundred programs. Under recent

legislation in Alberta, colleges in that province may apply to the Ministry for approval to

offer baccalaureate programs in traditional academic areas, and one college, Grant

MacEwan College in Edmonton, has obtained such approval. There are two rationales for

43

this revolutionary development in which before long nearly half the colleges in Canada

may be offering baccalaureate degree programs: to expand baccalaureate access, even in

a country which already has one of the highest participation rates in baccalaureate

programs in the world; and to offer an allegedly new type of postsecondary education in

Canada, that combines the advanced liberal and theoretical education of the university

with the high level technical and applied education of a college. An assumption

underlying the second rationale is that such a type of education will enhance the

competitiveness of Canadian industry. The first rationale is also related to globalization,

as it is believed that a baccalaureate will be a more desired credential than a college

diploma in an increasingly competitive, global labor market. The movement of colleges

into baccalaureate education has been less controversial in Canada than in the United

States, probably because the programs here have been largely restricted to applied fields

of study and can thus be seen as extensions of existing career education role of the

colleges. Still, this development raises many troubling questions about the future of the

colleges, especially whether it will compromise the colleges’ historic commitment to

academically and economically disadvantaged students (Skolnik, 2005b).

Conclusions: the Challenge of Balancing Economic and Non-Economic Roles

From the time of their establishment, Canada’s colleges have had to balance their

economic and non-economic roles. The former involved serving as engines of economic

growth through provision of appropriately skilled workers, augmented recently by the

provision of applied research and the development of a culture of entrepreneurship. The

non-economic roles have included cultivating broader human development, providing

opportunities for individuals to change their lives, enriching the quality of life, and

generally contributing to the betterment of communities and society. The ways that these

roles are balanced have varied over time and between provinces, but the last decade has

witnessed substantial pressure everywhere for colleges to emphasize their economic role.

The concern that the largely economically-driven entry of colleges into offering applied

baccalaureate programs may result in less attention being given to the most

disadvantaged learners is indicative of broader fears about a growing imbalance between

these two roles. Other manifestations of that fear are the fact that it is generally much

44

easier for colleges to obtain government and other external funding for “high end”

activities than for literacy and basic skills education; and that whereas there used to be a

considerable philanthropic component in colleges’ international activity, such activity

now appears to be largely commercially driven. As Levin noted for colleges in both

Canada and the United States, in the 1990s, “the mission of the community college had

less emphasis on education and more on training,; less emphasis on community social

needs and more on the economic needs of business and industry; less emphasis upon

individual development and more on work-force preparation and retraining” (Levin,

2001, p. 171).

On the other hand, the record is not entirely one-sided. Recent issues of the

ACCC publication on international activity of colleges show examples of philanthropic

behavior in the overseas activities of Canadian colleges (Gupta, 2004); a recent report

shows considerable activity in colleges to respond to the needs of the large numbers of

immigrants who attend colleges (ACCC, 2004); colleges in areas with a large aboriginal

population continue to develop and offer innovative programs to meet the needs of

aboriginal students; and the enthusiasm with which Canadian colleges have embraced the

principles of the Learning College is indicative of their strong commitment to

maintaining what Dennison described as “an environment in which learning is revered

and in which opportunities for personal advancement abound” (Dennison, 1995, p. 282).

The greatest challenge facing Canada’s colleges in the present era of globalization and

excessive concern about competitiveness is to maintain their commitment to the values

reflected in that quotation while at the same time performing the economic role that is

expected of them and for which funding is so much more easily obtainable.

45

References

Association of Canadian Community Colleges. (2004, March). Responding to the Needs

of Immigrants. Final Report. Ottawa: Association of Canadian Community

Colleges and Human Resources and Skills Development Canada.

Brown, G. (2002). Knowledge and Innovation through Workplace Learning, College

Canada, 7(1), 3.

Campbell, G. (1971). Community Colleges in Canada. Toronto: Ryerson Press McGraw-

Hill Book Company of Canada Limited.

Canadian Foundation for Innovation. (2005) Summary of Projects Funded. Downloaded

from CFI website on October 16, 2005. http://www.innovation.ca/projects.

Davis, William G. (1966, June). Statement by the Minister in the Legislature, 21 May

1965. Reprinted in Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology Basic Documents.

Toronto: Ontario Department of Education, 5-16.

Dennison, J.D. (1995). Conclusion, in J.D. Dennison (ed.), Challenge and Opportunity:

Canada’s Community Colleges at the Crossroads. Vancouver: University of

British Columbia Press, 275-284.

Dennison, J. D. and Gallagher, P. (1986). Canada’s Community Colleges: A Critical

Analysis. Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.

Fleming, W.G. (1971). Ontario’s Educative Society, Vol. IV, Postsecondary and Adult

Education. Toronto: University of Toronto Press.

Gadd, J. (2005, September 26). Industry Links: The Rise of Teaching on Demand. Report

on Colleges. The Globe and Mail (Toronto), E4.

Gallagher, P. and Dennison, J.D. (1995). Canada’s Community College Systems: A

Study of Diversity, Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 19(5),

381-394.

Gupta, M. (2004). Canadian Colleges and Institutes Foster Relationships with the Private

Sector in Support of Socioeconomic Development in Developing Countries, ACC

International, 9(2), 4-7.

Ivany, R. (2004). Economic Development & a New Millennium Mandate for Canada’s

Community Colleges, College Canada, 9(1), 5-7.

Levin, J.S. (2001). Globalizing the Community College: Strategies for Change in the

Twenty-first Century. New York: Palgrave.

Macdonald, J.B. (1962). Higher Education in British Columbia and a Plan for the Future.

Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press.

Orton, L. (2003). A New Understanding of Postsecondary Education in Canada: A

Discussion Paper. Catalogue No. 81-595-MIE, No. 11. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.

Royal Commission of Inquiry on Education in the Province of Quebec. Alphonse-Marie

Parent, Chairman. (1963-1966). Quebec: Government of Quebec.

Ryval, M. 2005, September 26). Applied Research: Industrial Strength Problem Solving.

Report on Colleges. The Globe and Mail (Toronto), E1-2.

Skolnik, M. L. (1970, April). An Empirical Analysis of the Substitution between

Engineers and Technicians in Canada, Relations Industrielles, 25(2), 284-302.

Skolnik, M.L. (2004). The Relationship of the Community College to Other Providers of

Postsecondary and Adult Education in Canada and Implications for Public Policy,

Higher Education Perspectives 1(1), pp. 36-59. Available online.

http://aries.oise.utoronto.ca.

Skolnik, M.L. (2005a). From the 1960s to the 2000s: Reflections on the Difficulty of

Maintaining Balance between the University’s Economic and Non-economic

Objectives in Periods When its Economic Role is Highly Valued, in G.A. Jones,

P.L. McCarney and M.L. Skolnik (eds.), Creating Knowledge, Strengthening

Nations: The Changing Role of Higher Education. Toronto: University of Toronto

Press, 106-126.

Skolnik, M.L. (2005b). The Community College Baccalaureate in Canada: Addressing

Accessibility and Workforce Needs, in D.L. Floyd, M.L. Skolnik and K.P. Walker

(eds.), The Community College Baccalaureate: Emerging Trends and Policy

Issues. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing, LLC, 49-72.

Smyth, D. M. (1970). Some Aspects of the Development of Ontario Colleges of Applied

Arts and Technology. M. Phil. Thesis. Toronto: University of Toronto.

Statistics Canada and Council of Ministers of Education Canada. (2003). Education

Indicators in Canada: Report of the Pan-Canadian Education Indicators Program

2003. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.

47

The Chilean Experience in Technical and Further Education:

Public Policies and Private Providers

Marcelo Von ChrismarCristobal Silva

Mary Crabbe GershwinShelley L. Wood

Philip Cary

Introduction

The history of Chilean education echoes a traditional belief in the primacy of

academic over vocational studies. However, the story of Chilean education also includes

active steps to bring vocational education to the people of Chile in order to aid the

commercial advancement of the country. In 1981 academic and vocational education

entered into their current structure. This structure designates a three-tiered hierarchy of

educational institutions: Universities; Professional Institutes; and Technical Training

Centers. This section will provide a background on the history and the current structure

of secondary and post-secondary education in Chile.

 

Current Secondary Educational System in Chile

Chilean students begin their education with eight years of primary school,

followed by four years of compulsory secondary education. Secondary education is

taught in two branches: humanistic-scientific (EMHC) and technical-professional

(EMTP). Students completing the former are granted a degree leading to Higher

Education studies. The Technical-Professional students complete two years of a basic

core curricula and two years of specialization in a trade.

Current Post-Secondary Options in Chile

In the Eighties, Chilean national law reinforced education as a right for all people,

and developed a privatized state regulated system for higher learning educational

initiatives. The guiding principle of the government was that any state action with regard

to civil society would be as limited as possible. The principles of privatization were

applied across all sectors of government including social security, health, and education.

Services traditionally provided or administered by the State in past decades were

transferred over to private institutions.

According to these new orientations or improvements, there was an important

transformation of the Chilean Higher Education System in 1980. Among the innovations

incorporated by these new regulations, the four constituent elements were: the transfer of

financial responsibility from the State to the students; the diversification of the

institutions according to levels and categories; comprehensive freedom from government

regulations for establishing and founding new institutions, offering a broad spectrum of

variety and quality and a high degree of discrimination in the way the financial support

from the State is assigned.

The State no longer creates Universities by law, but rather limits itself to maintain

on public record for 6 to 11 years, the operational statutes of those institutions which

organize and monitor private entities. This monitoring is done by an autonomous public

institution called Consejo Superior de Educación and in some cases directly by the

Ministry of Education. Given this context Vocational Higher Education in Chile has been

developed almost exclusively by Private Providers.

Historical Background on Technical Education in Chile

According to the historian Amanda Labarca, in her classic, The History of

Teaching in Chile, the tradition of technical training originated with the founding of the

San Luis Academy in 1797, by don Manuel de Salas y Corvalán. Clearly ahead of its

time, the San Luis Academy was, “the only attempt that we know of in the Colony, of a

49

school oriented toward the worker or laborer, industry and commerce of the country. It

was ahead of its time by almost a half a century to similar institutions in America”.15

A Technical Education System is born

After Independence in 1810, in the year 1849, in response to pressing needs for

technical and scientific development voiced by the National Society of Agriculture, the

School of Arts and Trades was opened by the recently created University of Chile,

making it the first formal institution devoted to technical education in the Republic of

Chile. The project rapidly expanded to include Copiapó, La Serena and Antofagasta. The

Industrial Schools of Concepción, Temuco and Valdivia soon came together with the

goal of educating and training the human resources required for the industrial

development in all regions of the country. All of the schools, springing forth from the

original concept of the School of Arts and Trades, became branches of what would be

called the Technical State University created in 1947.

Technical Training Institutes – focused on workforce development for industry

The first attempts to create “Commercial Institutes” occurred in 1898 with the

founding of the Commercial Institute of Santiago.16 In 1925 there were 11 established

commercial institutions in different cities throughout the country. The “Industrial and

Mining Schools” began to spread with the offering of a course to train mechanical

engineers and electricians for the armed forces, annexed to the School of Arts and Trades,

which beginning in 1900, started to send promising students abroad. Similar to this

project was the creation of the “Mining Practices Schools” in Copiapó, La Serena and

Santiago. “Agriculture Schools” originated in a school annexed to the “Normal School”

established in 1857 under the support and of the National Agricultural Society.17

15 Amanda Labarca H., “Historia de la Enseñanza en Chile”. Imprenta Universitaria, Santiago, 1939, p. 5816 Amanda Labarca. Op.Cit. p. 24517 Fernando Campos H. “Desarrollo Educacional 1810-1960”, Editorial Andrés Bello, Santiago, 1960. P.44

50

Technical training institutes in Chile had a private origin as well. The Catholic

Church played a key role, participating in the educational development of the country

since the pioneering days of the Colony. The Don Bosco Brothers (Salesianos) were

foremost in technical training, offering free professional training to disadvantaged youth

starting in Concepcion around 1887. 18 The first private initiative in post-secondary

technical education appears in 1888 with the Founding of the Universidad Católica de

Chile, initially conceived at the time as both a University and a polytechnic institution.

Abdón Cifuentes, one of the founding fathers of the new university, justified the technical

mission of the university by declaring:

“It is accurate and correct to establish on a large scale and in a scientific

manner the teaching of the arts and social sciences to the people, it is

appropriate to open new and varied vocational and labor activities, and it is

correct to augment the means to earn a living for those thousands upon

thousands of youth whom might be literary bumpkins, but true geniuses in

industry. Fewer walking encyclopedias and more work, less rhetoric and more

industry, fewer sophists and more engineers, less theory and more applied

sciences, this is what this new hard working country needs to increase its

wealth, prosperity and well being.”19.

Lack of Public and Government Support Hinders Progress

However, the predisposition for the establishment of vocational education was not

shared by all sectors of Chilean society in the 19th century. On the contrary, the

prevailing tendency in defining educational policy aimed precisely in the opposite

direction. Efforts to develop institutions, programs, and curriculum for technical

education met with strong resistance from the “Estado Docente”: the guiding paradigm of

all the public Chilean educational policies, right up to the end of the 20th century. The

Constitution itself declared education to be a “Preferential State Priority”. The

educational model which was based upon, and clearly inspired by, the French

18 Fernando Campos H. Op Cit. P. 4419 Quoted in Ricardo Krebs, María Angélica Muñoz y Patricio Valdivieso, Historia de la Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Universidad Católica de Chile, Santiago, 1994, Tomo I, P.. 17.

51

encyclopedic orientation did not consider Technical or Vocational Education sufficiently

worthy to merit public interest.20

Valentín Letelier, probably the most influential figure in public educational policy

in both the 19th and 20th centuries, came to hold the opinion:

“All Special Instruction (which today we call vocational training), has a direct

profit motive, tending individuals to sell their souls…This is what jumps out

and disgusts one in the general culture of North America. In those souls

educated in that manner, there is no more worry than becoming rich, and their

nobler sentiments atrophy and they no longer understand as the politician and

philanthropist devote themselves to less productive work and activity.”21

This view, in the judgment of a follower of Letelier, the historian Luis Galdames,

largely explains the “social devaluation of technical training and corresponding

professions.”22

Taking these factors under consideration and with the State maintaining the main

role in the entire educational system, Technical Training as such, hardly developed up

until the mid part of the 20th century. In 1907 all the industrial oriented schools had no

20 “In spite of the cultural traditions coming from the Iberian Peninsula, and the growing economic presence of Britain in Latin America since the years of independence, it is to France that Latin American politicians and intellectuals looked toward for the institutional models of their new states, including their learning institutions. Many explanations could be given to this fact: Anglo-Saxon culture and traditions were more alien, and their language more remote. More to the point, perhaps, were the revolutionary rhetoric and France's effort to build a modern nation through the strength of the State, an appealing model when civil society was so weak and the economy so poorly developed as in Latin America”. Schwartzman, Simon. “Latin America: National Responses to World Challenges in Higher Education”, en Philip G. Altbach and Patti McGill Peterson, eds., Higher Education in the 21st Century: Global Challenge and National Response, Published in cooperation with the Institute of International Education, New York, 1999.21 Quoted by Gonzalo Vial in “Historia de Chile (1891-1973) Vol. I Tit. I, Santillana, Santiago, 1984, p.16622 Luis Galdames. "Valentín Letelier y su Obra 1852-1919". Imprenta Universitaria, Santiago, 1937. P. 236.Even though Galdames himself says Valentin Letelier, in his acts, and particularly during his tenure as Dean of the University of Chile, gave proof of an attitude somewhat more flexible than his opinions, he also recognizes these ideas were generally pushed to extremes by his followers, and “in countries like Chile and the rest of Ibero- America, where the industrial or merchant work was deemed fruitful, but not honorable, that concept grew stronger under the protection of the master, with an evident prejudice towards private and public economies.”

52

more than 200 students combined.23 By 1920 technical training served no more than 4.5%

of all individuals who received some form of education in the country.

Industrial Development in Chile Pushes Government to Rethink the Role of Technical

Education—1930s – 70s

It was not until the government of Pedro Aguirre Cerda (1938-1941), and the

creation of CORFO (Corporación de Fomento de la Producción), combined with the great

industrial push within the country, that technical training came to have a real priority role

for the Chilean State. By 1956 state establishments of technical and vocational education

at various levels counted a respectable enrollment of 70,663 students.24 Meanwhile, in

1947 the government merged several independent vocational mining, engineering, arts

and trades schools into the Industrial Engineering School in Santiago and the Technical

Pedagogic Institute with the goal of creating a new public university. The aforementioned

Technical State University was exclusively oriented toward technical education.25

At the same time, several diverse and relatively autonomous private centers

developed under the academic supervision of the University of Chile, which reserved the

right to issue diplomas and certificates. Among these groups the Catholic University was

one of the most active centers, making a big effort to develop courses in electronics and

telegraphy, taught at the Electro Technical Institute, “Manuel Francisco Irarrázaval.” In

1920, it became known as the Industry, Commercial and Polytechnic Institute. The

Institute offered programs in: Assistant Electrician, Assistant Industrial Engineer, and

Assistant Construction Engineer, all with three year programs. One of its most well

known rectors, Monsignor Carlos Casanueva said, “Today’s civil engineers lack, not

strong backs, but rather a collaborator or technical interpreter capable of interpreting and

discerning his thoughts…”. Education for assistant engineers was provided by the

23 Fernando Campos H. Op. Cit. P.4424 Fernando Campos H. Op. Cit. P. 5125 Andrés Bernasconi, Organisational diversity in Chilean Higher Education: Faculty Regimes in private and Public Universities. Boston University. Doctoral Dissertation, 2003

53

Institute, which enjoyed notable success up until 1950, when the Catholic University

created the new “Facultad de Tecnología”26.

An equivalent effort was undertaken by another private entity but with a secular

orientation, established in 1932 by the philanthropist Federico Santa María,27 creating the

School of Arts and Trades and the José Miguel Carrera College of Engineers (currently

known as the Federico Santa María Technical University). This university is still

operating and offers three year technical programs.

From the 1960’s on, universities that offered short term technical education, as

Universidad Técnica del Estado, Universidad Federico Santa María and Universidad

Católica de Chile, started to expand the length of the technical and professional

programs, making them increasingly similar to the traditional academic programs.

Simultaneously, new educational initiatives were generated, based on short training

courses mainly geared towards workers and employees. These initiatives would become

the origins of the current vocational-type tertiary education institutions. Two current

leading examples are the Instituto Nacional de Capacitación (INACAP) and

Departamento Universitario Obrero Campesino (DUOC) from Universidad Católica.

Current Legal Background for Chilean Higher Education

Until late 1970’s, the higher education system in Chile was made up of nine

universities, two of them state owned with 60% of the enrollment distributed over various

regional campuses. The rest of the universities were private. All of them, however, had a

highly public orientation; they were either created or recognized by a special law and

completely financed by the State. Nevertheless, such corporations were completely

autonomous, both economically and academically speaking, being totally exempt from

providing open-book academic and financial results. Many of the privates were highly

26 Ricardo Krebs.Op. cit. P. 390-39127 “I wish, above all, to tell my countrymen that the last 30 years of my life were solely devoted to altruism and to this effect I drafted my last will in 1894, bequeathing Valparaiso’s society a University, but as I time went by, experience showed me I was wrong and that it was of the utmost importance to raise the proletariat of my country, conceiving a plan by which, I would contribute firstly with my legacy to childhood, immediately after to Primary School, then to the School of Arts and Trade and finally to the College of Engineers, by giving the needy unpaid trainee the possibility of reaching the highest level of human knowledge”.  Federico Santa María’s will, dated Paris 1920.

54

selective institutions that provided education to a total of 7% of youth (20-24 years old) –

a small percentage of the population. 28

The Educational Reforms of the 1980’s – Deregulation and New Structures for Higher

Education

In 1980, Chile passed a new Political Constitution whose structure remains

basically intact in spite of having undergone some amendments, the most recent of which

were passed during the Office of Ricardo Lagos. Following the political currents of the

Reagan-Thatcher era, the new Constitution introduced significant changes into the

political and economic organization of the country. The “subsidiary principle” was to

articulate all relations between the state and civil society. The essence of this principle is

that the State limits its intervention only to activities which private parties are not

interested in or incapable of assuming, and in establishing minimum rules and regulations

which guarantee the rights and fundamental privileges of individuals.

Services traditionally administered by the State in past decades, such as social

security, health, and education, were transferred over to private institutions. In education,

the old paradigm of a “Estado Docente” (the idea of an all encompassing role of the State

in education; education is considered a State function in all aspects) is substituted by the

concept of a “Estado Subsidiario” (a subsidiary state). In this case, the State transfers

educational responsibility to non-governmental providers with the fullest guarantee of

educational freedom, but setting minimal standards in all aspects of the educational

activity.

Under the framework of the 1980 Constitution, in 1981 legislation was passed

establishing a general reform for the Higher Education System. The four constituent

elements of this general reform are as follows:

1. Transfer of financial responsibility for education from the State to the students;

2. Diversification of the institutions, according to levels and categories;

3. Total freedom from government interference for newly created, private

institutions

28 Bernasconi, Andres y Rojas, Fernando. Informe Sobre la educación superior en Chile 1980-2003.Editorial Sudamericana, Santiago, 2004. P.29

55

4. High level of discrimination in the way financial support from the State is

assigned.

In 1990 the Ley Orgánica Constitucional de Enseñanza (LOCE) was passed,

gathering all substantial characteristics and structures of the 1980 amendment. The State

ceased to create Universities by law and instead limited itself to maintain on public

record for 6 to 11 years, the operational statutes of those institutions which organize and

monitor private entities. This monitoring is done by an autonomous public organism

called “Consejo Superior de Educación”, or the Ministry of Education.

The current organization of Chilean post-secondary education is structured in 3

institutional categories:

Universities,

Professional Institutes (IP)

Technical Training Centers (CFT).

The hierarchy of the institutions, according to LOCE, depends on the type of

degrees they can grant, in ascending order of difficulty: CFT can only grant a “Título

Técnico de Nivel Superior”, equivalent to the typical licencing, degrees, or diplomas

offered by 2 year programs in an American Community College. IP grant a “Título

Técnico” and Professional Degrees that would not require a Baccalaureate or Bachelor

degree (they generally correspond to 4 year programs). At the top of the system,

Universities grant Professional degrees both with or without a Baccalaureate or Bachelor,

(programs that will generally last 5 to 7 years), and other academic degrees recognized by

law, including Master and PhDs. In addition, the 17 professional degrees that require at

least a Baccalaureate (e.g. medicine, law, architecture, etc) exclusively belong to

Universities.29

29 In the Chilean system, the professional qualification is given by educational institutions.  Three certification levels or “degrees” can be observed which enable the graduate to exercise a technical or professional activity:  The degree “Mid-Level Technician””, “Higher-Level Technician” and the “Professional Degree”.  Mid-Level technician is a certificate given by some High Schools, and it is a vocational program with differences in the last levels. On the other hand, Higher-Level Technician and the Professional degrees correspond to certificates granted by Higher-Education Institutions.  The exception is the license to practice law, which is granted by the Supreme Court.

56

Peculiarities of the New, Reformed System

The post-secondary educational system in Chile is not only structured by new

reforms and regulations of the 1980’s. Some of its characteristics have been generated

through regulatory exceptions, political decisions, or simply, common practices from the

private institutions that have been accepted or tolerated by authorities.

In fact, there are still some former public and private universities or ‘traditional’

universities that were created before 1981 and have been ‘grandfathered’ into the new

system. There are new ones, several of which grew out from those that were already in

existence. These 25 universities maintain traditional functions, as they were either created

or recognized by the State through special laws. Among some of their privileges, these

institutions still receive important and direct financial support from the State, which is not

available for the rest of the institutions. At the same time, the students who enroll in any

of the universities belonging to this group of ‘traditional universities’ are entitled to

economic support from the State under exceptionally favorable terms and conditions,

either as a scholarship or subsidiary loan. A recent law established a State Guaranteed

Credit System which benefits some private institutional students, however, with less

favorable conditions than the aforementioned.

Thus, there are two coexisting sub-systems of higher education that operate

independently from one another: the one with the 25 ‘traditional’ universities, that enrolls

41% of the students within the system and the rest of the higher educational institutions,

composed of 204 entities which enroll 59% of the students. This dichotomy, which is not

articulated in the general structure of the reforms, is one of the most relevant elements in

the segmentation of the system.

Another peculiarity of the post-secondary education system in Chile is that by law

universities “would always be non-profit private corporations.”30 By contrast, IP and CFT

institutions can be established as for-profit corporations. However, in reality, most of the

universities that were formed after 1981 (private universities) correspond to individual or

organizational, for-profit entrepreneurs that have established operational models that

30 Art.30, Ley 18.962, Orgánica Constitucional de Enseñanza, March 10 1990.

57

allow return on investment for owners by using indirect control formulas and complex

legal strategies31.

A third peculiarity of the system is that all State institutions devoted to vocational

or technical education, that were originally derived from Universidad Técnica del Estado,

and that were originally established as Professional Institutes in 1981, were transformed

into Universities in the 90’s. In this way, the State is currently in charge of Universities,

and most post-secondary technical education is provided by private IP and private CFT32.

Current situation in Post-Secondary Technical Education

Post-secondary education coverage in Chile accounts for 37% of the population

between 18 and 24 years old, surpassing 700,000 students. Higher education of

technicians is provided by the three institutional categories already mentioned (CFT, IP,

and Universities). Percentages of students enrolled are distributed unevenly with a

majority in the shorter programs at the technical training centers: Universities (14.1%);

Professional Institutes (23.6%); and Technical Training Centers with 62.3% of the total

enrollment. The total enrollment for short two year careers reaches 20% of the entire

system.

Declining Enrollment in Technical Education, Post-Reform

Enrollment in programs leading to certification at this level has been highly

variable. After a strong push in the 80’s representing 80% of the post-secondary system it

plummeted to only 10% or so. However, after the year 2000 enrollment stabilized at

20.2% of the total for tertiary education in the country. One of the most relevant reason

for this, is a cultural factor which has already been described in the early part of this

work, with regards to the historical evolution of technical education in Chile. For decades

31 The most common strategy used is the establishment of Real Estate Holding companies which then rent the infrastructure back to the universities for academic operations.32 In any case, some public universities such as the Universidad de Santiago and some private ones, as well, offer technical careers or short term professional careers, generally of three years duration. Recently, some public universities and traditional private universities have organized, principally through profit organizational structures, small Technical Formation Centers.

58

Chilean society has considered academic (university) education as the most important

and desirable type of education.

Policies Hindering Enrollment

The decline in post-secondary technical education enrollments is due to a cultural

belief in the superiority of academic, university-type education. As a result, there exists a

complete lack of promotional or public policy incentives to aid technical education.

Several examples illustrate this point:

donations to technical training centers (unlike universities) are not tax deductible;

financing for students (who are typically from the lower economic strata) is

provided primarily by private agents with some minor Government support

available.

lack of articulation between technical education programs has hindered students’

possibilities to transfer and/or work toward further professional degrees

Some of the primary institutions specifically dedicated to technical training closed

during the period. In part, a lack of institutional capacity explains the decline. When the

main State public institutions refocused on university studies leaving the vocational

sector, many small for-profit schools took on the burden of technical education. In fact,

of the 117 CFT which are currently in operation, 47.7% of them do not surpass an

enrollment of 250 students.

Definition Problems Hindering Enrollment

Another important weakness in Technical Training is the overlapping curricula

with Middle School Professional Technical Education. The strong impetus of this type of

secondary education, which educates 40% of students of middle-school age, contemplates

a curriculum which is provided free and often boasts curricula and graduate profiles

which are claimed to be superior to the next level of education and, in some cases, even

higher than professional education levels. While it is improbable that middle school

students in Chile are achieving skill levels beyond those offered at the post-secondary

59

level, technical colleges have often responded by over-reaching and promising to fulfill

ever higher academic and technical goals for their students. These goals are difficult to

achieve in two year programs, and thus harm the reputation of the institutions.

Solutions Currently Being Tested

Recently, some measures still not validated by results, have been adopted in an attempt to at least halt the decline of enrollment seen in the late nineties.

MECESUP and the World Bank

World Bank financing is providing access to grants and funding through the

MECESUP Program33. Between the years 2000 and 2004, 69 projects for more than 23

million dollar were approved to support areas such as: improvement of the effectiveness,

quality, and innovation in thematic areas of national importance or projects fostering

effective improvements in productivity, such as teacher upgrading, curricula updating,

use of modern management practices, etc34. The government developed another program

called “Chile Califica”, also with World Bank funding, focused on the creation of inter-

institutional networks for the development of projects leading to comprehensive

articulation between different levels of formal education and training programs. From the

standpoint of financial student aid, the government has begun to award limited partial

scholarships35. In addition, a law has recently been passed establishing a new system for

student aid with State guarantee for students attending Public and Private Universities,

Professional Institutes, Technical Training Centers and the Armed Forces Schools

Network. These scholarships are aimed at students with academic merit and economic

necessity. The new student aid system will begin to operate in 2006.

33 MECESUP in Spanish means: Improvement of the Quality and Equitable Access in Higher Education.

34 It is worth noting that 98% of the resources of the MECESUP program were reserved for 25 “Traditional” Universities.35 The program “Becas Nuevo Milenio” began in 2001 has awarded through 2005 a total of 15.00 scholarships,; an equivalent of USD$ 13.000.000. The beneficiaries, however are not exclusively CFT students but rather are made up of students from all Technical disciplines from all institutional categories.

60

However, it is important to highlight that the World Bank funded initiatives do not

appear to have gone much further than wishful thinking. Evidence of this can be found in

the conclusions arrived at by the commission in charge of evaluating the MECESUP

program for the World Bank. It states, “…the articulation problem in higher education, or

lack thereof, continues largely unchanged and MECESUP, even though in its initial

objectives mentioned the intention to undertake the issue, in practice has done nothing

(emphasis is ours) 36.” At the end of the day, the lack of government intervention to make

technical training a true priority supported by a public policy makes it highly unlikely

that vocational and professional training soon will meet the demands of a globalize

society.

Case Studies

INACAP and Duoc-UC – the largest public and private Technical Institutes in Chile

Two technical education institutions are worthy of some attention in this chapter

on Chilean post-secondary technical education: one with public roots the other private.

They are representative of the two emerging models which make up the new trends in the

field of professional and technical education in Higher Education in Chile. These two

institutions are INACAP and DuocUC.

INACAP

In 1960, SERCOTEC (Technical Cooperation Service)37 was established as a

Professional Training Department of the State and charged with improving the level of

the Chilean labor force. By 1966, the importance given to workforce development by this

department led to the creation of an autonomous organization. Renamed INACAP in

1973, training centers were established in Santiago and the regions with the cooperation

of the governments of France, Germany, Denmark, England, Belgium, and Switzerland..

However, the educational reforms of 1980 discontinued funding, forcing INACAP to

36 Ministerio de Educación Chile “Informe Final de Evaluación Programa MECESUP”. Ministerio de Educación, Santiago, 2004, p. 7837 SERCOTEC was a public agency established for the Economics Affaires Secretary.

61

begin financing its own professional education and training. In 1981, at the same time as

the above mentioned reform, INACAP was granted formal recognition as a Technical

Training Center, by which it could deliver Technical Diplomas in Higher Education, and

in the Professional Institute Professional Diplomas of four year programs. INACAP

currently has more than 60,000 students in 26 branches between Arica and Punta Arenas.

DuocUC

DuocUC was born in 1968 with the challenge of extending university work into

the agricultural and workforce sectors. From within the Catholic University, a group of

students, supported by faculty and union/labor groups, began organizing in the labor

community. Their goal was to provide access to higher education for the average citizen

in Chile. The University embraced this goal by making it one of the principles in its

Mission Statement.

The initiative was called Departamento Universitario Obrero Campesino (DUOC)

and it began to offer educational programs for administrative assistants, handicrafts,

gardening, electrical installations, community development and other similar activities.

Without much formal structure, DuocUC took hold quickly and enrollment boomed. This

accelerated development inspired the university to grant it special autonomous status to

meet its specific mission more effectively, as well as obtain its own financial resources

without having to rely on the University budget.

In the reforms of 1980, The DuocUC Foundation adapted its academic structure to

new regulations, creating the “Professional Institute DuocUC” and the “Technical

Training Center DuocUC” receiving official recognition for both in 1982 and 1983

respectively. Nowadays DuocUC is one of the most important institutions in Higher

Education in the country with a total of 42,000 full time students, and more than 40

programs at the technical level (2 year programs) and 30 at the professional level (4 year

programs).

Academic programs are oriented to develop specific competencies required by

industry and labor markets, supported by a competency based curricula model.

62

Furthermore, these academic programs incorporate five broad core competencies: Ethics,

Math Skills, Communication in Spanish and Critical Thinking, Computer Literacy,

Entrepreneurship, and Functional English Fluency

Since approximately the year 2000 the DuocUC institutional response in

Vocational Training has focused on IT (Information Technologies) and Teaching of

English as a Foreign Language. DuocUC currently has the largest TEFL program in

higher education in Chile, if not South America, with over 20,000 fulltime EFL students,

with all careers having English as a mandatory requirement for graduation.

On line course programs are another expression of this challenge offering blended

learning and complete on line virtual campus alternatives. These on line platforms are

perceived as a competitive resource for international partner institutions looking to

provide academic alternatives at lower costs as part of international academic exchange

programs. In addition, a comprehensive Ethics Program provides students with a high

behavior standard educational model.

63

How These Institutions Have Survived and Thrived in Chile

Both institutions have developed rather similar strategies to assure their

continuous growth and development: in spite of unfavorable governmental policies for

the vocational sector, enrollments have thrived.

1. They are non-profit private institutions. Even though this condition does not

entail receiving any special treatment from the State, or any special legal status, it

allows these entities to allocate profits, earned through highly efficient operations,

to finance development projects. Both institutions place special emphasis on

maintaining an excellent infrastructure and procuring and maintaining state-of-

the-art technological equipment.

2. The operational size of these institutions also works to their advantage. If

INACAP is the biggest institution in higher technical education in the country in

terms of enrollment, DuocUC is the biggest in the three geographical regions in

which it operates. In the professional institutes category both institutions

concentrate over 60% of all enrollment in the segment. Given the weakness of

many smaller institutions which have not reached a critical level of development,

these two private institutions have an important advantage due to their size. 38

3. Development of an integrated operational model to simultaneously act as

CFT (technical) and IP (professional) and grant certificates of both kinds.

Representing both institutional categories, they make use of the same

infrastructure, resources, and staff to develop curricula for each level according to

homogeneous standards. However, this means more than taking advantage of

economies of scale. Where the lack of articulation with other educational levels

has been a weakness of the CFTs, INACAP as well as DuocUC, have developed

curricula that allows for direct articulation between professional and technical

levels, assuring students from short study programs the possibility to continue

studying in the higher levels.

38 In DuocUC’s case, that is reflected in the growth achieved between 2000-2005, in which the higher education system of the country grew 35%, but DuocUC achieved an 82% growth.

64

DuocUC and INACAP have followed different paths in their strategy of

articulation towards the college level. While INACAP has recently acquired a

private university, integrating in one organization the three levels admitted in the

system39, DuocUC has undertaken a strategy to reach articulation agreements with

some of the most renowned universities of the country. However, both are

achieving success through implementation of their models.

4. Strict Internal mechanisms are in place to assure homogeneous standards

of quality. This feature is similar between institutions in the sense they both

operate a multi-site system distributed over a wide geographic area. However,

they each apply the principle of internal control in different ways. In DuocUC,

each site (or campus) serves on average 4,000 students and all campuses are

located in the most populated cities. Each site purposefully focuses its academic

offerings to a specific industrial area, thus concentrating resources. INACAP,

having smaller centers, focuses its strategy on a wider geographical coverage

distributed in all regions of the country. In spite of their differences, both

institutions devote most of their efforts to establishing programs and control

mechanisms which enable each center to express the same educational attributes

regardless of location and size. The sites operate independently from one another

but are centrally managed as part of a hierarchical system, which is in permanent

communication with the sites.

5. Providing adequate financing for their student bodies is another strategy

that ensures long term growth and survival for both DuocUC and INACAP.

By instituting strict observance of quality and operational controls, they are able

to offer programs with tuitions averaging lower than half the cost of other 39 This 3 level institutional integration strategy has been used in the Chilean system, but from top to bottom. It is the case of the Sylvan consortium which has changed its name from “Sylvan Learning Systems Inc.” to “Laureate Education Inc.”, as of May 17, 2004. This consortium took over two of the biggest private universities of the country: Universidad de Las Américas and Universidad Nacional Andrés Bello, which operates jointly with Professional Institute AIEP. A similar experience has been developed by Universidad Santo Tomás, with a regional chain integrating an IP with a CFT. Other universities, public and private, have undertaken similar initiatives, but still on a reduced scale.

65

prestigious universities.40 Furthermore, both institutions have developed their own

scholarship programs and financing agreements with banks. They have also

obtained direct support from companies for the partial financing of their workers

and families studies. This has enabled access to higher education for lower

income social groups historically excluded from traditional institutions, but which

today constitutes the segment of general population with the highest expansion

within the system. The importance of this factor will become more apparent in the

next section.

These strategies, guided by the principle of consistently providing high quality,

have earned both institutions a prominent status and a high level of credibility within the

system in Chile. Recently, both institutions have been granted institutional accreditation

for six years, over a maximum of seven by the Comisión Nacional de Acreditación -

CNAP, the public agency responsible for the quality assurance process in the country.41

It is through an examination of these somewhat different, public (INACAP) and

private (DuocUC) institutions that one finds the possibility for survival within a policy

environment that remains unfavorable, and even hostile, toward post-secondary technical

education. But beyond the success story behind the institutional experience, there still

remains the pressing need for expanded access by lower income groups. While many in

these groups are willing to make great personal and financial sacrifices, technical

education remains out of reach for far too many.

Challenge and opportunities for Technical Education in Chile

In spite of declining enrollments in the vocational sector, Chile has experienced a

strong increase in higher education coverage, in general, in terms of percentage of

population. Nevertheless, this coverage varies significantly depending on the socio

economic level of the population. There are evident differences among the quintiles of

40 The average tuition in these institutions varies from US$1,000 to US$2,000, while in a mid-size university this easily reaches US$4,000. 41 Currently INACAP and DuocUC are the only IP and CFT institutions which have achieved CNAP certification.

66

population. In 2003, the high income bracket (V quintile) boasted a 73.7% enrollment in

higher education of youth ages 18-25. This exceeds enrollment levels in many more

advanced countries. Yet, in lower income levels (I Quintile), a minority of 14.5% was

enrolled.42

In coming years, the increase in enrollment in post-secondary technical education

is anticipated to be 45% (by 2010). The expected student population of some 800,000

necessarily will be based on increased enrollment from the lower income quintiles. This

will bring an increase in pressures for socioeconomic assistance than is currently planned.

Likewise, we anticipate an increase in need for remedial offerings as more low income

students enter for training. As evidenced in U.S. post-secondary education, we also

expect to see the use of additional student services, including those aimed at retaining

those at risk for attrition.

Employer demand for skilled workers is rising around the globe. It is our

conviction that implementation of public policies in Chile that specifically focus on the

development of technical education is urgently needed. We must meet demands for

human capital to enable the economy to be competitive with the most advanced countries.

Likewise, there should be increased opportunities for upward social mobility, assuring

levels of fairness in accordance with a modern and politically stable country.

In order to materialize such policies, the State must be effectively involved in

higher technical education. It can certainly begin, as it has, by strengthening programs

and initiatives launched by public universities. But this alone will not have a significant

impact in the mid-term. Currently, the traditional academic institutions do not have

adequate expertise to manage technical/vocational training models of education. Also,

since their institutional priorities are oriented elsewhere, technical education will not

receive the attention needed to develop and thrive.

A more effective means would be to make use of the institutions that for decades

have been able to develop the sector in spite of difficulties. The strategy of institutional

diversification seemed to give good results at the beginning of the reforms started in the

80’s, achieving the important development reached by the IPs and CFTs. There are many

42 Source: Ministry of Planning, Chile, Document Nº4, 2003.

67

weak institutions, but others have been able to overcome obstacles and remain strong.

Instead of creating new institutions, it would be interesting to consider the possibility of

transferring the experience of the most successful entities to those with lower levels of

consolidation.

The development of vocational higher education represents an important

opportunity to overcome the persistent inequalities still present in Chilean society.

Fostering the rapid education of high level technicians (2 year study courses) would help

to decrease the deficit of trained labor force. At the same time, incrementing and

improving financing policies to establish substantial incentives to enable the

aforementioned (loans and scholarship policies) would result in a safer leverage

instrument for smaller suppliers. Furthermore, it is a fact that societal benefits are greater

when vocational/ higher education is offered to population levels which have a deficient

secondary education and also lack the resources to reach university.

Chile is currently constrained by an academic degree and professional title

structure that is inflexible. If articulation plans between the levels were developed,

students who have discontinued university studies could acquire some demonstrable and

profitable competence in the labor market. Likewise, those who have achieved technical

degrees could seek further professional levels in the university. The establishment of

official systems which grant formal recognition to different models and levels of

certification for knowledge and labor competencies should be synchronized with formal

education systems at all levels.

Finally, to increase quality and productivity in the higher education system, and

put it at the level demanded by an economy based on the intensive use of knowledge, it is

necessary to adapt Chilean systems to those validated internationally in the more

advanced countries. It is also necessary to further develop the emerging internationally

validated procedures for quality assessment and assurance, promote the transference of

Best Practices and efficient management models, and increase relationships within the

global higher education market.

68

Conclusions –Chilean Technical Education

The modern economy is based on knowledge, and the greatest wealth of nations is

measured by their ability to produce and utilize this intangible commodity. Countries

with a higher level of development have obtained an edge by focusing their policies on

the increase of human social capital. A significant feature of a high level of national

social capital is demonstrated first by high levels of literacy in the general population,

and secondly by broad support of higher education. Chile, in spite of being a highly

productive country, with relatively high levels of school enrollment and productivity,

continues to show major deficiencies in higher education. In terms of quality and student

access for all economic sectors, prevailing policies have worked more against than in

favor of higher education in the area of technical education.

The history of post-secondary technical education has been mixed with a typical

struggle between demands in the labor market for advanced technical skills versus

cultural prejudices against vocationally oriented education. Both INACAP and Duoc-UC

have created sustainable, high quality education despite the obstacles. Upcoming and

current changes are promising, yet it remains to be seen if Chile will be willing to

recognize the sources of expertise in implementing new policies. Hopefully, Chile will

emerge as a globally recognized leader in the field of workforce development in the

coming decades.

69

Community Colleges and Further Education

in China:

Gerard Postiglione

Don Watkins

Wang Liangjuan

China’s higher education sector has been experiencing a massive transformation.

It has moved from one of the lowest participation rates to become the nation with the

most students on earth in higher learning institutions. With 5.28 million students and a

4.5 percent participation rate in 1994, China’s higher education sector reached 20 million

students, a 19 percent participation rate in 2004-05.

It is not surprising that massification has led to a major challenge – the capacity to

meet the rising demand for higher education resulting from the successful popularization

of nine year compulsory education and the demand for a highly skilled work force so as

to satisfy national aspirations to become a global economic power. With only 30 percent

of academic staff having a master’s degree or above and only 9 percent having a

doctorate, maintaining quality becomes problematic. Moreover, an increasingly

inequitable system continues to grow, with disparities across regions of the country and

society. Furthermore, in its 21st project, China’s push to develop 100 world class

universities in the 21st century has meant a massive infusion of funds for elite

universities, while other institutions of higher education, including vocational-technical

and community colleges, continue to struggle with funding.

Despite the massification of higher education, China has yet to popularize the

American community college models as have many other countries, including Hong

Kong, where community colleges were used to double the number of places in

postsecondary education within the short span of five years (2001-2005). The contrast

between the Hong Kong and China systems illustrates the different ways that community

colleges models are adapted. Hong Kong’s community colleges award the associate

degree and articulate their programs with universities and four year colleges.

China has employed two-three year community colleges as a supplement to its

well developed adult vocational and technical education sector, but without associate

degrees, articulation and opportunity for successful students to transfer to degree-granting

institutions. Diplomas and skill certificates are awarded, both with lower labor market

status. They have become especially crucial as China looks for mechanisms to handle the

growing diversity of needs in urban districts and its western rural regions – especially

building skilled labor capacity, retraining laid off workers from the shrinking state owned

enterprises and training of unskilled rural migrants. Nevertheless, China has paid

enormous attention to the potential of American community colleges for modernizing its

higher vocational-technical education within its rapidly prospering urban areas. This

includes junior colleges that are part of what is known as regular higher education sector,

as well as the largely voc-tech adult higher education sector.

With respect to China’s human resource challenges, the problem is not with

university student graduates because they tend to enjoy preferential treatment due to the

household registration quota (permit to remain in urban areas) and they all tend to be

competitive in the labor market, despite the rapid rise in university graduates’

unemployment that began to occur in 2003. In comparison, laid-off workers are older,

have a low-level of education and need support to adapt to the new market economy.

With an estimated 140 million rural workers migrating to the cities to find work, much

discrimination awaits them as they usually are not issued a permit to reside and have low

levels of formal schooling. Of China’s 15-59 working age population, only five percent

have received specialist education at university, a figure much lower than that of

developed nations.

The Community College Movement in China

China’s interest in community colleges became evident in the 1980s during the

early phase of China’s reform and opening to the outside world -- a time when foreign

innovations were being assessed for their potential contribution to China’s modernization

drive. As early as 1982, during a meeting at Fudan University with one of us, the Vice

71

President, an internationally renowned scientist, explained China’s need to develop U.S.-

type community colleges and requested US assistance to develop them. In 1985, one of

us was asked to assist a master’s degree student writing a dissertation about American

community colleges and was invited to an education commission meeting on higher

vocational-technical education at which Canadian community college models figured

prominently. Another one of us comes from China has studied community college

development in China for many years.

Among the international agencies aiding China’s efforts to learn about and

experiment with community college models were the World Bank and the Ford

Foundation. The Bank supported study overseas visits and Ford continues to support

capacity building in particular colleges, as well as research related to training of migrants.

Through hundreds of visits and two-way in international exchanger’s Chinese

educators and officials have explored a variety of models to determine the most effective

ways to produce skilled labor and advanced professionals in accordance with China’s

needs. In addition to North American community colleges, German technical and Dual-

system vocational colleges, Australia’s Technical and Further Education (TAFE), and

similar institutions in France, South Korea and Japan have been considered.

Today, with the support and encouragement of the American Association of

Community Colleges (AACC), more than eighty US community colleges have developed

agreement affiliations and exchanges with Chinese counterparts. Maricopa Community

College system (Arizona), LaGuardia CC/city University of New York, San Francisco

City College (California) and Lorain County CC (Ohio) are among those with well-

established working relationships.

In 1984, The U.S. China Education Foundation (USCEF) collaborated with

Chengdu city and Qionglai County, Sichuan to establish the Heihutan Village School of

Agriculture, a two-year college designed to assist a rural area modernize in three priority

areas: tertiary education, agricultural mechanization and rural economic development

including sideline enterprises. USCEF supported William Hinton, known in China as Han

Ding, an agriculture specialist with many years of China experience, as a farm

mechanization advisor to the college. The UNDP supported Dr. Paul Chen of Oregon

72

State University, to lecture and provide curriculum advice at Heihutan for several

months.

Heihutan incorporated some features common in U.S, community colleges-open

access for high school graduates or equivalency, general education requirements for

curricula leading to diplomas, short-cycle and part-time courses open to village adults

and farmers, and agriculture extension work similar to that provided by U.S. land-grant

universities, certificates and diplomas could be earned. However, articulation with

degree-granting institutions, transfer and degrees were not possible. By 1988, the

Heihutan College was widely recognized in Sichuan and neighboring provinces as an

effective institution combining concepts of U.S community colleges. As a result,

Qionglai was designated of one of only three agricultural experimental counties out of

Sichuan’s 200. By 1990, the college was self-sustaining. At the turn of the 21st century,

Heihutan College had provided several thousand rural residents with full time or short

cycle education.

The experience with Heihutan and its close relationship with the Shanxi Province-

City University of New York partnership initiated in 1985 led USCEF to consider

additional possibilities for community college development in China. Based upon needs

identified by China’s educators and officials and with significant Ford Foundation

Funding since 1999, USCEF sponsored a collaborative, three-year community college in

China project (CCIC). Action grants were awarded to colleges-two in Beijing, two in

Taiyuan and two in Shanghai. The colleges developed projects designed to enable them

to incorporate some community colleges features and become more comprehensive

educational institutions. Curriculum developments, career counseling centers,

paraprofessional social work training, community outreach programs and training for

district enterprises were among the grant projects.

Each college was invited to send two professors to selected U.S community

colleges as professional fellows for five to six-week internships linked to its specific

grant. Mesa Community College and PIMA Community College (Arizona), Pikes Peak

Community College (Colorado), Middlesex Community College (Massachusetts) and

Howard Community College (Maryland) were the cooperating hosts. USCEF supported

U.S. community college consultants to assist the Chinese Colleges in implementing their

73

grants. With the coordination of the National Committee on US-China Relations, CCIC

hosted a community college leadership delegation of Chinese college leaders, researchers

and officials. The delegation visited a diverse group of community colleges in New York,

Iowa, Texas and Arizona, and participated in the America Association of Community

Colleges Centennial meeting in Chicago.

USCEF sponsored a series of thematic workshops in China designed to sum up

activities and to plot a new course for cooperation in community college development. In

November 2001 USCEF/CCIC sponsored a workshop at Shanghai Teachers University

for our partner colleges. It provided a forum in which program participants could

network, discuss “lessons learned,” and set the stage for future activities. College

presidents and staffers, a number of them former interns, and members of our April 2001

Leadership Group attended. Mr. Liu Junyi, the Director of the Vocational-Technical

Education Bureau of the Division of Higher Education, Ministry of Education addressed

the opening plenary of the workshop. He emphasized China’s need for community

colleges for regional economic development, to provide life-long learning opportunities,

and to meet the needs of an urbanizing rural sector. He stated that CCs should show five

characteristics:

1. Openness CCs must break out of the traditional “walled-in” education model.

2. Diversity CCs should offer a diverse range of credential-granting and non-

credential granting educational opportunities.

3. Flexibility should be expressed in a CC’s programs and approaches.

4. Resource sharing CCs will have to rely on local and existing resources-a new

system will “definitely not start from scratch”.

5. Social Participation

In April 2002, USCEF hosted representatives from CCIC partner colleges and the

Tertiary Technical and Vocational Education Research Association of China

(TTVERAC) to attend the AACC convention in Seattle. Several members of the group

gave presentations on community colleges in China. They also arranged post-conference

visits to community colleges in California and Arizona.

74

In November 2002, CCIC/USCEF, Shanghai Teachers University (STU), and

TTVERAC sponsored a 3-day conference on leadership and management for community

colleges in China at STU. One hundred educators from the US and China participated in

the workshops. Chinese participants included representatives from our partner institutions

as well as members of TTVERAC, the Shanghai and Beijing education communities, US

participants included an AACC-sponsored delegation of US community college leaders.

Researchers of School of Education of Beijing University were engaged to conduct an

evaluation of the first two years of the project. They identified some problems with

follow up and implementation of the Action Grants. Nevertheless, there are the following

major positive findings:

1. Feedback about the internship programs was overwhelmingly positive. Faculty

members who took part in the program spoke highly of their American host

colleges and their learning experiences, and provided concrete examples of some

features of the US community colleges they’d like to incorporate into future

development of their college.

2. Chinese educators have said that because of the project, their attitude and vision

have been changed toward college teaching and learning. Such features of the US

institutions as student-centered teaching and learning, and close links between the

college and community are most frequently deemed as worth learning by the

Chinese educators.

The interest in American community colleges has been largely focused on

improving vocational-technical capacity, as well as building a more efficient model of

administration and finance, without including general education, core requirements basic

to all United States community college associate degrees, articulation and transfer to

baccalaureate institutions.

The driving force in China’s community college movement within the larger voc-

tech sector has been the transition from a planned to a market economy, especially

solving the emergent problems of massive layoffs of workers from state owned

enterprises (xiagang) and migration of rural farmers seeking work in urban areas

75

(nonggong). As the planned economy, well-known for guaranteed employment, was

jettisoned, many state owned enterprises were gradually sold off and privatized. New

criteria for efficiency of production and marketability of products led to the laying off of

hundreds of thousands of workers, many in their middle age, who were without new job

prospects. In many cases, the budding market economy was not able to absorb these

workers. At the same time, large numbers of rural residents were descending upon

China’s cities looking for work. While many of them were among the most educated

from the donor regions that were leaving, few had the skills needed to support the urban

host regions where they settled. Therefore, China’s community college movement

focused less on the ideology of democracy through equality of educational opportunity,

as often represented by the associate degree and pathways to four-year colleges and

universities. Rather, the need in China was defined in terms of finding better ways to

deliver vocational and technical skills to adults seeking or changing employment in a

dynamic economy that needed more skilled workers in variety of new fields.

The community college movement also occurred during a major overhaul of

China’s senior secondary and higher education systems. During the period of the planned

economy, ministries ran their own middle level specialized secondary schools

(zhongzhuan) schools, as well as their own colleges. These led directly to employment

within work units under their respective ministries. However, with the introduction of

market forces, these institutions became costly to run and were either merged with other

institutions, and/or transferred from ministry control to provincial control. At the same

time, the government began to expand regular senior secondary vocational education

(zhigao) under city education departments. These no longer guaranteed employment after

graduation but were encouraged to build close relationships with industrial enterprises

and gain financial support by preparing graduates for work and meshing training with the

needs of those enterprises.

China’s higher education system has maintained the split between regular and

adult higher education. The former are government sponsored institutions that usually

enroll students directly from secondary school. The upper layer offers the four year

bachelor degree and the lower layer offers a two - three year junior college curriculum

that is both general and vocational. The adult higher education sector comprises

76

vocational and technical schools and colleges, largely affiliated with industries and

businesses leading to diplomas and certificates, and providing a path toward the

government sponsored self-study examinations that can lead toward a bachelor-degree.

They primarily enroll employees of those industries and businesses. The enrolments in

adult higher education nearly equaled that for regular higher education, even though the

status of adult higher education, generally a part-time supplement, is generally viewed as

lower than that for regular higher education, despite the fact that both have similar

diploma titles. While China has removed the age limit for the higher education entrance

examination for regular colleges and universities, the split sector (adult and regular)

remains, particularly in the manner in which higher education is administered.

Community colleges emerged as part of the adult higher education sphere. Adult higher

education, which received a big boost after the Cultural Revolution as a solution to the

closing of colleges and universities that affected a generation of students from 1944-

1976, expanded along with regular higher education.

Adult higher education (chengren gaodeng jiaoyu) may provide specialized study

(zhuanke), similar to an associate degree, and even provide a path to an adult education

bachelor degree (chenren benke xuewei). Those who want to attain such a degree must

first pass the national adult higher education examination (chengren gaokao), which is

easier than the national higher education entrance examination. However, attaining the

actual bachelor degree requires adults to pass a series of difficult self-study examinations

(zikao).

There has also been an explosion of private colleges, also referred to as popularly

run (minban) colleges. In fact, only about 25 of the 1662 can confer a bachelor’s degree,

and about one hundred provide a credential comparable to an associate degree (da zhuan

xueli). Nevertheless, there are a number of problems, including the lack of a sound legal

environment (despite the 2002 promulgation of a Private Education Promotion Law) and

policies that guarantee fair competition with public education, indefinite ownership and

insecurity, all of which are deterrents to the further development of private education. In

recent years, the private colleges have had to compete with a new form of higher

education known as independent colleges (er ji xueyuan). These colleges are attached to

77

public colleges and universities and benefit by their academic reputation and financial

resources.

As public colleges and universities establish these independent colleges, they

operate like private institutions in the sense that they can lower student admission scores

and charge higher rates of tuition and fees. However, few independent colleges can be

truly independent. Many do not have their own campuses as their major investors are the

parent public institution. Critics argue that the major function of government should be to

formulate rules and maintain an environment of fair competition, and it is unfair when the

resources of independent colleges and most private schools are those left over by public

resources. Since the tuition and fees of public schools are highly restricted, public schools

use private mechanisms to earn profits. Some believe these quasi-private colleges are the

main obstacle to the development of private higher education, since they hinder the

formulation of a pattern for the common development of public and private education.

A major role of the private colleges has been to help the students enter the

Chinese self-learning examination (zikao) – an examination system managed by the

government. If someone can pass the whole series of examination courses in one

academic area (i.e. Chinese literature, computer studies, accounting, etc.), a bachelor

degree can be awarded. The private colleges help those students who cannot enter public

universities prepare for these self-study examinations.

According to the Ministry of Education in 2002, there were 1,337,300 students

who graduated from regular higher education institutions and 1,175,000 who graduated

from adult higher education institutions. Applicants for self study examination number

1,267,700. Students enrolled in the self-examination system account for 60.7 percent of

students in higher education. From 1981 to 2004, 4300 thousands of students took part in

self-examination in China and 625 thousands of those were awarded dazhuan or bachelor

degree. Students who pass a course can receive credit for that course. Those who fail the

course may retake it as many times as it takes to earn a passing grade. Individuals select

their own courses. Generally, the rate of students who get a self-examination degree is

about 30-40 percent of the total every year. Starting from the 1981, there were several

specialties offered, including Chinese, law, economy, mathematics and English; the

number has grown to 500 specialties.

78

The Concept and Reality

The named community colleges in China mainly grew out of the adult education

institutions under state or local governments. In order to further develop adult education

schools, city governments like Beijing and Shanghai borrowed the name -- community

colleges from United States, and opened them to the local community. Although it

seemed like community colleges could develop well and meet the needs of urban

residents in the 1990s, the central government did not accept the name community

college and many community colleges are still not officially recognized by the central

government. Many community colleges applied to be recognized and changed their name

to higher professional and technical college (gaodeng zhiye jishu xueyuan). Since

community college can not recruit students who take part in the national higher education

entrance examination, --an important source for college students, it became increasingly

difficult for these institutions. Nevertheless, China’s named community colleges and

specialized vocational and technical colleges can, in some cases, provide a few bachelor

degree programs and specialized technical degrees (dazhuan degree lower than a

bachelor degree). Haidian University in Beijing, Sanda College in Shanghai’s Pudong

district and xian Translation College in Xian are three notable examples.

“The Blue Print”

The most important document affecting the planning of higher vocational-

technical education in China, including community colleges is the human resource

blueprint (Strategic Concepts for the Development of Chinese Education and Human

Resources for the Next Fifty Years, hereafter referred to as the Blueprint) published in

2003. It was the first time that China organized scholars and experts, research institutions

and government organs in education, economics, population control, laws, finance, and

agriculture to compose a large research report on education. The Blueprint calls for a 99

percent enrolment rate for nine-year compulsory education by 2020, when 100 percent of

junior secondary school students will enter senior secondary education. The current 54

percent enrolment rate in senior secondary education will grow to 73 percent by 2010, 85

percent by 2020, and 100 percent by 2050, when more than half of secondary school

79

graduates will enter college or university and the percent of GDP invested in education

will increase from its current four percent to 7.8 percent.

With respect to vocational-technical education, there is a very clear statement in

the Blueprint on the part of government that it will move ahead. The following are

excerpts:

a) Up to 2010, out of 100,000 people, the numbers attending junior college

and above to increase from 3,600 in 2000 to around 7,700, and the total

number receiving senior secondary degrees to increase from 11,000 in

2000 to around 16,000.

b) The proportion of employees receiving a junior college education or above

should increase from 4.66 percent in 2000 to over ten percent in 2010.

c) By 2020, there should be 13,000 out of 100,000 people receiving a junior

college education or above; there should be 20,000 out of 100,000 people

receiving a senior secondary education. People of working age (25-64

years) should have an average education of ten years; the level education

of the workforce should be increased till 12 years; workers in the

commercial and service sectors should on average receive approximately

11 years of schooling, 20 percent of whom would possess educational

level of junior college and above, basically reaching the level of

Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD)

nations at the close of the twentieth century.

d) By 2050, there should be 31,000 people out of every 100,000 who have

received a junior college education or above; those with senior college

level should about 30,000 people. Increase the amount of education of the

workforce to near 14 years; the average years of education for workers in

the commercial and service sectors should be 13.5 years, and of these 40

percent would have had an education of junior college or above, reaching

the level of developed countries at the beginning of the twenty-first

century.

80

Beijing Case Studies

In an effort to learn more about the situation of community colleges in China, we

investigated eight community colleges in Beijing in 2003. Our results show that they

provide a feasible way for disadvantaged students to get more education. But the

recognition by the central government is problematic. If they want to be accepted as a

formal part of higher education in China, they need to apply to the Ministry of Education

at the national level and change name to higher level vocational and technical colleges

(gaodeng zhiye jishu xueyuan). There are requirements for such request related to the

space of the college and its facilities.

Our investigation included interviewing community college principals and

surveying within the community colleges. These new types of higher level vocational and

technical colleges grew out of the adult higher education sector, but were permitted

beginning around 2001 to accept students directly from secondary school who took the

national higher education entrance examination (gaokao luobao sheng) but did not score

high enough for regular colleges and universities.

The adult higher education sector is composed of a broad array of institutions,

though most of its credentials awarded are not degrees but rather diplomas or other

specialized certificates. These institutions included TV universities, distance education,

cadre management colleges in different industrial and service sectors (mining, banking,

community party membership, women’s union, ethnic minority colleges, and worker

colleges (jigong xuexiao)). In short, the adult higher education that found great appeal in

the concept of community college.

The Beijing Case: There are at least eight community colleges in Beijing and

there is a great deal of diversity across institutions. Our interviews revealed the following

about the college’s general situation.

Finance

Shijinshan Community College in Beijing receives between 22 and 50 percent of

its funding from government. It raises about 45 percent from student tuition fees. The rest

is raised from the community, though college heads say they are not able to raise funds

from it easily. It often relies upon short-term training to supplement college income. This

81

can come to as much as seven million each year. The government funding each year is

about RMB 4 million from the fund for employees and retired people’s salary. The

government also appropriate special funds for construction of teaching buildings. In 2003

the government appropriated only RMB 1.4 million.

Zhongguancun College in Beijing has various sources for funding that totals

RMB 9 million each year. The government appropriates 45.6 percent of the total college

funding, and the college can earn 54.4 percent from tuition fee or other training program.

Chaoyang Community College received 40 percent of its funding from

government and it can raise about 47 percent of its funding from tuition fees.

Xicheng College receives RMB 7 million from government -- 22 percent of the

fund and it receives 78 percent --about RMB 20 million from community through

training programs etc. accounting. About half of all the finding goes to teacher salaries,

and 22 percent to administration. The student tuition fee is only about 2000-3000RMB

per year, compared to the regular public universities of about 4000-6000RMB for one

year. Generally, tuition fees are collected according to credit registration. One credit

costs about RMB 105. For a major specialist, a student might pay RMB two thousand.

Some majors such as art cost more -- about 2,500-3,000 yuan each year. The average fee

for a student at Chaoyang community college is about RMB 2600 yuan per year.

Enrollments

Regarding student numbers, the total of part-time students in community colleges

is more than that in full-time study. In one community college the spare time students

accounted for 10,000, but the full time students numbered only about 3000. Xuanwu Flag

part-time university has about 2,400 students earning a degree, but 3,500 students are

enrolled in non-degree programs. Zhongguancun College has 4400 students, but 3000

students are non degree students, accounting for 73 percent of the total.

Chaoyang Community College has 3266 full time students, 1500 of whom are in

specialized degree program and 1500 are in TV university courses -- Open university

courses that take up to 8 years of study. In addition, Chaoyang Community College

cooperates with other universities such as the Foreign Economic and Trade University

(700 students) and Beijing Industrial University (300). As many as 15,000 students are

82

part-time non-degree students and 200 students are in training class for self-examination.

The numbers of students who want to pursue degrees is about one-third (2000-3000), and

those who do not account for about two-thirds (5000-8000). There are many training

programs for people who have no job, and the government supports these programs by

making them free to students. There are also training courses for rural migrant workers in

most community colleges. In fact, most of the community colleges have provided some

kinds of training programs for rural migrants, and the government funds some of these

programs. Courses include civil servant training programs, Olympic knowledge seminars,

training programs for the elderly and those out of work, English courses for adults and

training courses for adult examination etc.

Structure

Community Colleges in China are amalgamated unit. Different branches of adult

education and some other education institutions are incorporated together and finally a

name of community college is assigned to this amalgamated unit.

Xicheng Community College is composed of Xicheng economic and scientific

University (established in 1986), Xicheng employee university (amalgamated with

Xicheng economic and scientific university in 2000), Branch of Beijing Radio and TV

university (about 2000 students. 800 of them are reading for bachelor degree), Xicheng

Financial and Trade Middle Level Specialized College. There are 3500 students reading

for the higher level specialized diploma.

Xuanwu Community College is composed of Xuanwu Flag Part-time University,

Xuanwu Radio and TV University, Xuanwu Elder People’s University, and Xuanwu

Party School. Chongwen Community College includes Chongwen Zhigong daxue,

Education Division of Radio and TV University, Finance College and Beijing Zhengyi

Vocational College. Chongwen Community College has several branches, including the

Qianmen branch and Yonwai branch.

Diplomas

Community colleges are public institutions. There are eight districts in Beijing,

and each district has its own community college. The community colleges provide many

83

kinds of diplomas for students, including bachelor’s degree, Dazhuan Degree. Various

kinds of professional training are provided for students in community colleges, and the

content of professional training always changes according to the needs of the market. The

entrance level for students is also very flexible.

There are three kinds of diplomas relating to higher education in community

colleges:

1. Adult Dazhuan diploma (similar to associate degree): Community college can

also enroll some students who pass the examination of adult higher education.

When they graduate they can get the Adult Dazhan diploma.

2. Television university diplomas. Television university provides bachelor degree

courses. Students graduating from radio and TV University can get a diploma

issued by regular universities such as nationality universities, Beijing foreign

language university, etc. But it will be labeled as TV University. 80-90 percent of

the students can get television university diplomas.

3. Cooperative running school diploma - Community colleges may cooperate with

regular universities and students will get diplomas from regular universities. For

example, Xuanwu Flag part-time university cooperates with Beijing Science and

Technology University and students receive diplomas from the latter.

Entrance Requirements

Entrance requirements for students are very different. Students who want to get

Dazhuan diplomas should pass the examination of adult higher education. Some courses

do not require entrance examinations, such as television universities (also one part of

community colleges) do not require entrance examinations. For example, in Shijingshan

community college higher education degrees include: Shijingshan Part-time University

Dazhuan degree (no bachelor degree). Radio and TV University in Shijingshan

community college have both Dazhuan degree and bachelor degree.

Problems Facing Community Colleges in China

Even if community colleges in China are flexible and can meet diverse needs of

Chinese urban communities, they are facing many problems. These problems limit the

84

development of community colleges in China in future. The main problem is that the

education ministry does not permit the name community college to be used, and it

encourages higher professional schools to develop professional courses and copy the

style of regular universities. Because the community colleges cannot get support from

central government, it is still very difficult for them to develop. At this time, community

colleges are at the district level, and they can not get support from the central

government. Yet, the attitude of the local government is to give little support and let them

make their own way through market forces.

Problems facing community colleges in China include:

Government policies limit the development of community colleges. Even

if there are many colleges are called community colleges in many big

cities in China, the central government still doesn’t recognize these

community colleges. The name of Community college is still not

permitted by the ministry of education. Many community colleges are

considering changing its name to higher professional and technological

college (gaodeng zhiye jishu xueyuan).

The Specialized Diploma (zhuanke) cannot articulate with the bachelor

degree.

Community Colleges are not allowed to enroll students who failed to enter

regular universities through the national higher education entrance

examination.

China’s rapid social and economic changes in a socialist market economy are

widening urban-rural division and a large wealth-poverty income gap is fueling

continuing changes in the education system.

Generally, students prefer gaining admission to regular higher educational

institutions (putong gaodeng jiaoyu), with national level institutions favored over

provincial institutions. The national entrance examination is required for admission to all

forms of recognized formal higher education in China, and usually only about half of all

students will attain a score high enough for gain admission to college or university.

85

A central theme of China’s current leaders is to develop a “harmonious, all-

around, well off society.” For that, education for life-long learning is promoted as

essential. In higher education there are two parallel priorities, each competing for

adequate support resources:

1. Implement rapidly the elite “211” project-100 Chinese research, comprehensive

world-class universities for the 21st century.

2. Support the growth of more widely accessible, two and three-year, post-secondary

institutions, including private ones, and revise the curricula and majors of regular

degree-granting colleges to include more vocational education relevant to market

economy needs.

Some Chinese educators are now asking a relevant question: “Will the emphasis

on both vocational education and the production and specialized researchers to meet the

immediate market needs for a highly skilled and professional labor force deter the

development of education for critical thinking, problem-solving, creativity and

adaptability to rapid change?”

86

Community College and Further Education in Denmark

Stuart A. Rosenfeld

Cynthia D. Liston

Introduction

Denmark’s vocational-technical education system has been often visited and

viewed as a benchmark by American policy makers. That may be surprising given its

small size compared to the U.S., but in fact Denmark’s education has influenced a

number of innovations in American education policy, including youth apprenticeships,

national skill standards, and middle colleges. In December 2000, the government of the

U.S. and the government of Denmark signed a formal cooperation agreement “to promote

better understanding between the peoples of the United States of America and Denmark,

to strengthen the relationships between the two countries through education, and to

improve the education systems of each country.”43

Denmark’s reputation was already well established when the bilateral agreement

was made. In 1999 the Carl Bertelsmann Foundation in Germany, after an extensive

review of vocational education around the world based on rigorous criteria, awarded its

prestigious prize for best program to Denmark. “It represents,” the Foundation wrote, “a

further development of the dual system and conveys a more extensive theoretical

background than the German system of vocational education and training, as the young

people spend more time in school.”44 Denmark did not sit on its laurels for long,

however. It was soon working to improve its system, with a series of educational

reforms, including one underway at present.

43 Memo of Understanding: Understanding on Education between the Government of the United States of America and the Government of Denmark, signed by U.S. Secretary of Education and Danish Minister of Education44 Bertlesmann Foundation Publishers (1999) Vocational Education and Training of Tomorrow: Volume I. Gutersloh: Bertelsmann Foundation, p. 59.

History of Denmark’s Vocational-Technical Education

Denmark’s vocational education and training is under girded by centuries of

tradition dating back to medieval guilds and, in the mid-17th century, technical schools

operated by the guilds In the 19th and early 20th century apprenticeship programs began

at evening schools, which evolved into its current “sandwiched” classroom and

workplace based diploma, certificate, and degree programs. The development of

Denmark’s system is highlighted in the following chronology: 45

In the mid-17th century, Denmark’s first technical schools were

established for clothing production, dockworkers, and carpenters.

In 1870, Denmark had 50 technical schools.

The 1889 Apprenticeship Act allowed the government to regulate the

system through syllabuses, texts, and standard examinations.

By 1910, the number of technical schools had grown to 170.

The 1921 Apprenticeship Act created the “social partnership” among

employers, unions, and schools.

In 1956, when skilled labor was in great demand, all restrictions on entry

to the apprenticeship programs were abolished. Instruction shifted from

evening to day classes and new course requirements were added, with

colleges expected to choose areas of technical specialization.

In 1977, in response to criticism that students were forced to choose

careers too early, rising unemployment, and shortages of apprenticeship

positions, the Basic Vocational Education Act reorganized technical

education to begin with a year of school-based education and then an

alternative path to the traditional apprenticeship.

The 1991 reform streamlined the system, consolidating the number of

programs offered from 300 to about 90 and establishing the foundation for

the current system.

45 Ministry of Education, Danish Youth Education: Problems and Achievements, A Report to OECD (Copenhagen: Danish Ministry of Education, 1994).

88

In 1993, to combat the high dropout rate, the Minister of Education

launched the action program called Education for All to reduce the drop

out rate among Danish youth.

As part of the major Reform 2000, the number of tracks was reduced to

just seven, six technical and one commercial, but with almost 100

specializations within those seven tracks.

2003 brought another set of reforms designed to increase flexibility by

requiring each student to develop a personal education plan based on

“Assessments of Prior Learning” as part of the “Stepwise to

Qualifications” plan.

It is anticipated that additional reforms will be enacted in 2006 that focus

on equity issues, particularly to improve educational participation and

completion rates for immigrant youth and “weak” learners. Additional

reforms will also focus on meeting the workforce needs of employers that

have new and increased skills demands as a result of globalization, such as

more intensive technology use.

Elements of the Danish Education System

Denmark, with a population of approximately 5.3 million people, is one of

Europe’s smaller nations. Its population is nearly the same as Wisconsin’s, on only one

fourth land mass. Denmark has one of the world’s highest labor market participation

rates, which includes about 70 percent of all Danish women. With few giant

corporations, Lego, Carlsberg, Bang & Olefsen, and Maersk notwithstanding, its

economy has depended on its thousands of small and mid-sized enterprises (SMEs).

Today, those export-oriented manufacturers are feeling the pressures of globalization and

much of furniture and textile is being outsourced. In anticipation of these changes, for a

number of years Denmark has turned its attention and its educational programs towards

innovation and the knowledge economy.

Denmark requires nine years of education, which cover primary and lower

secondary years. The Danish education system is primarily public but it allows for

private schools formed around particular ideologies or pedagogical principles, and the

89

state cover 85 percent of private school costs.46 Preschool is voluntary but nearly all (98

percent) attend, and a tenth year, also voluntary, is chosen by 64 percent of all students.

The completion rate of compulsory education is about 95 percent. Following the

compulsory years, students can select to enter one of three upper secondary tracks, called

“Youth Education.”

Gymnasium, an academic program preparing graduates for the HHX (højere

handelseksamen) and HTX (højere teknisk eksamen) higher education programs offered

at the commercial and technical colleges. These courses combine academic and

vocational elements and are for students expecting to move directly into higher

Vocational Education and Training (VET) “dual system” programs offered through

technical and commercial colleges which prepare graduates for the labor market, with

possibilities for continuing to further or higher education.

The latter two options comprise the Danish system of Vocational Education and

Training (VET), a nationally recognized system of qualifications built around

“management by objectives” and frameworks. All its standards are defined by the social

partners, employees and employers considerations in trade committees. Its standards are

approved by the Ministry of Education through Denmark’s Framework regulations.

There are no regional or intermediate levels within the VET system, only national and

local levels of governance.

The vocational education system is based on three principles:

Dual system: Alternates periods of classroom-based and work-based

education

Social partners: Labor, industry, and government are involved in decision

making and daily operations

Lifelong learning: offers learners the choice to take part in immediate

qualification or postpone decision to allow access to further and higher

education.

Since most of the vocational programs are three to four years, the technical and

commercial colleges span a period that matches U.S. 11th and 12th grades plus the first

46 Hanne Shapiro. 2004. Denmark: The Upper Secondary Vocational Education and Training System: Background Report, Unpublished paper, Danish Technological Institute, January.

90

year or two of community college. It could be argued that the Danish system is the “K-

14” program of study some U.S. policy experts have recently advocated.

In 2003, about 39 percent of youth chose the gymnasium path, 16 percent chose

HTX or HHX, 37 percent entered a VET program, including agriculture as well as social

and health care, 3 percent chose other paths, and 4 to 5 percent did not continue their

education. The number of young people entering a VET program has dropped 15 percent

since 2000 as more students opt for more academically oriented upper secondary

education programs.

Social Partners

The social partners are responsible for renewing VET training courses and further

training. Sustained competition between the trade unions of skilled and semi-skilled

workers is a dynamic factor that underlies the continuous renewal of VET courses.

Competition among these stakeholders for leadership in identifying and covering labor

market functions by appropriate training programs has generated remarkable innovative

momentum. Since a Reform of the VET system in 1991 the Danish VET system has

been highly decentralized, based on a principle of management-by-objectives. The

system has been in an ongoing evolutionary process since then, delegating greater co-

responsibility and authority to the social partners and the vocational colleges.47

47 Hanne Shapiro, 2004.

91

Table 1:

Relationship among Partners in Developing Training Program

Entity Legal Foundation Roles Relation to College

Vocational education

and training law

Introduces and

publishes notice

Sets general

parametersEstablishes schools

Ministry of

Education Confirms Sets general scope Supervises system

Vocational Education

Council

Proposes

implementationProposes subjects n/a

National Trade

CommitteesReviews

Selects content, study

areas, & scopen/a

Local Education

CommitteesMonitors

Proposes & manages,

optional courses

Supervises and

monitors programs

School Boards MarketsInvolved only in

electivesn/a

In 2000, the expenditure in Denmark on educational institutions per full-time

student per year in upper secondary education was $8,000. Expenditure in France was

slightly higher. In Norway it was $8,500; in Switzerland, $12,000.48 In the period 1995

to 2000, the expenditure on educational institutions per student in secondary and upper

secondary education has only grown moderately compared to the increase in primary and

tertiary education according to Education at a Glance 2003 from OECD. Ninety-five

percent complete an upper secondary qualification according to figures from Education at

a Glance from 2003 based on data from 2000. This figure includes both youth graduates

as well as adult graduates under a life long learning scheme. This percentage is slightly

higher than Finland, Germany, Japan and Poland. In these countries upper secondary

level graduates also exceed 90 percent.

48 CERI. 2003. Education at a Glance. Paris: Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development.

92

Denmark’s structure for vocational education is divided among:

One third of curricula in broad basic subjects governed by the Ministry of

Education.

One third of curricula in subjects related to general trade or industry

governed by Trade Committees

One sixth of curricula in subjects related to specific trade of industry

governed by Trade Committees

One sixth of curricula optional based on interests governed by the

Ministry and local; education committees, and the college

Importantly, there is a proposal under consideration in Denmark to end this

legislative authority over the “balance of subject matter,” and allowing even more

flexibility in determining curricular content within programs based on labor market and

employer needs.

The once highly differentiated system with hundreds of occupational options has

gradually consolidated as career paths became more fluid. The Reform 2000 presented in

April 1999 created fewer but wider paths into the educational system. The previous 90

VET programs were consolidated into just seven access paths, each of which has its own

“basic” entry course that is fairly broad in scope: Technology and communication,

building and construction, crafts and technique, food production and catering, mechanical

engineering, transport and logistics service industries, and commerce, including trade,

office, and finance. Within each of these seven areas, there are a sizeable number of

specializations possible for students to pursue.

All students have a personal education plan with a contract drawn up by teacher

and student, based on an assessment of competencies, a pathway leading towards the

individual’s goal, and the person’s interests. This is all entered into a national web tool

called “Elevplan,” which contains the student’s plans, logbooks, papers, notes from

college, and a scorecard showing progress towards goals. The system contains all

learning activities offered by all colleges and allows for closer collaboration between

student and teacher in tracking progress and co-planning. It also allows employers to

93

follow their apprentices’ progress, although relatively few employers use this tool to

enroll them online.

The hallmark of Denmark’s vocational education, however, is its “dual system”

integrating school and work experiences. Denmark’s model differs significantly from the

better-known German apprenticeship model by integrating school-based theory and

projects more thoroughly with practice gain through work experience. Danish vocational

students spend between 30 to 50 percent of their education in school, whereas in the

German or Austrian spend roughly 20 percent. Because it layers extended periods of

college and work, the Danish vocational education system is sometimes referred to as the

“Sandwich Model.”

Denmark’s Dual System

The Danish VET system, for which the Ministry of Education is responsible,

includes around 100 colleges. Some of these are solely technical, others are commercial,

and others yet are combined, primarily as a result of college mergers over the past

decade. Policy objectives and frameworks are formulated at the national level, while

responsibility for planning for the content and types of education and choices of teaching

methods rests at the local level. Each college has its own board of directors and manages

its own budget.

Typically, the first “sandwich layer” is in school and lasts for six months. This

training is called the “basic” course and is fairly broad in nature, with seven different

types of courses available, such as “building and construction” or “services.”

Alternately, however, some students begin their VET program with a three to six month

training period in companies, followed by entry into the “basic” training program at the

college. In addition, vocational education in the dual system is also offered at institutions

that specialize in agriculture, social, or health care programs.

After completing the basic course, a student alternates periods of time on the job

and in the college—typically 20 weeks on the job with 10 weeks in school—for three

years before completion. The classroom learning becomes increasingly specialized over

time. The student finishes with a series of competency exams.

94

To participate in this “sandwich” apprenticeship program, after completing the

“basic” course, each student must find an employer – occasionally more than one – and

agree on a contract for the duration of the training program. Employers must submit

formal reports that become part of the students’ portfolios. The portfolios, which include

all formal communications between employer and school, follow students throughout

their education.

Costs of education and training at the colleges are born by tax revenues distributed by the

government. However employers are required pay students’ wage, which are at least half

of minimum wage, during both the workplace and classroom parts of the program. Every

company with more than one employee must pay into a collective training fund, and as an

economic incentive those firms that take apprentices are reimbursed for 90 percent of the

apprentices’ wages during their in-school periods and 80 percent of their travel expenses

through the Fund. In 2003 each employer paid 370 DKR (approximately $60 USD)

every three months for every full time employee-equivalent. In 2003 the Employers'

Reimbursement Fund (AER) paid more than 2.9 billion DKR (approximately $468

million USD) in reimbursement to companies with apprentices.49

Vocational Pathways to Higher Education

One of the characteristics of a knowledge economy is greater demand and rewards

for higher levels of education—among both students and employers. In the 1980s Danish

technical and business colleges began to offer programs to better prepare students for

higher education. The HTX (technical) and HHX (commercial) upper secondary

programs are special “non-dual system” tracks within the colleges designed to simplify

and enhance transfer. Although students’ choices between academic and vocational paths

are made quite early, either track provides entry to higher education.

Vocational (VET) programs result in a certificate that gives students access to higher

education, typically two-year “short cycle” programs also housed at technical or business

colleges. HHX and HTX graduates may enroll in universities.

HTX and HHX program allows students more choices within their programs—

two-thirds of all curricular content is compulsory and one third is elective. It is even

49 Ibid.

95

possible for students to obtain full or partial double qualification through electives from

the HHX and the HTX. Although these are special programs that include a relatively

small number of students, policies are being designed to make all VET programs more

flexible so that any student with the interest and competence is able to continue on

towards higher degrees.

International emphasis

Another distinguishing feature of the Danish college is its international focus.

Most students are proficient in English, and many in a second foreign language as well.

There is also a long tradition in programs such as business and culinary for students to

pursue an internship outside of Denmark. Various European Union (EU) Leonardo da

Vinci programs provide support for upper secondary students to study abroad for a year

and the EU’s Cedefop supports study tours and work-linked training abroad. Faculty,

too, look for opportunities to travel to expand their perspectives. A number of Danish

colleges and U.S. TA3 member colleges have hosted each others’ faculty members for

short periods of time.

Adult Programs

The typical Danish vocational college student is significantly younger than his or

her American counterpart at US community colleges because they enter at an earlier age

and are less likely to be adults returning to school for degrees. Denmark has had a

separate set of institutions for adult training until recently under the Ministry of Labor—

AMU Centers. Some 24 have provided training programs to adult unskilled and semi-

skilled workers and further skill development for skilled workers. Under a reform in

2001, this system of AMUs was moved under the Ministry of Education and incorporated

into technical and commercial colleges in order to create a more coherent further

education system that offered adults the same qualifications offered to youth and to meet

Denmark’s vision for lifelong learning. The reform allows adults to receive credit for

competencies they had already acquired through the formal education system, informally,

through on-the-job training schemes, or through their work experience. The framework

for adult vocational education is designed to match that of the general education system.

96

Currently there are reforms in discussion concerning these training centers to make their

courses more tailored toward particular company needs—what we in the US would call

customized training. There is also discussion of offering more training for semi-skilled

workers—as opposed to skilled—and serving a greater number of smaller companies.

Strengths and Successes

Denmark’s national system of VET balances national control over curricula and

programs with colleges that manage their own budgets and personnel. Its defining

strengths are its emphasis on innovation, standards, and quality; its adaptability; its

attention to special needs; and its support for transitions.

Pedagogical Innovation and High Curricular Standards

One of the hallmarks of the Danish vocational system is its willingness to

embrace new pedagogical techniques. There is a high degree of acceptance among

faculty and administrators of the wisdom of putting into action results from educational

research. Almost all learning that takes place at technical and business colleges is either

hands-on or project-based. Students work in teams, are encouraged to be self-directed

learners, and develop their own learning plans that assess what they already know and

allow them to tailor their college-based coursework accordingly. In addition, significant

resources are put into faculty development and team-teaching concepts. Unlike in the

United States, where faculty members typically have control over how they teach

(primarily “chalk and talk”) it is expected at Danish colleges that all faculty work

together to develop students’ hard and soft skills using innovative educational approaches

and “real world” projects. Indeed it is rare when visiting a Danish college to see an

instructor addressing the class as a whole. Instead, they spend almost all their time

circulating among student groups doing collaborative work. Importantly, faculty

members at the colleges are paid salaries comparable to their industry counterparts.

Standards for completion at the colleges are also uniformly high. In fact, it is

testimony to the Denmark’s commitment to a very well educated labor pool that

standards have remained high, despite pressures stakeholders might have felt to “water

down” programs in order to increase what have become troublesome completion rates, as

97

described later. Instead of lowering standards, new efforts are underway to increase

educational flexibility in order to increase success in education.

High Quality Programs, Resources and Facilities

In 1995, Denmark embarked on a “Systematic Plan for Quality Development and

Effective Assessment in the Vocational Education Sector.” The strategy was based on

decentralized programs aligned with local needs, a common approach rather than a

standard definition of quality, and self evaluation at all levels of the system.50

A further reflection of Denmark’s commitment to education is the high quality of

educational resources and the physical environment. Technical and business colleges

have Open Learning Centers, instead of libraries, where students can work on joint

projects, use computers, and access printed materials. College buildings and laboratories

are cutting edge and pleasant, with significant attention paid to creating inviting places to

learn and also giving students access to the same equipment they encounter in

workplaces.

Adaptability to new challenges

Those involved in vocational education in Denmark often complain of “reform

fatigue” because of the near constant pace of changes in the system since the early 1990s.

However, a recent report from the Ministry of Education states that there is no sign of a

slow down in the number of changes with a new slate of changes expected to take place

in 2006.51 Denmark views the VET system as a key to achieving major political goals

with respect to responding to pressures from globalization, and as a bridge between

economic development and “social cohesion.” This small country realizes that pressures

to maintain its high standard of living require adapting its educational system to meet

current realities. Maintaining the status quo will not be effective and the country has

shown a willingness to adopt new strategies and structures in order to respond to

challenges.

50 National Education Authority. 2000. Quality work in the Danish VET System, Unpublished paper, Ministry of Education, April. 51 The Danish Vocational Education and Training System, Copenhagen: National Education Authority, Danish Ministry of Education, Sept. 2005.

98

Meeting special needs

The Danish educational system has an ambitious goal of 95 percent completion of

upper secondary education and has adopted a “New Goals” strategy for 2005. This

focuses on special needs and at-risk students.52 A two to three year initial foundation

program is aimed at youth not in upper secondary programs or employed who would

have difficulty completing VET programs. Students in this program still take combine

school and work-based learning. “Production schools” are an option for students under

25 without disabilities who have dropped out and lack some of the competences to

complete upper secondary. Although these schools do not provide qualifications, they

help youth develop skills they need to succeed in the upper secondary system.

Clear pathways and ease of transition

One of the ways Denmark expects to meet its completion rate goal is by helping

students make a better transition into upper secondary programs. Many of the colleges

have collaborative programs with the lower level schools termed “bridge building.”

Colleges pair their students with younger students and generally introduce them to the

colleges and programs. Other programs run by employers focus on those in the

production schools to boost students’ self-confidence and increase their ability to

succeed.

Other services help those enrolled in colleges continue along their education. The

personal education contracts drawn up by teacher (tutor) and student and records of

competences serves as a pathway for students leading towards the individual’s goal, and

the person’s interests. The portability of partial qualifications also can be used as a

foundation to move up the qualifications ladder, better bridging further education and

continuing training.

52 Danish Ministry of Education. 2005. Retention in Vocational Education in Denmark: A Best Practice Study. Copenhagen: Department for Vocational Education

99

New Developments and Challenges

There are a number of recent developments in the Danish vocational educational

system worth noting. Some are overarching policy strategies in response to pressures

such as globalization and immigration, while others are new pedagogical approaches

designed to recognize non-formal learning, increase the quality and flexibility of the

system, making the dual system more attractive and accessible to young people and

employers. Others, still in development, aim to improve the inclusiveness of the

vocational system and improve completion rates.

Legitimating non-formal learning

Denmark is currently working on a new national system to document prior

learning to improve career paths and options for students by assessing and recognizing an

individual’s competencies. This may take place by awarding credits for competencies

acquired in the educational and training system or through assessment of developed

competences that were acquired in other forms of learning. The initiative is part of

Denmark’s goal of supporting lifelong learning, as well as inducing flexibility and

efficiency into the system. In addition, with youth increasingly gravitating toward

academic pathways, this helps make the VET system more attractive and flexible for

youth and adults through partial qualifications and recognition of prior learning through

job experience.

Preparing for a global and knowledge economy

Like other highly developed countries, production is increasingly moving outside

of Denmark. Denmark responded early. In 1994, Demark co-hosted a conference with

the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development on “Employment and

Growth in the Knowledge-Based Economy”53 that touched on most of the areas that

would become priorities for technical and commercial education: information

technologies, intelligent products, mass customization, and global competitiveness. The

vocational system has reacted by moving toward new occupations within sectors such as

53 Lars Kolind. 1994. ”The Knowledge Based Enterprise.” Employment and Growth in the Knowledge Based Economy, OECD Conference, Copenhagen, November.

100

IT, services, and the entertainment and leisure industry, and creating more flexible

educational programs in these areas. Meeting the educational need of jobs in knowledge-

based industries, such as IT, is a continuing challenge because the skills requirements are

so fast changing and the companies are younger and more entrepreneurial, making them

less inclined to participate in the vocational education system by taking apprentices.

Denmark created a national Learning Lab to study how people learn and adapt to new

situations. The education system has placed great emphasis on information technologies,

and is now focusing on ways to better respond to globalization.

Disappearing apprenticeships

The practical training vocational students obtain in companies based on an

apprenticeship contract is a core element of the Danish system, and the balancing of

supply and demand of training opportunities is a constant challenge. In recent years

fewer companies are offering apprenticeships because highly specialized processes limit

the usefulness of apprentices in the workplace. Another culprit is changes in the

industrial structure of the Danish economy—there are fewer jobs in manufacturing and

more in new service areas with limited traditions for apprenticeships.

In response, during the late 1990s colleges set up “simulated workplace”

apprenticeships at the colleges—“School Practice Programs” in order to combat drop out

from vocational education by students who could not get training contracts with a

companies. Some students complete the entire program in a simulated environment,

others attend the school practice program for a while and then manage to get a contract

and complete the practical training in a company. At the completion of this alternative

program, students undergo the usual examination to qualify for graduation, generally

some form of project or practical test.

However, in early 2005 the Ministry of Education restricted use of these school-

based apprenticeships in some programs in part because too many students using this

option were not finding jobs after graduation. Employers did not hold as favorable an

opinion of these graduates as they did students with training contracts with actual

businesses. Currently ten VET programs have “limited access,” meaning they are not

open to those students who cannot secure a training contract with an enterprise. These

101

include programs in administration, information technologies, furniture craftsman,

carpenter, data technician, IT supporter, electrician, electro technician, technical design.

One response is new shorter duration VET programs, although their success has

been limited so far. Efforts are underway to loosen previous restrictions on how long

apprenticeships must last, in order to both increase employer participation in the dual

system (particularly in the commercial and IT sectors) and improve the attractiveness of

the VET programs to students. Shortening their duration should also increase the overall

number of apprenticeship “slots” available for students, reducing some “bottlenecks” in

the current system where graduates of programs are in demand but yet cannot find

training contracts. 54

Reducing drop out rates

Drop out rates are a significant problem for the vocational education system in

Denmark, particularly for technical programs. Published completion rates for the “basic”

introductory course in technical programs were only 56 percent in 2002. For business

programs, the rate was 79 percent. However, these statistics are misleading because data

collection systems do not track those students who completely drop out of the VET

system versus those who change to another VET program, or change colleges. The

government is working to improve statistics collection on this important issue.

Meanwhile, although the statistics above undoubtedly over emphasize the magnitude of

the drop out problem, it is accepted within Denmark that this is an important issue.

It was hoped that reforms in the 1990s to require students to develop their own

learning plans would improve completion rates because students would have greater

control over, and be more vested in, their education. However, promising reductions in

the late 90s turned out to be temporary. A recent Ministry of Education report suggests

that decreasing basic skills among Danish youth is a major factor in the low completion

rates, particularly among children of immigrants and refugees. Approximately 60 percent

of youth from ethnic backgrounds do not complete a VET program, partly because of

basic skill deficiencies. Almost 10 percent of Denmark’s population is foreign born. 54 Undervisningsministeriet (2003) Evaluering af kvaliteten i skolepraktikken”, Teknologisk Institut, Shapiro, Hanne, Søren Rønn, Signe mfl.Undervisningsministerier (2003) ”Efaringsopsamling på den særlige praktikpladsindsats”Teknologisk Institut, Shapiro, Hanne, Sørensen Rønn, Signe m.fl.

102

Improving Equity and Completion Rates

The Danish educational system is targeting new efforts toward what it calls

“practically-oriented young people.” These are youth who have learning disabilities,

have experienced social and/or cultural exclusion, or have unrealistic expectations about

what and how fast they can learn. Often they have bad experiences during primary and

lower secondary schooling. One strategy is the creation of 23 shorter (less than two

years) VET programs for highly specialized jobs with relatively good employment

prospects (such as retail).

Another is partial (or modular) qualifications for students who lack the skills or

patience for a full vocational qualification. Students may return to school at a future date

to continue their studies and work toward the full qualification. Partial qualifications will

be “portable” so that they can be used as a foundation to move up the qualifications

ladder, better bridging further education and continuing training. Plans also are

underway for students to “try out” concrete occupational experiences in their field of

study earlier in educational programs so that they have a better sense of whether the

choice is a good fit.

A third new program called “EUD+” combines college-based and company-based

learning in a less formal or structured manner compared to typical dual system programs,

allowing for more exploration and flexibility on the part of the student.

A reform expected in 2006 would allow “pre-training” where students and

employers can “size each other up” for three months before signing a training contract.

In addition to school and company, a third entry path to vocational training likely to be

introduced soon is an entire basic course that takes place in an enterprise through a

“practical pathway” (mesterlære). Colleges advise students and assess competencies

gained in the workplace. After meeting certain criteria, students can matriculate into a

college’s “main” VET course and the dual system.

Finally, to specifically address issues facing children of immigrants, technical and

business colleges are offering more “Danish as a Second Language” courses, establishing

ethnic mentorships, and better disseminating information about companies that offer

training contracts.

103

Denmark / US Vocational Education Cooperation

Denmark and the U.S. have a long history of cooperation among colleges and

college systems and have frequently looked to each other for innovative ideas and

programmatic improvement. In 1995, two Danish Colleges attended a meeting of an on-

going alliance of southern community colleges called the Consortium for Manufacturing

Competitiveness, which, with their assistance, evolved into the Trans-Atlantic

Technology and Training Alliance (TA3), now jointly managed by Regional Technology

Strategies (RTS) in North Carolina and CIRIUS in Denmark.

At the national level, a delegation representing the U.S. Department of Education

in 1999 was so impressed by Danish education that it put into motion a plan to establish a

formal bilateral cooperation agreement between the two governments. Purely on the basis

of scale, it appears to be an unbalanced relationship; the Danish system, one of the worlds

most innovative and successful, offered lessons for U.S. education policy, and vice versa.

In December 2000, in a ceremony in Washington, DC, the official document was signed.

In 2001, under the auspices of the steering committee, the U.S. Department of Education

awarded a grant to RTS and DTI to compare the way the two countries prepare their

workforce for information technologies.

Various states have also looked to Denmark for advice. North Carolina sent a high level

delegation to Denmark in 2003 that, on its return, produced the monograph “Learning

from Denmark.”55 In January 2006, researchers from the Danish Technological Institute

visited western North Carolina community colleges to learn about their industry and

community services and programs and their external programs.

Case Studies

The following are three brief profiles of vocational colleges in Denmark. The

first is a large comprehensive college in southern Denmark. The second is a small

specialized technical college in northern Denmark, and the third is a large urban

commercial (business) college in Copenhagen.

55 Public School Forum. 2004. Learning from Denmark. Raleigh, NC: NC Center for International Understanding, University of North Carolina.

104

1. EUC Syd in Sønderborg

Located in the southern rural portion of the Jutland peninsula of Denmark, next to

the country’s border with Germany, EUC-Syd began as a college in Åbenrå in about

1920 and opened its doors at its Sønderborg campus in 1939. The college, like all

vocational colleges in Denmark, is governed by Board of Directors and an executive

committee composed of representatives of unions, companies, the county, and the

municipality. The 12 member board is structured so that five represent employers, five

represent employees and two represent local communities. Strategy groups form as

needed around particular pressing problems, e.g., ways to attract young people to the

college. Local education committees of employers, employees, and school staff address

curriculum issues.

Today EUC Syd is among the largest of Danish technical colleges and

encompasses both technical and commercial (business) educational programs. In it its

current form EUC Syd has existed since 1994 as a merger between 4 educational colleges

in Southern Denmark. It is a self-governing institution with an annual turnover of

approximately 300 M DKK (or US $43 M). On a yearly basis EUC Syd provides a range

of studies, courses and learning opportunities for over 3,000 full-time students and 6,000

part-time students. It also runs an adult learning program (AMU) that offers management

and specialized technical training for incumbent workers in industry.

All faculty members are required to have industry experience. They are able to

remain knowledgeable about the latest methods and technologies through their industry

courses and frequent interaction with industry managers. Faculty constantly works

directly with industry representatives to develop new courses to meet changing work

requirements, and generally produce four or five new courses each year. Examples of

special programs to meet regional industry needs are targeted to:

mobile phones/telecommunications,

medical equipment, and

electronic security.

Despite this specialization according to local industry clusters, the college is very

comprehensive in its breadth of geography and scope of programs, similar to many US

105

community colleges. EUC-Syd offers everything from culinary and cosmetology to

electronics programs and has on-going exchange programs through the TA3 with

Guilford Technical Community College in North Carolina and Bellingham Technical

College in Washington. Among relatively recent developments at the college is the

creation of distance learning options for learners and recruitment of more foreign students

into technical programs taught in English.

2. Technical College of Jutland in Hadsten

Near the opposite—northern—end of the Jutland peninsula lies the Technical

College of Jutland in Hadsten, Denmark. It is a highly specialized technical college,

offering only four vocational programs: carpentry, electronics engineering and

automation, plastics processing, and industrial refrigeration and air conditioning. The

latter two programs are unique in Denmark to this college, and as such it is the “national

college” for those areas and attracts students from across the country.

The college was founded in 1928 by an Association of Employers as a boarding

school for vocational education and training. Today the college is a self-governing

institution with very close relations to the trade committees. Approximately three

quarters of the students live at the college while studying, and the college is following the

US-campus philosophy with a 24 hour ”open door” policy.

Today, the institution has a total of 3,300 apprentices, students and in-service

(incumbent worker) trainees on a yearly basis. About 120 employees work at the college

and the annual turnover is approximately US$15 million. As mentioned, the college

offers only four education and training programs but covers them comprehensively—

vertically from beginners level through further and higher technical education to highly

specialized advanced levels. Post completion employment statistics for graduates exceed

Denmark’s overall 80 percent employment rate for VET completers. In 2004 the post

graduation employment rate was 100 percent.

The college’s traditional VET programs take four years to complete. Within the

two national programs—refrigeration and plastics—there is an option to take an

additional higher technical education program that takes two years full time.

106

Technical College of Jutland has developed and offers e-learning programs within

plastics processing technology and refrigeration. It has an e-learning network with

colleges in Sweden, United Kingdom and France. Furthermore, all students are offered

official computer license (E-learning - EU-certificate) while attending college.

The college is also very active in fostering innovation and entrepreneurship at

higher technical education level (diploma), aimed at students who wish to start up their

own company or take over/be a partner in a company (often the young generation coming

into a family business). College members have been deeply involved in the recent

revision of the Danish vocational education act.

3. Niels Brock College

Niels Brock College is the second largest educational institution in Denmark and

is located in the heart of Copenhagen, the country’s capital city. It has six departments

with nearly 35,000 students, more than 1000 employees, and more than 200 various

subject areas to choose from.

Niels Brock offers a variety of business programs (such as finance, marketing,

computer science, international business, and business administration) for youth, as well

as for adults, and private and public sector employees. Some of the college’s programs

are classified as “short-cycle higher education” programs, meaning that they do not

follow the dual system apprenticeship model but are not part of the universities. Students

in these programs often are required to hold leaving certificates from HHX or HTX upper

secondary programs.

Founded in 1888, Niels Brock's name commemorates Niels Brock, a wealthy

merchant who was one of the founders of the Danish vocational business education

movement. The founders intended to provide vocational education for young self-made

businessmen. Today Niels Brock gives high priority to the “internationalization” of

education. The school actively engages in student and teacher exchange, and it

permanently hosts visiting teachers from abroad. For example, it has an ongoing

exchange program with Howard Community College in Maryland. An increasing

number of courses are offered in English. Faculty at the college comprises permanent

107

staff as well as external part-time teachers from the business world in Denmark and

abroad.

108

Further Education in England

“The Engine Room of Social Mobility”

Geoff Hall

The Policy Framework

Further Education in England in the second half of the first decade of the 21st

century finds itself ‘centre stage’ as the Government addresses the skills needs of the

economy. The ‘New Labour’ Government’s mission has always been founded on the

twin pillars of economic success and social justice. However, after 8 years in office, two

‘audits’ of progress raised concern about what had been achieved and what still needed to

be done. A seminal study by the New Labour-inclined think tank, Institute of Public

Policy Research (IPPR)56, considered New Labour progress against Professor David

Miller’s57 four measures of social justice.

Equal citizenship: First, basic legal and political rights, but also the

effective means to exercise those rights;

Social minimum: There should be a floor below which nobody should be

allowed to fall. Everybody should have access to a minimum level of

resources but also public services – the basics that allow people to live

with dignity in today’s society;

Equality of opportunity: Life chances should not depend on irrelevant

factors such as your class, racial or gender background;

Fair distribution: Goods and other social goods should be fairly distributed

and depend on the choices we make and the effort we put in rather than

the brute luck of the family into which we were born.

56 Pearce. N at al (2005) Social Justice Report IPPR57 Miller. D (1999) Principles of Social Justice Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.

This study found, on the one hand, that income has become more fairly

distributed under New Labour and that child poverty had been reduced. On the other

hand, however, the study found that despite these in-roads, wealth inequality is worse

than under Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, social mobility has stalled, if not moved

backwards and social equality, based on the gap between the highest and lowest incomes,

is worse than in may other continental European countries.

The study concluded that the learning and skills sector in the UK needs to equip

people not only with skills for employment but citizenship to enable social mobility and

social justice.

This relative failure on social mobility has lead to an unprecedented bout of

reform. Secondary schools are to be given ‘trust’ status similar to incorporation of

colleges in the early 1990s. The local education authority (LEA) will take on a

‘commissioning’ role on behalf of children under its aegis so it will need to ensure

sufficient school places are available but it will not be directly responsible as a provider

responsible for its schools.

A Bill has been published to enact this major change, which only passed the

second reading in the House of Commons with support from the opposition party.

Meanwhile the Department for Education and Skills (DfES) and the Learning and Skills

Council (LSC58) jointly commissioned Sir Andrew Foster to review the role of FE

colleges. His report, entitled ‘Realising the Potential’, He made 80 recommendations, the

majority of which have been incorporated, pretty much in their entirety, into a

Government White Paper “Further Education: Raising Skills, Improving Life Chances”.

This white paper, hot off the press as this chapter goes to print makes a number of key

recommendations, set to change the way in which Further Education in England connects

with the agenda of employability, skills and social mobility.

The Paper sees the FE sector as the “powerhouse for delivering the skills at all

levels that are needed to sustain an advanced, competitive economy and make us a fairer 58 The Learning and Skills Council is a non-departmental public body of the Department for Education and Skills in the United Kingdom and is responsible for planning and funding further education (post-16 education and training other than higher education) in England. It was established in April 2001 as a result of the Education and Skills Act 2001. It has control over a budget in the region of £8 billion. It replaced Training and Enterprise Councils and the Further Education Funding Council for England. The LSC has headquarters in Coventry with 9 regional offices and 47 local offices.

110

society, offering equal opportunities for all based on talent and effort, and not

background”59 The paper goes on to make a number of key recommendations:

Ensuring the mission, purpose and specialisms of FE providers relate

directly to its role in skills, employability and contribution to the economy.

Providers will be encouraged to developed centre of excellence in one or

more of the vocational priorities and work with employers, private sector

and national skills academies.

The trialing of learner accounts, aimed at enabling people to gain level 360,

plus the introduction of an entitlement to free education for young adults

aged, 19-25 to enable them to gain their first level 3 qualification.

The national roll-out of Train to Gain (see below

A national strategy to improve the quality of teaching within the sector,

including a requirement for all teaching staff to undertake continuing

professional development and mandatory qualifications for Principals.

A streamlining of the funding and qualifications framework within the

sector, including the introduction of new diplomas for 14-19 education.

Shortly after Sir Andrew received his commission, the Chancellor of the

Exchequer and ‘Prime-Minister-in-Waiting’, Gordon Brown, commissioned Lord Sandy

Leitch to examine the UK’s optimum skills mix in order to maximize economic growth

and productivity by 2020; and in particular, to consider the different trajectories of skill

levels the UK might pursue.

His interim report, entitled ‘Skills in the UK: The Long-Term Challenge’ was

published on 5th December 2005. Key findings of ‘Skills in the UK: The Long-Term

Challenge’; Lord Leitch; December 2005:

The UK has a strong economy and world-leading employment levels,

but its productivity trails many key comparator nations; poor skills are

59 DfES (2006) Further Education: Raising Skills, Improving Life Chances: pp 3 Published by The Stationary Office:Norwich60 Level 3 are qualifications up to ‘A’ Level Standard, equivalent to the US High School diploma.

111

a key contributor to this problem as well as having wider impacts on

social welfare. 

Over the last decade, the skills profile of the working age population in

the UK has improved.  For example, the proportion of adults with a

degree has increased from a fifth to over a quarter of the population.

Despite these improvements, the UK still does not have a world-class

skills base: over a third of adults in the UK do not have a basic school-

leaving qualification – double the proportion of Canada and Germany;

Five million people have no qualifications at all; one in six adults do

not have the literacy skills expected of an 11 year old and half do not

have these levels of functional numeracy.

Looking ahead to 2020, global, demographic and technological change

will place an even greater premium on the UK’s skills profile. 

New analysis conducted by the Review shows that, if the Government

meets its current ambitious targets for improving the UK’s skills, by

2020:

The proportion of working age people without any qualifications

will fall to 4 per cent; and the proportion of adults holding a degree

will increase from 27 per cent to 38 per cent; and this will have

significant benefits for the economy – increasing annual

productivity growth by 0.2 per cent with a net benefit to the

economy of £3 billion a year, equivalent to 0.3 per cent of GDP.

However, even if the UK can meet the current challenging targets, the nation’s

human capital will still fail to be world-class. Considerable problems will remain; at least

4 million adults will still not have the literacy skills expected of an 11 year old and 12

million would not have numeracy skills at this level. 

The Review has analyzed more ambitious scenarios for 2020:

112

Tackling the stock of low skilled adults without qualifications,

basic literacy and numeracy

Investing more in intermediate skills

Further increasing the proportion of adults holding a degree.

In all of the scenarios, the analysis shows the significant economic and social

benefits that would result from higher productivity and employment gained through

improving skills. 

The Leitch Review believes that the UK must urgently raise its game and set itself

a greater ambition to have a world-class skills base by 2020.

The LSC under its new Chair, Chris Banks, and new Chief Executive, Mark

Haysom, has launched its Agenda for Change. The key features of Agenda for Change

are the development of six ‘themes’ focused on skills for employers, quality, funding,

data, business excellence and reputation. Cross cutting themes related to equality of

opportunity and governance underpin priorities in these areas. The unofficial ‘theme 7’

relates to the reduction of bureaucracy within the LSC itself, bringing more functions to

regional offices, leaving key partner contacts at a local level. Published in August 2005,

the document again puts the FE sector centre stage in engaging employers and

responding to the national skills agenda. Below are the key priorities encapsulated within

the six themes:

We will work together to create colleges valued by employers as the

partner of choice for developing the skills they need.

We will work together to improve the quality of provision, funding

excellence and promoting the very best to serve as beacons to others.

We will radically simplify our funding methodology and allocation

process, making it more transparent and more responsive to changing

needs.

We will sweep away the complexity that causes colleges to divert resources

to collecting data of variable benefit.

113

We will develop our capital investment strategy to free back office

resources and support improved management systems and processes and

thus improve our business excellence.

We will work with colleges to identify ways in which they can secure their

reputation as pivotal to delivering the education and training needs of the

UK. 61

So, how does the College system respond? Before answering this question, we

need to understand the current FE landscape.

The FE Landscape

There follows an extract from the aforementioned Foster Report, which sets out

the nature of the UK FE College sector. The current statutory FE college sector

comprises of a number of different ‘types’ of institutions, and within these broad

organizational forms, there are wide differences in size and focus. The key categories,

with descriptions, are set out below:

GFECs and tertiary colleges offer a broad range of vocational and academic

subjects at different levels and cater for both young people and adults. There are around

250 across England. Their strength is in offering a broad range of provision in one

setting. GFECs are diverse with complex and varied patterns of provision – a result of

shifting national priorities over the past 12 years and different local needs and

institutional arrangements. At their best they offer individually tailored ladders of

opportunity from entry level up to higher education, rooted in local community needs.

Tertiary colleges are a distinctive model. There are around 50 in England. Although they

are not recognized as a separate category in official statistics, we received many

representations about their strengths. Recent research by the Responsive College Unit

claims that their success rates are at least as good as sixth form colleges and that they

significantly out perform GFECs at all levels except entry level.

Sixth form colleges have traditionally catered for 16-19 year olds following A-

level courses, but most have now broadened their curriculum and student profile. There

61 LSC, (2005) Agenda for Change LSC Publications: Coventry ppiii

114

are around 100 across England. They have a well evidenced track record in the delivery

of full time provision for 16-19 year olds (their success rates are high at 76% in 2003/04).

Yet the current planning system has created only two new sixth form colleges since

incorporation.

Specialist colleges concentrate on specialist curriculum areas e.g. art and design

and land based subjects. Because of their focus on particular sectors, they have well

established links with employers and industry in their sector. There are 22 across

England.

Specialist designated institutions, cater mainly for adults and a number are

residential. There are 16 in England.

Over recent years the number of FE sector colleges has fallen considerably.

There were around 460 FE colleges created at incorporation in 1993.

Colleges also vary considerably in size. The average number of learners at a

GFEC is 12,000; the largest has over 45,000, the smallest has only 2,500. Sixth form

colleges vary also: from around 570 to over 7,000 learners. The largest colleges have

significant resources with annual budgets of up to £65 million. Specialist colleges tend to

be smaller – for example the average funding allocation by the LSC for art and design

colleges is £3.1 million. Most colleges get the majority of their income from public

sources: on average 78% comes from the LSC, with 9% from fees from employers or

individuals.

115

FIGURE 5

Composition of the FE college sector

The current statutory FE college sector comprises of a number of different ‘types’ of institutions

250+ General furthereducation (GFE) and tertiarycolleges. GFE

100+ Sixth form colleges.

22 Specialist colleges16 Specialist designatedinstitutions,

Source: DfES

Learners in colleges

Over 3 million learners attend GFEC and tertiary colleges every year and 229,000

attend sixth form colleges. The majority of enrolments are adults (aged over 19) studying

on a part time basis (though the position in sixth form colleges is very different with the

majority of enrolments (56%) under 19 studying on a full time basis). If we look at

teaching hours however, the picture looks very different. Roughly half of GFEC and

tertiary college provision is for 16-18 year olds and half is for adults. Long vocational

courses (courses over 24 weeks) are the main form of learning at these colleges.

116

[Table 1] shows LSC funded learners in the FE sector (colleges and external institutions) by age, mode of

attendance and gender since 1996/97.

Table 1

Learners (000) by age, mode of attendance and gender (LSC funded)

1996/97 1997/98 1998/99 1999/00 2000/01 2001/02 2002/03 2003/04

By age:

Below 19 676 672 646 634 625 647 687 701

19-59 2,585 2,600 2,501 2,409 2,503 2,873 3,084 3,001

60 and over 113 122 129 166 234 314 399 387

Age unknown 72 52 40 37 40 34 28 25

By mode of

attendance:

Full-time full-year 717 690 670 667 638 636 691 700

Other full-time 233 247 233 205 213 246 237 231

Part-time 2,497 2,510 2,413 2,374 2,552 2,986 3,270 3,184

By gender:

Female 1,952 1,935 1,899 1,886 2,006 2,288 2,506 2,475

Male 1,495 1,512 1,416 1,359 1,396 1,580 1,691 1,639

Total 3,446 3,447 3,315 3,246 3,402 3,868 4,197 4,114

Learner numbers in 2003/04 were 668,000, (19%) higher than in 1996/97. The

expansion in numbers is predominantly in adult learners and the over 60 age group has

117

seen a particularly significant increase (more than trebled since 1996/97). The number of

full time learners in 2003/04 is virtually unchanged from 1996/97 – part time learners

account for the increase in numbers over the period.

The increase in the number of female learners (+27%) outstrips the increase in the

number of male learners (+10%). This has further shifted the gender mix in favor of

females (1996/97 females = 57% learners; 2003/04 females = 60% learners).

In 2003/04, 78% of learners in FE colleges were from white ethnic groups, 14%

were from non-white ethnic groups and 7.5% were ‘not known/not provided’. Adults

from non-white ethnic groups account for 8% of the adult population.

Colleges have more learners (both 16-19 and adult) who are relatively

disadvantaged compared to the population as a whole and to learner populations in other

educational establishment types. The proportion of GFEC learners who reside in

Widening Participation (WP) postcodes62 is 29%, compared to 25% of the population.

The proportion in sixth form colleges is 25%. The figures for school sixth forms and

higher education are 19% and 20% respectively. And according to the Youth Cohort

Survey (2002), for 16 and 17 year olds in full time education, 45% of 16 year olds in full

time learning have parents in the bottom 3 National Statistics socio-economic classes

(NS-SEC). In GFECs 56% come from those groups, and 42% in sixth form colleges (the

figure for state schools is 41%).

Success rates

Assessments of quality in colleges are currently based on three measures:

inspection evidence, learner success rates and learner satisfaction levels.

Inspection evidence: The headline current position. About 90% of provision is regarded

as satisfactory or better. But there is not yet a clear improving trend in quality.

Learner success rates: These have improved quite significantly – from 59% in 2000/01 to

72% in 2003/04 [Figure 6]. However, these averages conceal huge variations between

individual colleges and between individual subject areas.

62 A WP uplift is payable for a variety of reasons, but the most common is when a learner lives in a postcode which is relatively disadvantaged. In 2002/03, 34% of FE learners received WP uplift, and 29% lived in WP postcodes.

118

Learner satisfaction evidence: Learners report that they are satisfied with the learning

they receive in colleges. 90% of learners say they are satisfied with their current learning

experience.

FIGURE 6

53% 55%59%

65% 68%72%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

98/99 99/00 00/01 01/02 02/03 03/4PFE colleges headline learner success rate 1997/98 to 2003/04)

Source: DfES

Across the range of provision performance at level 3, especially A levels, has the

highest success rates, but even here the results vary by subject (67% for ICT and 81% for

English). Performance at level 2 is still very poor – only 52% of 16-18 year olds starting

level 2 courses gained a full qualification in 2002/03. And inspection evidence also

shows that courses at entry level and levels 1 and 2 continue to be less well taught than

courses at level 3 and above. Retention rates have remained pretty stable (83% in

2001/02 and 85% in 2003/04) though rates for vocational courses for young people are

still low – 68% in 2002/03.

There is a perception that the headline success rate has increased because of a

narrowing of the success rate gap between the ‘worst’ and ‘best’ colleges. This does not

appear to be true – success rate improvement has been at the bottom and top end of the

distribution. For GFEC and sixth form colleges the success rate gap between the top and

119

bottom performing colleges (defined as the 90th percentile and 10th percentile

respectively) has narrowed only very slightly over the period 1998/99-2002/03.

There is a gap in performance between average headline success rates for GFECs

and those for sixth form colleges (67% and 76% respectively). However, when we looked

at this gap it can largely be explained by provision type and prior qualifications of

learners. Other characteristics of learners in GFECs, such as motivation and social

environment (sense of failure at 16, culture that is less positive to education) may explain

much of the difference. 63

A College’s Response to Foster, et al

Sir Andrew Foster has been seen as the first person to produce an accurate

topographical map of the FE landscape. As Foster predicted in pre report forums, each

of the three main constituents have tended to agree with the good points made about

themselves and emphasize how much the others need to do. So the College body, the

Association of Colleges (AoC), has welcomed the endorsement of so much of what the

sector does and called upon LSC and DfES to “heal themselves”. LSC has said we were

changing anyway and everything will be dealt with through our Agenda for Change!’

Perhaps it is the Department and ministers who are intent on the most radical response.

The White paper, published as this chapter goes to print, does point to some of this

radicalism.

“Contestability”

This is a classic New Labour “third way” solution to the dilemma that public

sector monopolies tend to be inefficient, lack sufficient choice and coast whilst unfettered

competition tends to leave the most vulnerable at risk, leads to “two tier standards of

service with those able to pay receiving the best and anyway when market forces come

into play politicians often cannot live with the consequences e.g. a school closure.

Contestability provides a compromise by limiting competition to provide between

public and private sectors to specified contexts. Such contexts tend to be:

63 Foster, A (2005) Realising the Potential: A review of the future role of Further Education Colleges: DfES Publications; Annesley, Nottinghamshire; full text of Appendix 1

120

Where new provision is required

Where current provision has failed

Where there is a monopoly provider

In many cities there is only one Public Sector hospital, so the Strategic Health

Authority – the Commissioner - may specify that a percentage of work must be put out to

private sector providers.

The benefit of this approach is that an element of competition is introduced,

levering up standards and breaking the stranglehold of the public sector but at the same

time enabling a strong public sector core and protection of the most vulnerable.

The first such contestability application in the FE sector came in the North West,

near Liverpool, when the LSC invited bids to run sixth form provision in order to fill an

apparent gap.

Train to gain

This is another example of the contestability approach in action. Arising from the

concerns about the skills gap in the British workforce outlined in Leitch et al, the

Government is launching a national employer training programme targeting workers

without level 2 qualifications. Because it is a new programme, there will be competition

for the business between private and public sector providers.

Foster stopped short of recommendations about college structures. His report was

clearly influenced by what he saw and learned of North American systems. He obviously

admired the Honourable Bob Rae’s February 2005 Postsecondary Review report64,

quoting from it on a number of occasions. He also spoke appreciatively of aspects of the

community college systems in the USA, and noted “There are many similarities between

the recommendations in the Ontario Review and the conclusions of this Review of the

English FE college system.65”

64 Rae, B (7 February 2005) Postsecondary Review: Ontario: A Leader in Learning Canada; Queen’s Printer for Ontario65 Foster, A (2005) Realising the Potential: A review of the future role of Further Education Colleges: DfES Publications; Annesley, Nottinghamshire; Appendix 2, p2

121

Foster probably believed that structural reform had to be preceded by a period of

strengthening the reputation of colleges and, in particular, the larger and successful

colleges punching their weight. Paragraph 157 of his report states:

“We advocate a quick review of reputation led by DfES, involving LSC

and AoC to come forward with a range of practical proposals that

capitalize on this lead. This review could result in a greater involvement of

principals in national representation, in particular those from larger,

successful colleges where management capacity and capability exists to

release them for this work. There is a strong need for articulate FE college

principals to be explaining the services they give to society and how

colleges can make a significant contribution to the economy and to

developing fulfilled citizens.”

Interestingly a grouping of such colleges has been formed and boldly taken that

paragraph as its name! The 157 group intends to influence the post Foster debate. Key

objectives include promoting the case for college self regulation including over FE

qualifications. Our Scottish counterparts are ahead of us under their devolved

arrangements.66

But we cannot dodge any longer in this chapter the real $64 million dollar

question: Do we really need all these colleges? No we do not! At least, that is the view

of Professor David Robertson67 writing in Parliamentary Brief in December 2005:

“So what should ministers and the DfES consider when bringing forward

proposals in the coming months?

66 Devolved Government in the UK, whilst similar to the concept of Statehood and federalism in the US, enables the devolution of some, but not all powers to ‘Regional Governments’ primarily related to the Celtic nations of Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland. Under this system Celtic Assemblies are bound by UK and European legislation, but have powers to determine local policies for services such as education. 67 David Robertson - Professor of Public Policy and Education at Liverpool John Moores University

122

“First, there are simply too many FE colleges, too small to punch their weight in

regional battles with Government Offices, universities or Regional Development

Agencies, and too ineffectually governed. The 450 colleges and 8000 governors

could be reduced to 100 regional federations, headed by an executive college

‘President’; governed by a high-quality Board appointed by and accountable to

the Secretary of State; and with a clear mission that precludes ‘mission drift’.

Each regional college would be responsible for the strategic management of its

constituent resources; the local colleges acting rather as faculties in a University,

more broadly-based perhaps but with definitive specialisms.

“The new ‘super-college’ could have fresh powers devolved to it: for example,

the power to award qualifications in its own name. The quality assurance and

management information systems needed to underpin such powers would be more

readily developed by a body with £100 million at its disposal than at present.

Once the college owns its awards, it has a reputation to protect, and that drives up

standards faster than anything.

“Second, with professional governance and executive management, super-

colleges can be trusted with direct funding and substantial discretion over action

in their regional markets. This means a smaller, disintermediated role for the LSC,

although no smaller role for the quality inspectorate.

“Finally, the FE brand will have been truly strengthened when the college

‘President’, arriving to discuss matters with the local University or RDA, is able

to park his (or her) tank on the lawn. At the moment, the college Principal tends to

arrive by bike. But if you are ‘President’ of an institution of 100,000 students and

a £100 million budget, then some kind of negotiating parity has been established.

“If ministers are serious about sorting out vocational education, this is the kind of

bold remedy they should foster.”

123

Metropolitan College England

The variety of colleges in England is so great that to illustrate the response to our

fast moving agenda I have created Metropolitan College. It serves a large conurbation of

around 500 000 people. There is a small general FE college in one of the suburbs and a

sixth form college at the other end of the conurbation. Most of the schools are 11-16 with

a couple of denominational68 11-18 schools. The success rate at 16 (the % of pupils

achieving 5 good [i.e. grade C or above] passes is well below the norm and in the bottom

quartile for cities. From 2008 rolls begin to fall. From around 2010 three new

Academies will be created. Academies have sixth forms and these will undoubtedly take

some potential students from Metropolitan.

Metropolitan is currently housed in a number of main campuses. It provides

engineering and construction in a converted warehouse on an industrial estate convenient

for access. It has a modern sixth form centre well located in the city centre. Its vocational

provision in customer services and care is housed in a sixties building reaching the end of

its useful life. One of the strong beneficial policies is the availability of capital funding

to replace such facilities with world class buildings.

Consideration of a £50 million new build is forcing Metropolitan to confront an

uncertain future. When looking at the 16-19 market will more young people stay on at

school? If schools undertake more vocational courses from 14 will they achieve and want

to come on to college for level 3 and 4 study? Metropolitan provides several hundred

places for 14-16 year olds who attend college one day a week. It seems to be helping

recruitment from schools with generally low post 16 participation.

If Metropolitan moves to the city centre, will it affect these students? Should

Metropolitan be really radical and establish a 14-18 Academy either in collaboration with

some of the schools or in its own right?

Work based learning including apprenticeships is an important provision for

Metropolitan. In recent years it has switched some of its full time provision in areas such

as hair & beauty from campus based to work based. On balance it will probably decide

68 Denominational in this sense means schools which are founded around a particular religious denomination, for example Roman Catholic. They offer the national curriculum plus religious education to pupils up to the age of 18.

124

to pursue this route. So in planning its new build it can do without some of the current

salon space.

Metropolitan has been gradually increasing its Higher Education provision and

now recruits some 800 full time equivalents. The provision has been reviewed by the

Quality Assurance Agency and commended. But the introduction of top-up fees from

September 2006 may have effects69. The overall applicants to HE are down and it is

likely that Universities will reduce their offers taking students from Metropolitan.

The question of fees is a dominant issue for Metropolitan. Traditionally it has not

charged adults a fee although the funding from the LSC assumed that 25% of the cost of

a course was covered by fees. This is now being increased by five percentage points per

annum. Metropolitan is having to look at each course to determine its viability. If fees

are levied will students enroll? If students are in-filling then a lower fee may be

chargeable. This affects some 2000 full time students.

On the other hand, Government has decided that level 2 is the minimum level that

the state should ensure its population reaches. Adults without a full level 2 qualification70

will have their fees remitted so the funding can be claimed in full from LSC. The White

paper has extended this principle to provide for an entitlement for young adults (aged 19-

25) to have their fees fully remitted to enable them to achieve their first full level three

qualification.

This need to be aware of distinctions in Metropolitan’s customers beyond their

immediate educational ones is stretching its management capacity. Traditionally most

managers rise through the ranks on the basis of their academic and pedagogic talent.

Adapting to the commercial challenge of fees and contestability is proving difficult for

them. This may lead to a more pronounced demarcation between teaching staff and their

team leaders on the one hand and corporate management on the other.

Metropolitan is very aware of a significant expansion of the private sector that

believes opportunities will come their way to run programmes and even institutions. 69 Top up fees, introduced in September 2006, by English Universities allow them to charge up to £3000 in fees per year. Universities must satisfy funding bodies that they have fair admissions procedures in place, through, for example the establishment of a bursary scheme, before they can charge these fee rates. The majority of universities have opted to charge the full £3,000. 70 Full Level 2 qualifications are those qualifications that equate to 5 GCSEs at grade C or above. For vocational courses these would be programmes such as an NVQ 2 in catering. Traditional routes through the UK education system would anticipate most young people having gained such qualifications at 16, however, the reality is that many of our young people and adults leave school without such qualifications.

125

Should Metropolitan seek to forge alliances with the private sector utilizing each others’

strengths or gear up to try to win the competitive struggle?

One of the areas where there are new players is community development and in

particular provision for the unemployed and those not in employment. The distinction is

significant. The Government has kept unemployment relatively low by a combination of

sound and stable macroeconomic policy combined with active programmes - the New

Deals - to get people back to work. Lately, however, we have discovered the issue of

worklessness. A much larger number of people are on incapacity benefit than realized.

The benefit system has acted as a deterrent to seeking work and is to be reformed. It is

also the case that a high proportion of those not in work have no qualifications and lack

basic skills.

Even in this apparently safe area of its provision Metropolitan has come under

pressure to achieve more countable qualifications; that is, those beyond first steps.

A very significant area of provision is ESOL (English for Speakers of Other

Languages). This has tended to be for asylum seekers and refugees, but there has been a

very rapid increase in economic migrants from the recent accession countries of Eastern

Europe. This is good business for Metropolitan and it is developing imaginative

responses such as a language bus to tour the industrial estates of the conurbation. There

are over 500 students in ESOL and another 500 waiting.

These community agendas tend to engage a panoply of players including the

conurbation council, regional and sub regional agencies, the voluntary sector and

colleges. Partnerships are in vogue but are time consuming. Partnerships expect to see

Metropolitan’s Principal, but so do they ‘back at the ranch’.

Finally, Metropolitan is keen to expand its international portfolio. It has around

800 international students at the college but would like to expand this number. Britain as

a destination has been hit because of visa restrictions, aggressive marketing from US and

Australian colleges in particular and perhaps a perception that we have not been as

customer oriented as we might have been. Metropolitan is keen to expand its East

European activities and explore the possibilities in Asia but probably in conjunction with

a neighboring university. Metropolitan has a commitment to supporting colleges in

126

Africa to upgrade their facilities and range of provision but without a Government fund is

frustrated that it cannot do so.

So as the President of our eponymous Metropolitan College surveys the papers

strewn across his desk he realizes that there is no room for complacency, no comfort zone

to retreat into, just the never ending struggle to continue to help his students to improve

their life chances through high quality teaching and learning.

127

Community Colleges and Further Educationin French West Africa

Geremie Sawadogo

Technical and vocational schools have long been a staple of the educational

system in French speaking West Africa (FWA). While they were initially conceived to

provide clerical and administrative skills to the French colonial administration, these

schools, particularly those at the secondary level, slowly became a receptacle for those

students who were not “smart” enough to enter the more prestigious general education

stream. As time went by, the elitist French education system contributed to creating a

perception that these schools were inferior. However, as demands for access to education

and the need for specialized skills grew, it became increasingly obvious to policy makers

and parents that these schools had a crucial role to play in the education and the economic

development of their countries. So, while the American community college model does

not exist in WFA, these technical schools, particularly at the higher education level have

played similar roles. In particular, the “Institut Universitaire de Technologie”, a two-year

post secondary institution which grants a two-year degree in business and administration

known as DUT (Diplome Universitaire de Technologie). Today as Africa strives to meet

UNESCO’s goals of Education for All, the technical schools are again at the forefront of

the discussions on access to education, particularly in rural areas and for marginalized

populations and on their impact on the countries’ economic development as a means for

equipping Africans with the technical skills and know-how needed for the 21st century.

To further explore the role that these schools can play in economic development,

this paper will first review the historical, cultural and political rationale that lead to their

establishment; discuss their place and effectiveness in today’s French West Africa in

Benin; Burkina Faso; Cote d’Ivoire; Mali, Niger; Mauritania, Senegal and Togo; and

conclude with recommendations on how these institutions can play an even greater role

in the economic development efforts of these countries. In so doing, this paper

extensively draws on key reports from UNESCO and UNEVOC71.

The French Colonial Legacy

No other assimilation-driven policies were as successful as those carried out by

the French colonial enterprise in Africa. Thus, understanding the place of technical

education in the current educational system requires a brief review of colonial French

educational policies in Africa. Although public or official schools first appeared in

Senegal between 1847 and 1895, they did not become common in the rest of the colonies

until late 1896. Only after 1900 with the organization of the federated colonies of French

West Africa, did France outlined its educational policies for the region. Thus, by decree

in 1903, education in French West Africa was organized into a system of primary

schools, upper primary schools, professional schools, and a normal school. Two further

reorganization decrees for all of FWA followed in 1912 and 1918, and key schools were

established, including the St. Louis Normal School in 1907 (transferred to Gorée in

1913), the School for Student Marine Mechanics of Dakar in 1912, and the School of

Medicine of Dakar in 1916 (Bulletin de l’Enseignement en AOF, No. 25, 1921).

More specifically, French colonial educational policy was intended to expand the

influence of the French language, the [French] nationality or culture in Africa as

expressed in the official statements of the Governor-General:

“Colonial duty and political necessity impose a double task on our education

work: on the one hand it is a matter of training an indigenous staff destined to

become our assistants throughout the domains, and to assure the ascension of a

carefully chosen elite, and on the other hand it is a matter of educating the

masses, to bring them nearer to us and to change their way of life” (Bulletin de

l'Enseignement en AOF, No. 74, 1931).

71 UNEVOC is UNESCO’s International Project on Technical and Vocational Education. It was established in Bonn, Germany in 2001.

129

The first schools to be established were missionary schools and though the

education they provided played a key role in introducing western style education in the

colonies, it failed on several fronts due to the following reasons:

Most of the inland peoples in FWA were Moslem; and not only were

most missionaries kept out of Islamic areas, the people were not much

interested in education provided by Christian missionaries.

The exclusive use of French as the language of education limited

access to these schools and slowed the schooling process since only

those who had acquired a high level of proficiency in French could

acquire education.

The curriculum was almost exactly the same as in France reflecting the

French colonial proclivity for assimilation. In fact, these schools went

even as far as using the same textbooks raising obvious questions

regarding their relevancy to the African context. One famous history

textbook began with “Our ancestors the Gauls ...”

The French education system has always been (and continues to be)

elitist, focusing on a minority of the most talented while trying to

develop their capabilities to a very high level; the elite are separated at

an early age from the majority (streaming); education of the majority

does not have as high a priority (Mills 1965).

In an attempt to address these shortcomings and mainly to infuse their own

political ideology into the schooling process, the colonial government gradually replaced

religious learning with a largely secular school system. Thus, education was to serve an

entirely different purpose for the government than it had for the missionaries, namely that

of the crucial role of reducing native resistance to the white outsiders. This is illustrated

in Governor-General William Ponty 1909 circular to all governors, in which he urged

them to reduce the powers of native and Moslem leaders, and to exert pressure on chiefs

to send their children to French schools. As the Inspector of Education for the AOF

commented ten years later, ‘”The first requirement of the education which we give in our

130

colonies should be one of practical utility, first of all for us, and then for the natives.”

(Harrison, Ingawa & Martin, 1960).

Thus, both the elitist and political nature of French colonial education policies

explain the role that was historically bestowed on vocational and technical schools.

Indeed, these institutions were primarily conceived to train qualified labor for the

colonial economy with an initial emphasis on clerical and administrative skills and on

educating those who were not sufficiently qualified or smart enough to go through the

general educational cycle (Foster, 1966).

Transitional Phase

A decade after the colonies were granted their independence from France, it

became obvious that this educational model was no longer meeting the development

needs of the countries. For one thing, a baffling paradox of too many people looking for

jobs while at the same time too many unfilled jobs began to appear. To make matters

worse, a growing number of unemployed were among the educated while the countries

experienced a persistent shortage of vocational and technical skills in many areas of the

economy.

Furthermore, as Atchoarena and Delluc (2002) assert, the economic and financial

crisis that struck sub-Saharan African countries in the mid 1980s brought deep changes in

the production system and labor market. The end of guaranteed access to public sector

employment contributed to increased unemployment among graduates and a deterioration

of the rate of return on investment in post basic education, which in turn stressed the

urgency to strengthen vocational and technical education.

In order to achieve this, most African countries choose to (1) either strengthen

separate vocational institutions, usually at the secondary level, or (2) initiate curriculum

diversification programs, to introduce prevocational subjects to primary and secondary

students. The latter was often justified by asserting that it would benefit dropouts and

repeaters who, incidentally make up a significant component of the informal sector (Isaac

Mazonde, 1989). Unfortunately, labor market considerations have rarely informed these

131

investment strategies. As a result, occupational areas that made up the curriculum of

these schools seldom kept pace with the demands of the socio-economic environment

(Middleton & Oemsky, 1989).

Also, as one might have guessed it, the French West African countries borrowed

heavily from France’s educational models in their efforts to develop vocational and

technical schools oftentimes with serious oversights, as illustrated in the case of the

French technical BACs. In France, their creation was followed by the creation of another

degree; the BTS, eligibility for which was almost entirely reserved for students holding a

technical BAC making a large majority eligible to take advantage of that two-year

training that open doors in the job market. In Africa however, setting up the Technical

BACs was rarely accompanied by offerings of BTS. Thus, students who obtained their

BAC had no other options except in rare cases, where some were accepted in tertiary

education where they found themselves challenged by the course work more tailored to

students who have obtained a Science BAC.

So, even as the importance of vocational and technical schools for national

economic development was being touted there remained a lingering perception by

students and parents that the education given in these schools, particularly at the primary

and secondary education level, was not up to par with general education and that these

schools in only existed to “salvage” general education failures. In most cases, indeed,

students were from a lower economic class or did not have grades high enough to

continue on to general (Psacharopoulos and Loxley, 1985).

Overall, the effectiveness of these schools was hampered by their rigidity, their

inability to adapt to the changing demands of the labor market, and the continuous

perception that they were inferior educational institutions.

The Changing Fortunes of Vocational and Technical Education

As unemployment rates grew to alarming figures and the number of young people

excluded from school swelled world-wide to over 300 millions (UNESCO statistical data,

2006) technical and vocational education long considered as second rate education,

132

regained some luster. This is evidenced by the recommendations and reports from key

international conferences including, “Les assises francophones de la formation technique

et professionnelle” (Bamako, 26-29 mai, 1996); The second international Congress on

Technical and Vocational Education (Soul, Korea April 1999; the Francophonie meetings

and the EFA meeting in Senegal 2000; the 2001 UNESCO-ILO revised recommendations

on technical and vocational education; and the International Experts Meeting on Learning

for Work, Citizenship and Sustainability, meeting (Bonn Germany, 25-28 October 2004).

Altogether, these conferences reiterated the views held by UNESCO and UNEVOC of

the important role of TVE in ensuring that the learning needs of all young people and

adults are met through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programs

(Goal 3 of the EFA) and in ushering developing countries into the 21st century by

equipping its citizenry with needed technical skills and competencies for the knowledge

economy.

What Benavot (1983) refers to as the "rise and fall of vocational education,” is

derived in large part from the continuous failures and challenges of general education.

As dramatically illustrated by statistics from UNESCO, in one out of four African

countries, 50 percent of the children enrolled at the end of primary school do not continue

to the secondary level in the following year. By comparison, more than 85% of primary

pupils make the transition in most countries in Europe, Asia, North and South America.

Just 25% of African countries achieve similar results. African continues to have the

lowest completion of primary completion ratio in the world. While in Europe, almost all

countries have a ratio exceeding 90%. Out of 45 African countries, only eight reach this

level: Algeria, Botswana, Cape Verde, Egypt, Mauritius, Seychelles, South Africa and

Tunisia (No FWA country met these standards). And only one in three children will

complete primary education in six countries including the following FWA countries:

Niger (21%), Guinea Burkina Faso (27%); Chad (32%); and Mali (33%).

In the technical area, Africa only has 20,000 scientists and engineers or 0.36% of

the world’s total. Africa only publishes 1.5% of scientific publications and has no

recorded patents. Yet, according to the UN commission for Africa, the continent loses

20,000 specialists (doctors, university professors, and engineers) every year or totaling

133

about 60,000 between 1985 and 1990. Today, of 100 children who enroll in the first year

of primary education, only 30 will continue with either secondary education or some

form of vocational training and eventually 3 may pursue tertiary level education and

training. The majority will terminate at primary level. How can Technical education help

this silent majority for whom only 30% continues past primary education (UNESCO

Statistical data, 2005).

With this dismal situation, it is easy to see why policy makers and parents alike

are turning more to vocational and technical schools as a viable alternative.

134

Figure 1

135

ORGANIGRAMMEDU SYSTEME EDUCATIF ACTUEL

SENEGAL

ORGANIGRAMMEDU SYSTEME EDUCATIF ACTUEL

SENEGAL

EN

SEIG

NE

ME

NT

SUP

ER

IEU

RPr

emie

r

Deu

ièm

e

T

rois

ièm

e c

ycle

cyc

le

c

ycle

EN

SEIG

NE

ME

NT

SUP

ER

IEU

RPr

emie

r

Deu

ièm

e

T

rois

ièm

e c

ycle

cyc

le

c

ycle

STRUCTURESUNIVERSITAIRESFONDAMENTALES-Fac. Sc. Sociales et humaines-Fac. Sciences de la Santé-Fac. Sciences et Techniques-Fac. Sciences économiques

ECOLES PROFESSIONNELLES-Inst. polytechnique-Inst. Dévelop. Rural-Ecole Nile d’Administration-Inst. Relations Internationales-Inst. Sciences de la communication

etc.

ECOLES PROFESSIONNELLES-Inst. polytechnique-Inst. Dévelop. Rural-Ecole Nile d’Administration-Inst. Relations Internationales-Inst. Sciences de la communication

etc.

CY

CL

E

SEC

ON

DA

IRE

ET

PR

OF

ESS

ION

NE

L3a

ns

CY

CL

E

SEC

ON

DA

IRE

ET

PR

OF

ESS

ION

NE

L3a

ns

ORIENTATION CONCOURS PROFESSIONNELSORIENTATION CONCOURS PROFESSIONNELS

ENSEIGNNEMENT SECONDAIREGENERAL ET’TECHNIQUE

ENSEIGNNEMENT SECONDAIREGENERAL ET’TECHNIQUE

ECOLES DEFORMATIONPROFESSIONNELLEMOYENNES

ECOLES DEFORMATIONPROFESSIONNELLEMOYENNES

CY

CL

E M

OY

EN

4ans

CY

CL

E M

OY

EN

4ans

ORIENTATIONORIENTATION

ENSEIGNEMENT MOYEN GENERAL ET TECHNIQUEENSEIGNEMENT MOYEN GENERAL ET TECHNIQUE

CY

CL

E P

RIM

AIR

E

6ans

CY

CL

E P

RIM

AIR

E

6ans

CONCOURS D’ENTREE EN 6o

CONCOURS D’ENTREE EN 6o

EDUCATION PRESCOLAIREEDUCATION PRESCOLAIRE

ED

UC

AT

ION

ED

UC

AT

ION

SPE

CIA

LIS

EE

SPE

CIA

LIS

EE

VIE

V

IE

AC

TIV

EA

CT

IVE

3ans

3ans

Current Landscape and Challenges of Technical and Vocational Education in FWA

As presented in Figure 1 above, a common feature of the educational system in

FWA is as follows: Primary education (6 years); Junior Secondary School (4 years);

Senior Secondary School (3 years) and Basic University Degree Bachelors (3 years). A

key characteristic of the system is that while pathways exist for students in the general

education stream to move to the technical vocation stream, there is neither a pathway nor

articulation agreements for students in the technical stream to enter the general education

stream, thus, for many of the students in the technical stream, the end of the study cycle

signifies the end of their education process.

It is also important to note that most, if not all, of the technical schools, are

located in urban areas; however the skills set needed are more in demand in rural areas

where unemployment and illiteracy are much higher and access to education continues to

be very limited. Furthermore, in spite of the high illiteracy rate, training in these schools,

even when they are located in rural areas continue to be provided in French rather than in

widely used local languages.

In spite of numerous educational reforms and some progress made by some

countries, Jean Nang Son (1986) correctly depicts the current educational and economic

environment rather as bleak with the following characteristics: (1) High unemployment

rates in all African countries notably among young graduates who do not have any

technical nor professional skills.; (2) the growth of the informal sector with a very

dynamic apprenticeship sector; (3) lack of organization among apprenticeships; (4) lack

of coordination of training or educational offerings between technical schools and

universities; and (5) stigma about the value and usefulness of technical education when

compared with general education for the economic development of Africa.

In addition, challenges related to the governance and administrative oversights of

these schools remain common. In reviewing governance of these schools, David

Atchoarena and Andre Delluc (2001) identify 3 main configurations: (1) Oversight of

technical and vocational education to the Ministry of Education as in Mali currently; (2)

136

the creation of a separate Ministry for Vocational Education (Benin, Cote D’Ivoire,

Senegal and Togo); and (3) vocational education is attached to the Ministry of labor or

employment and technical education under the Ministry of Education. In many countries

the oversight of technical education is often the shared responsibility between several

ministries, most notably the Ministries of education, technical training and labor. This, as

one can imagine, results in lack of focus and direction, not to mention insufficient

funding support and commitment.

The case of Cote d’Ivoire vividly illustrates this issue. The Ministry of Technical

and Vocational Education (Ministere de l’enseignement technique et de la formation

Professionnelle/METFP) was created in 1970 and integrated in 1983 into the Ministry of

Education in 1983. Three years later in 1986, it was broken up and became a ministerial

unit. In 1996 it was again integrated into the Ministry of Education and Scientific

Research. Since 2000, the oversight of all technical and vocational education now rests

with the Ministry of Youth, Employment and Vocational Education (MJEFP). Though

this example is from the Cote d’Ivoire the same can be said of most French West African

countries and illustrates the political ambivalence and ambiguity over the role and place

that these institutions hold in the education and economic development efforts of the

FWA countries

One of the most obvious shortcomings of technical education in FWA is that of

relevancy (Grierson,1997). For instance these schools have ignored the informal sector,

especially artisans’ micro enterprises and the very successful apprenticeship models the

region is so famous for. As a result, extensive apprenticeship programs are cropping up

everywhere in the sub region at the margin of the formal vocational and technical

education systems, though there is wide concern about the fact that these apprenticeships

for the most part, are not capable of providing theoretical knowledge relevant to the skills

they are transmitting.

Rather than being conceived as single educational entities with varied program

offerings, the educational landscape, even within individual countries, reveals a

multiplicity of schools each specialized in a single technical area. Though this might lead

137

to a highly focused and specialized training, this model of education is not cost effective

and nor can it take advantage of the teaching and learning synergy that institutions with

diverse offerings and a diverse student body can offer.

Finally, in addition to the limited number of institutions, UNEVOC identifies the

following as contributing factors in limiting access to technical education in the region

(UNEVOC, 2005).

In many countries, Technical and Vocation Education (TVE) is delivered in

French only, which are often the languages of former colonial powers and not spoken by

everyone in the society.

Women often find it difficult to enter TVE programs because they are either

denied access, or because they are not expected to enter certain male-dominated

occupations. Furthermore, women may be required to stay at home to help with

housework and farm work.

Learners from low-income backgrounds are confronted with difficulties in

entering TVE programs because training providers may demand tuition fees.

In rural areas there are generally restricted training opportunities available since,

in most countries, the best vocational schools and training schemes are located in the

capital or major cities. Entering a TVE school or training institution may mean living far

away from home with all the financial and social implications, including absence from

work, family and friends.

People beyond a certain age may find it difficult to gain access to TVE. Not only

is the TVE system in many countries only prepared to cater for younger people, but

potential older candidates for courses are often needed as income-generators and so are

not free to attend courses. In many cases, funds (such as government grants) to cover

living costs during a training period are not available.

138

In many countries stereotypes still remain against TVE rendering it undesirable

for many (UNEVOC, 2005)

While there has been no conclusive study examining the role of education on

economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa, for which much investment is predicated, cross-

national research suggest positive returns for vocational education during certain periods.

For example, Benavot (1983) found that vocational education had a slightly stronger

effect than general education on economic growth for all less developed countries during

the period between 1955 and 1970. These institutions must therefore become a focus of

attention not only as a response to the current educational crisis marked by prolonged

student or faculty strikes and yearlong closures but as a means to address the need to

provide technical skills needed for globalization and to fight high unemployment rates.

The final section of this paper discusses recommendations for revitalizing technical

education in FWA.

Recommendations:

In 2004, the participants in the Second International Congress on Technical and

Vocational Education (TVE), which was devoted to the theme of lifelong learning and

training as a bridge to the future, formulated several recommendations to the Director-

General of UNESCO, including the following: (1) ensuring that TVE be designed to

provide skills for all and remain an accessible basic human right; (2) reforming TVE

systems to achieve flexibility, innovation, and productivity; (3) forming a new

partnership between education and the world of work and fostering development of

generic competencies, the work ethic, technological and entrepreneurial skills, and

imparting human values and standards for responsible citizenship; (4) designing TVE

experiences as developmental life experiences with cultural and environmental aspects in

addition to economic dimensions; and (5) reorienting the TVE curriculum to reflect new

subjects and issues of importance.

While these are good recommendations, they are too broad. The assessment of the

TVE in FWA along with the review of the related literature on these institutions carried

139

out in this paper, suggest four main areas of interventions including: (1) the high cost of

vocation and technical education; (2) relevance of the training; (4) governance, image

and access; and (4) lack of relevant statistical data on the technical and vocational

schools.

1. Cost

The cost of technical and vocational education remains high when compared to

that of general education. As a result of the combined pressures of growing demands and

declining resources there has been a push for a search for less costly, more efficient and

more appropriate forms of vocational education which often has resulted in lower quality

offerings. While international agencies such as The World Bank, UNESCO and many

donor countries such as Switzerland, Germany and France have contributed funds to

targeted initiatives in some countries, the best hope remains resources which can be

harnessed from local businesses. Both Senegal and Togo and, to some extent, the Cote

d’Ivoire have successful examples of funding mechanisms negotiated with the private

sector which can be shared with the other FWA countries. Furthermore, the regional

schools which were established in the 1970s and 1980s and are now closed due to low

enrollment and failure from member countries to pay their dues, should be re-organized

to accept regional intake as a financially viable alternative for running expensive country

specific training centers or schools.

2. Relevance

There is a growing mismatch between the training offered by vocational training

programs and the skills needed for dynamic competitive markets with the principle

measure of relevance being jobs. While this can be seen as an indication of the lingering

effect of the legacy of the French educational policies, it is also a result of the absence of

national debate about the goals and roles of these institutions. While it is customary to

have national conferences on educational reforms, in FWA, they, rarely address the state

and roles of the technical schools which are often an afterthought of general education.

Relevance can thus be discussed in light of the skills and competencies needed by each

140

country, region, community and its employers and enterprises. To further increase the

relevancy and appropriateness of these programs, discussions on linkages with industries

and enterprises should also include a discussion on student motivation as it relates to self-

employment to ensure that students are placed in the right programs of study. Finally,

many countries have used enterprise-based training not only as a way to reduce

educational cost, but to also to ensure the relevancy of the training which is being

provided. Linkages with industries to develop funding and enterprise-based training can

be best achieved by creating a department within the schools responsible for partnerships

with businesses. Such departments should also endeavor to identify market segments

which provide or are going to provide employment labor market analysis and skill need

identification, a process that the informal sector with its apprenticeships has so well

mastered.

3. Governance, image and access

The current financial health of the technical and vocational education and the

perception that students have vis-à-vis their relevancy and usefulness can be effectively

alleviated if issues surrounding their governance and their image are properly addressed.

With respect to governance, the FWA countries must establish long-lasting ministerial

anchors for technical schools. Indeed, the frequent changes in governance create an

identity crisis for these institutions and send the message that technical and vocational

education is disposable and not important. A stable identity will help the systems

develop allies and advocates who can assist in policy advocacy and fund raising.

Advocates and educators and politicians must also work together to repair the

image of these schools so that they are perceived to be as good as general education

schools. This can be accomplished by making sure that the training received reflects labor

market needs. Equally important is the need to create pathways and articulation

agreements to allow testing and free transfer between the various programs and existing

universities programs for continuing their education. At the moment, while students in

general education can take tests to attend technical schools, students in technical schools

are rarely permitted to transfer to general education. Creating these pathways and

141

articulation agreements will go a long way toward the perception that technical and

vocational education is inferior to general education and will further make even more

educational opportunities to all.

4. Need for accurate and timely statistical data on TVE

The lack of accurate and timely statistical data concerning enrolment and impact

of technical and vocational education should not surprise given the challenges described

in the section above regarding governance of these institutions. It is neither a new

problem having figured preeminently in the recommendations of many reports. In

response, national observatories were created in most of FWA to collect statistical data

on technical and vocational schools as well as labor statistics in order to assist the

countries in making informed planning decisions. However 15 years after their creation,

the observatories can not be relied upon to produce actionable data on technical and

vocational education. This author experienced this shortcoming while placing several

calls to the observatories in many of the countries reviewed in this study only to be told

to call BREDA (Regional UNESCO Office for Africa located in Dakar, Senegal) or

UNESCO.

It should be obvious by now that if these institutions are to fully play their role of

reducing unemployment and leading African countries into the 21st century, accurate

data, particularly with respect to enrolment figures, occupational areas and most

importantly, their impact of TVE on employment and economic development must be

gathered and made available to planners and educators alike to better respond to students

needs and positively affect national development.

Conclusion

In one of the classic novels, L’Aventure Ambigue of Mamadou Kane, a long time

required reading for generations of FWA students (including this author), a clash of

cultures between traditional African cultures and those of the West primarily represented

by modern education is depicted. At issue is whether the locals should send their

142

children to the foreigners’ schools. The matriarch of the family must make a decision

and while recognizing the “risks” decides to send her children to the foreigners’ school.

The new school is the new form of war which those who have

come here are waging, and we must send our elite there, expecting that

all the country will follow them. (…) If there is a risk, they are best

prepared to cope successfully with it, because they are most firmly

attached to what they are.

Though this story is set in the 1940’s in Senegal, the core issues of relevancy,

impact and goals of education depicted in the book remain equally compelling for

technical and vocational education in FWA today as they were for the populations then.

As shown in this paper, there is a wide diversity in the types, governance, funding

schemes of technical schools in FWA. Yet, in the face of this diverse configuration,

lingering negative stereotypes, lack of funding, lack of statistical data, remain common

challenges throughout the FWA countries. These issues are best addressed by concerted

efforts between the governments, employers, businesses and educators. For instance,

governments and businesses can address issues concerning funding and relevancy of

occupational areas of training and educators could be have the responsibility of gathering

knowledge and practices which can be relevant to their respective countries. The

reputation and the image of these institutions will be enhanced once the population see

changes in governments’ priority and political investment and commitment vis-à-vis

these institutions. At the present and as seen in this paper, such government support and

commitment is lacking in most of the countries.

143

Bibliography

Aaron Benavot. "The Rise and Decline of Vocational Education." Sociology of Education 56 (April, 1983): 63-76.

Jean Nang Son, L’Afrique et la formation technique et professionnelle à l’aube du 21ème siècle. D+C Développement et Coopération (No. 6, Novembre/Décembre 2001, p. 14 - 17)

Kogoe Akrima Trends and Issues in Vocational Technical Education in Francophone West Africa ERIC ED 256960Education, history of." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Premium

David Atchoarena and Paul Esquieu. Private Technical and Vocational Education In Sub-saharan Africa Provisions patterns and policies issues. IIEP-UNESCO. 2002.

David Atchoarena & Andre Delluc. Revisiting Technical and vocational Education in Sub Saharan Africa. An update on trends, innovations and challenges. International Institute for Educational Planning - UNESCO 2001

Development of Technical and Vocational Education in Africa. UNEVOC-BREDA 1996.

Foster, Philip. 1992. “Vocational Education and Training: A major shift in World Bank Policy.” Prospects 22(2): 149-155.

Grierson, John P. Where There Is No Job: Vocational Training for Self-employment in Developing Countries. Swiss Centre for Development Cooperation in Technology and Management. University of Edinburgh, Centre of African Studies, Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation 1997.

Middleton, J., & Ziderman, A. (1997). Overview: World Bank policy research on vocational education and training (Skills training in developing countries: finance and planning issues). International Journal of Manpower, 18;(1-2),6-29.

Middleton, J. (1991). World Bank support for vocational education and training: New directions for the 1990s. Journal of Industrial Teacher Education, 28(3),7-21.

Middleton, J. & Demsky, T. Review of World Bank investments in vocational education and training for industry. Washington, DC: Education and Employment Division, World Bank. 1988

Isaac Mazonde . Culture and Education in the Development of Africa. UN, Workshop on Education. Zambia, 1997

Psacharopoulos, G., & Loxley, W. (1985). Diversified secondary education and development. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Le Partenariat dans l’Enseignement Technique et Professionnel. UNEVOC. January 1999.

UNEVOC-UNESCO TVET in West Africa-Discussion papers Jan.31.03UNEVOC. Improving Access to TVET. February 2005.

144

Appendix- List of Technical and Vocational Schools in FWA

BéninDirection des Enseignements Technique et Professionnel (D.E.T.P.)B.P. 2416 • Contonou

Burkina FasoAfricaLycée Technique Industriel et Commercial de Ouagadougou (L.T.O.)Sis a Zogona, Zone Universitaire 01 • Ouagadougou 01B.P. 98 • Ouagadougou 01

Collège d'Enseignement Technique de Ouagadougou (C.E.T.O.)B.P. 1465 • Ouagadougou 01

Collège d'Enseignement Technique Feminin (CETF)01 B.P. 2720 • Ouagadougou 01

Collège Privé d'Enseignement TechniqueSecteur 4 • KoudougouB.P. 363 • Koudougou

Centre d’Etudes Economiques et Sociales d’Afrique Occidentale (CESAO)BP 305, Bobo-DioulassoTelephone: 20-97-10-17 Fax: 20-97-08-02 Email: cesao.bobo@fasonet.bf

Ecole Inter-Etats d’Ingénieurs de l’Equipement Rural (EIER)BP 7023, Ouagadougou 03Telephone: 30-20-53 Fax: 31-27-24

Université Polytechnique de Bobo-Dioulasso01 BP 1091, Bobo-Dioulasso 01Telephone: 20-98-06-35 Fax: 20-98-25-77 Email: akry@univ-ouaga.bf

ChadEcole Nationale d’AdministrationBP 768, N’DjamenaFounded: 1963 Set up by the Government and controlled by an Administrative Council to train students as public servants

Dir: N. Guelina 

Institut Supérieur des Sciences de l’EducationBP 473 N’DjamenaTelephone: 51-44-87 Fax: 51-45-50 Founded: 1992

Cote d’IvoireInstitut Pédagogique National de l'Enseignement Technique et Professionnel (IPNETP)08 BP 2098 • Abidjan 08

Lycée Professionnel OdienneBP 638 • Odienne

Lycée professionnel hôtelier de la RivièraBP V 228 • Abidjan

Lycée Professionnel de San PédroBP 1212 • San Pédro

Institut National Polytechnique Félix Houphouët-Boigny BP 1093, YamoussoukroTelephone: 30-64-05-41 Fax: 30-64-04-06

Ecole Supérieure Interafricaine de l’Electricité Interafrican Electrical Engineering CollegeBP 311, BingervilleTelephone: 22-40-33-12 Fax: 22-40-35-07

Ecole Supérieure d’AgronomieBP 1313, YamoussoukroTelephone: 30-64-07-70 Fax: 30-64-17-49 Email: esayakro@africaonline.ci

Ecole Nationale Supérieure des Travaux PublicsBP 1083, YamoussoukroTelephone: 30-64-01-00 Fax: 30-64-03-06

Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Statistique et d’Economie AppliquéeCnr Blvd François Mitterand and Blvd des Grandes Ecoles, Campus Universitaire de Cocody, 08 BP3, Abidjan 08

146

Telephone: 22-44-08-40 Fax: 22-44-39-88 Email: ensea@ensea.ed.ciInternet: http://www.ensea.refer.ci/

Ecole Nationale des Postes et TélécommunicationsBP 1501, AbidjanTelephone: 21-25-54-94 Fax: 21-25-99-05

Ecole Nationale d’AdministrationBP V 20, AbidjanTelephone: 22-41-52-25 Fax: 22-41-49-63 Email: ena@globe.access.net

Académie Régionale des Sciences et Techniques de la Mer BP V 158, AbidjanTelephone: 20-37-18-23 Founded: 1975 by 17 African countries

MaliEcole Centrale pour l'Industrie, le Commerce etl'Administration (ECICA)Medina-Coura • BamakoB.P. 1828 • Bamako

Ecole Nationale d'Ingénieurs (ENI)410, Avenue van Vollenhoven • BamakoB.P. 242 • Bamako

Ecole des Hautes Etudes PratiquesBP 242, BamakoTelephone: 222-21-47

Ecole Nationale d’IngénieursBP 242, BamakoTelephone: 222-21-47

Ecole Normale SupérieureBP 241, BamakoTelephone: 222-21-89

Institut Polytechnique Rural de KatibougouBP 6, KoulikoroTelephone: 226-20-12

147

Institut de Productivité et de Gestion Prévisionnelle BP 1300, BamakoTelephone: 222-55-11

Mauritania Africa, Arab StatesEcole Supérieur pour l' Enseignement Technique(ESET)P.O. Box 986 • Mouakchott

Ecole Nationale d’AdministrationBP 664, Nouakchott

NigerLycée Technique Dan KassawaB.P. 73 • Maradi

Lycée d'enseignement professionnel Issa BériB.P. 11091 • Niamey

Ecole Nationale d’Administration du NigerBP 542, NiameyTelephone: 72-31-83

SenegalTechnical and Industrial High School Maurice DelafosseLycée technique industriel Maurice Delafossec/o Secrétariat Commission Nationale pour l'UNESCO87, Rue Carnet x Bayeux • DakarB.P. 4004 • Dakar

Ecole Nationale d’Administration du SénégalBP 5209, Dakar

Ecole Nationale d’Economie AppliquéeBP 5084, Dakar/FannTelephone: 824-79-28

Ecole Inter-Etats des Sciences et Médecine Vétérinaires (EISMV)BP 5077, DakarTelephone: 865-10-08 Fax: 825-42-83 Email: mariamd@eismv.refer.snInternet: http://www.refer.sn/sngal_ct/edu/eismv/eismv.htmFounded in 1968, it represents 13 French-speaking African countries.

148

Ecole Nationale Supérieure d'AgricultureBP A 296, ThièsTelephone: 951-12-57 Fax: 951-15-51 Email: ensath@sentoo.snInternet: http://www.refer.sn/ensa/accueil.htm

Ecole Supérieure PolytechniqueBP 5085, DakarTelephone: 825-08-79 Fax: 825-55-94 Email: esp@ucad.snInternet: http://www.esp.sn/

Institut de Technologie AlimentaireBP 2765, Hann, DakarTelephone: 832-00-70 Fax: 832-32-95 Email: ita@metissacana.snInternet: http://ita.sn/

TogoLycée d'Enseignement Technique et Professionnel(LETP) de LoméRoute de Kpalimé • LoméB.P. 1337 • Lomé

Centre de Formation Professionnelle Agricole de ToveBP 401, Kpalimé

Ecole Africaine des Métiers d’Architecture et d’UrbanismeBP 2067, LoméTelephone: 221-62-53 Fax: 222-06-52

Ecole Nationale d’AdministrationAve de la Libération, LoméTelephone: 221-21-30 Fax: 221-35-29

149

The Vocational Education and Training System in Germany -

State of the art and trends72

Volker Rein

Ute Hippach-Schneider73

1. General policy context

Germany is a republic and a democracy; it is a federal state based on the rule of

constitutional law and social justice. During its founding phase it opted for a

social market economy, combining free enterprise within a competitive economy

with social progress. This central idea is reflected in the conviction that a social

market economy is most successful when controlled by market forces, with State

intervention only as a corrective or supportive measure.

The federal state comprises 16 Länder, each having some of the features of a

state. Each has its own powers within certain spheres, which it exercises through

its own legislature, executive and judiciary. There is a distinct cooperative

federalism within the State sector, both horizontally between the Länder and

between the Länder and the federal government.

While there is a general consensus among all political groups that State

involvement in the VET system is necessary, its form and scale is subject to

72 This article is based on: CEDEFOP, The German VET System - thematic Overview, 2006

73 Volker Rein and Ute Hippach-Schneider are working as scientists at the Federal Institute for Vocational Education and Training (BIBB), working section International Monitoring and Benchmarking / European VET Policy.

debate. The State’s role in VET depends to a considerable extent on how the

weaknesses of market forces and political control are perceived and judged

politically in the context of social and economic objectives. Apart from this,

vocational training in enterprises has developed a third system situated between

market and State, in the form of joint control. The German political system is

characterised by this social partnership.

ECONOMY AND LABOUR MARKET

Fundamental structural changes are taking place in the German economy and

society. For Germany, traditionally poor in raw materials and heavily dependent

on importing natural resources and exporting manufactured goods and services,

the human capital of the workforce is proving to be the crucial raw material for

safeguarding its future as a production site.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP) rose in real terms from 2000 to 2004 by 2.8%,

and the rate of unemployment increased at the same time by 1.0%. The

expenditure on educational institutions is stagnating in Germany and lies below

the OECD country mean (5.3% vs. 5.8%, respectively, in 2002). Economic

development is characterised by changes in the structure of the output of the

overall economy according to sector, and the division of the workforce among

these sectors and according to skills. The primary sector’s share has fallen to

2.2%, and the joint share of the private and public service sector has grown to

71.9%. The change in the structure of the labour market primarily affects workers

with few or no qualifications, older workers, workers hampered by health

problems and migrants, then specialised occupations in shrinking sectors, and

finally structurally weak regions. The trend reveals falling demand for basic

qualifications and a rising demand for higher qualifications. The need for skilled

workers will probably stagnate.

EDUCATIONAL ATTAINMENT AND BACKGROUND TO THE VET SYSTEM

151

In comparison to the EU average, the proportion of people aged 25 to 64 with a

low level of qualification is significantly smaller in Germany (16% vs. 34%,

respectively, in 2003). Consequently, also the proportion of young people (age

group 15 to 24) was constantly below the EU average in the last years (in 2004:

3.6%). On the other hand, the proportion of people within ISCED levels 3-4 is

higher than the EU average. For tertiary education, the numbers tend to follow

the EU trend.

In Germany children enter compulsory full-time schooling aged 6. This schooling

period lasts 9 years (10 years in five Länder). On completion, young people who

do not attend any full-time-school are required to attend part-time (vocational)

school for three years. This means in practice that young people are required to

attend school from the ages of 6 to 18. Trainees in the dual system (even those

older than 18) are also subject to compulsory schooling.

After four years of primary school, pupils move into different educational

branches either: lower secondary school (Hauptschule), intermediate school

(Realschule) or comprehensive secondary school (Gymnasium). Often these

different pathways merge through the dual system.

There are 5 different qualifications systems:

General education qualifications acquired at upper secondary level;

Vocational qualifications acquired in the dual system;

Vocational qualifications acquired at full-time vocational schools at

upper secondary education level;

Qualifications acquired at higher education institutions;

Advanced vocational qualifications acquired outside of higher

education institutions for the purpose of career advancement.

Responsibility for VET is distributed between federal government, the Länder and

the chambers, as regional and sectoral self-governing business organisations,

152

and individual training providers (companies, vocational schools). The Ministry of

Education and Research (Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung -

BMBF) is responsible for: improving and developing the dual system; providing

sufficient supply of training positions for all young people; and providing special

assistance for handicapped young people. The Federal Institute for Vocational

Education and Research (Bundesinstitut für Berufsbildung - BIBB)74 supports the

government task by counselling, development and research work in all areas of

VET on the federal level.

The Ministers for Education and Cultural Affairs in the 16 Länder are responsible

for training at vocational schools and meet to vote in their Standing Conference.

At regional level, the responsible authorities in the chambers handle issues

involving accreditation, examinations and supervision.

The German VET-system can generally be divided into three central

sub-systems: Initial vocational training (e.g. training in the dual system or in full-

time vocational schools), continuing vocational training and retraining.

2. Initial vocational education and training

The Dual System (Apprenticeship Training)

This is the largest part of upper secondary education. The term refers to the

shared responsibility of the private as well as the public sector and the

combination of two learning sites. About 55% of all young people opt for

company-based training complemented by obligatory part-time vocational school

when they have finished their general school education at lower secondary level.

The combination of learning and working offers good opportunities for transition

from training to the labour market. Training lasts for 3 to 3½ years and gives the

young person a status as a skilled worker.

74 The BIBB is the AACC Partner institution in Germany in terms of VET policy and research since 2003.

153

The company-based element of vocational training in the dual system covers

about 30 hours a week. It is on-the-job training in smaller firms on the one hand

and training in workshops/departments in large enterprises on the other hand.

Part-time vocational schools and training companies fulfil a common educational

task within the dual system. The schools support on-the-job training in

companies through teaching theoretical as well as general subjects. Time spent

at part-time vocational schools lasts in average 2 days a week for the whole

period.

The dual system of VET pursued by the majority of young people after leaving

the general education system is a training system where the company/inter-

company vocational training facility and the respective specialised vocational

school (part-time vocational school, vocational training centre, or company

vocational school) cooperate on the basis of officially regulated training and

school curricula. About one third of the traineeship is spent in school.

As a general rule there are no formal access requirements for individuals to enter

the dual system although a large number of young people with an intermediate-

level or upper secondary school leaving certificate opt to enter the dual system.

The average age of trainees is 17. Since individual occupations have different

requirement levels and/or different prestige, those occupations with high

requirements enrol young people with higher education certificates.

VET in the dual system usually takes 2-3.5 years. The duration of training

depends on the requirements and regulations of the occupation pursued.

Vocational training in the dual system is based on the occupational concept

whereby formal training and qualifications should be oriented to the work

required. As a complement to basic qualifications, specialisation is permitted, but

it must be taught within an occupational context. Vocational training should

prepare people for further learning. For this reason, two important components

include promoting a willingness to learn and fostering personality development.

154

To work in the knowledge society, people must be able to plan, carry out and

check their work independently. Vocational training within the dual system should

be oriented to this aim. Additional qualifications, in addition to regular training,

can support this aim and lead to further training.

The dual system's central aim is to promote employability in a changing

workplace – a workplace that is shaped both by technical development and by

the people who work in it. For this reason, state-accredited occupations requiring

formal training, and federal regulations on examinations for further training, are

designed in co-operation with the social partners.

Young people in the dual system have employee status based on their training

contract which they enter into with the company, enterprise or the civil service. It

has the character of an employment contract: the trainee receives agreed

remuneration depending on the occupation and on the collective wage

agreement. Despite their status as trainees, these young people often bear a

very high responsibility in the company compared to their peers attending higher

education institutions, since they are responsible for expensive and valuable

equipment and have to fulfil demanding tasks on their own, although under

supervision.

The dual system exists in all industry sectors. This means, in theory, that every

young person has access to the desired course of training. However, since the

supply of training places does not usually meet demand, freedom of choice is not

always available in practice (especially in underdeveloped regions and/or for

disadvantaged young people). Many young people who cannot find a training

place after leaving the secondary schools therefore start attending a full-time

school.

In-company training takes place according to the requirements of the training

regulations (Ausbildungsordnungen) and is under the jurisdiction of the Federal

State. School courses are carried out according to the basic curriculum

155

(Rahmenlehrpläne) at part time vocational schools (Berufsschulen). The basic

curricula are worked out jointly in a coordinated procedure by federal and Land

authorities with the agreement of employers and unions on the basis of the

training regulations.

In August 2006, there were 343 recognised training occupations. There are slight

fluctuations in this number, since training occupations are often newly created,

combined or abolished. Normally there are about 1.6 million people undergoing

education and training in the dual system at any given time.

Training regulations

This determines: the design of the occupation and its duration (2-3.5 years); the

provisions for an intermediate examination (in the 2nd year) and the provisions for

the final examination; and the skills and learning goals to be achieved.

Some of the learning goals apply to all occupations; others are typical for certain

groups of occupations. There are also learning goals which deal with tasks

specific to a particular occupation. Companies can also impart competence,

skills, and proficiencies not prescribed in the training regulation but necessary

and useful for working in the company.

The training regulations do not prescribe the methods to be used to impart the

learning goals as long as trainees are able to do qualified professional work. This

includes, in particular, autonomous planning, execution and controlling.

The Basic curricula

These are the guidelines for school education and training. The curriculum at the

part-time vocational school (Berufsschule) breaks down into general and

vocational classes. The Ministers of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder

are responsible for drawing up the curricula.

156

The cooperation between training enterprises and vocational schools is not

regulated by law. Communication between the two bodies depends on individual

and local circumstances.

Examination

Education and training concludes with an examination taken at the responsible

VET institution (the competent bodies e.g. chambers of the professional

associations). The vocational school has a consultative capacity in the

examination. The certificates have the same value nationwide and are

recognised by the state.

The certificate proves that one has passed the journeyman's examination (in the

trades and crafts) or the assistant examination (in the commercial occupations)

and certifies the corresponding professional status. This provides recognition in

an industry as skilled worker or skilled specialist, which serves as a prerequisite

for further qualification, for example to becoming master craftsman in the trades

sector or master industrial craftsman. These qualifications generally provide

access into academic pathways.

The examination is regulated by law in the Vocational Training Act and in the

Crafts and Trades Regulation. The following examinations are distinguished:

Intermediate examinations (in all recognised occupations) which

usually takes place midway through training and serves as an

assessment of progress. The examination has no legal implications

whatsoever for the training agreement.

Final examinations (in all recognised occupations) which endow the

qualification as a skilled worker (journeyman examination for all trades

and crafts occupations, final examination for all other occupations) and

are proof of a uniform federal quality level. Final examinations are

comparable and uniformly recognised throughout the country owing to

the stipulation and control of qualification standards. Requirements for

157

admission to the final examination are the completion of the duration of

traineeship, a correctly maintained report portfolio and participation in

the intermediate examination.

Extern examination which applies to externs who have worked in an

occupation at least for twice the normal duration of traineeship. They

prepare autonomously and outside a dual course of training for their

final examination.

IVET AT UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION (SCHOOL-BASED AND ALTERNANCE)

Upper secondary education leads either to a higher education entrance

qualification or a vocational qualification for skilled work. The vocational track

means that pupils may enter into vocational training in full time schools or within

the framework of the dual system (duales System), or seek employment.

School-based IVET at upper secondary level includes the Berufsfachschule, the

Fachoberschule, the Berufliches Gymnasium or Fachgymnasium, and the

Berufsoberschule.

Full-time vocational school (Berufsfachschule)

These prepare pupils for employment or provide them with both VET and further

general education. They offer a very wide range of courses: there are

Berufsfachschulen, for business occupations, occupations specialised in foreign

languages, technical occupations, home-economics related and social-work-

related occupations, artistic occupations, health sector occupations. Education at

Berufsfachschulen varies in duration depending on the intended career

specialisation from one to three years.

158

Specialised vocational grammar school (Fachoberschule)

These are for years 11 and 12, and build on a Realschule leaving certificate

(Mittlerer Schulabschluss) or a qualification recognised as equivalent. They equip

pupils with general and specialised theoretical and practical knowledge and

skills, and leads to the Fachhochschule entrance qualification

(Fachhochschulreife). There are Fachoberschulen for technology, business and

administration, nutrition and domestic science, agriculture, social work, design,

seafaring etc.

Practical training takes place in grade 11, i.e. in the first year for four days a

week for the whole year. Grade 12 comprises at least 30 lessons per week of

general and specialist instruction. Compulsory subjects are German, social

studies, mathematics, natural sciences, one foreign language and sports. 18 to

20 periods a week are taken up by classes in general subjects, which are the

same for all pupils.

The programme concludes with a final examination after the 12th grade. The

exam covers three general subjects (German, mathematics, foreign language)

and individual specialised subjects (e.g. in engineering, business or

administration). On passing the exam, pupils receive the certificate of

Fachhochschulreife, a higher education entrance qualification qualifying them to

proceed to Fachhochschulen.

Specialised vocational grammar school (Berufsoberschule)

In association with the deliberations of the Standing Conference of the Ministers

of Education and Cultural Affairs of the Länder (Ständige Konferenz der

Kultusminister der Länder – KMK) on the equivalence of general and vocational

education, the Berufsoberschulen have achieved greater importance. They have

been established in some Länder to enable those who have completed

vocational training in the dual system to obtain a higher education entrance

qualification. Providing two years of full-time education, the Berufsoberschule

159

leads to the subject-restricted higher education entrance qualification

(fachgebundene Hochschulreife) and, with a second foreign language, to the

general higher education entrance qualification (Allgemeine Hochschulreife).

Attendance of the Berufsoberschule can also be on a part-time basis for a

correspondingly longer period.

Admission to the Berufsoberschule requires the Realschule leaving certificate

(Mittlerer Schulabschluss) and at least two years’ successful vocational training

or at least five years’ relevant practical experience. The Berufsoberschule covers

specialisations in technology, economy, agricultural economy, nutrition and

domestic science, social professions and design. The pupils are assigned a

specialisation in accordance with the first vocational training or practical

experience they have already completed.

Instruction covers a total of 2400 lessons (approximately 30 lessons a week).

Pupils are taught German, a foreign language, social studies (with history,

politics, and economics), mathematics as well as specialised subjects

(Profilfächer) in accordance with the chosen specialisation, and natural sciences

including information technology.

Upper level of the Gymnasium with a vocational bias (Berufliches

Gymnasium/Fachgymnasium)

This type of school is called Berufliches Gymnasium in some Länder and

Fachgymnasium in others. The Gymnasium with a vocational bias offers no lower

or intermediate level. In some Länder, they take the form of an upper level of the

gymnasium (gymnasiale Oberstufe) with career-oriented specialisations. They

provide a three-year course of education.

As a rule, completion leads to a general higher education entrance qualification

(the Allgemeine Hochschulreife - Abitur). Apart from the subjects offered at a

Gymnasium, these schools have career-oriented subjects like business,

engineering, nutrition and home economics and agronomy, as well as health and

160

social studies, which can be chosen in place of general subjects as the second

intensified course and are examined in the Abitur.

Students in upper secondary education by programme orientation (general/vocational)

In contrast to the EU-25-average which shows a slight predominance of students

in general and pre-vocational programmes (54%), in Germany the vocational

secondary education pathway is more popular (63%).

Table 10: Students in upper secondary education, Germany (2003)

UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION

TOTAL ENROLMENT2 758 024

UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION VOCATIONAL PROGRAMMES (%)

63%

UPPER SECONDARY EDUCATION GENERAL AND PRE-VOCATIONAL PROGRAMMES (%)

37%

Upper secondary education: ISCED 97 level 3

Source: Eurostat, UOE; NewCronos, release date 29/06/2005

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING AT TERTIARY LEVEL

At tertiary level there are two types of institutions providing IVET: universities of

applied sciences (Fachhochschulen) and professional academies (Berufsakademien). There is an important difference in the clientele: at

professional academies, students start their studies straight after upper

secondary school, whereas students at universities of applied sciences have

161

acquired a vocational qualification at secondary level and some years of work

experience.

Universities of applied sciences (Fachhochschulen)

Two thirds of students at tertiary level are studying at universities, one third at

Fachhochschulen. They fulfil their own specific educational function,

characterised by a practice-oriented bias in the teaching, an integrated semester

of practical training, and professors, who have, in addition to their academic

qualifications, gained professional experience outside the field of higher

education.

Since 1997, they have introduced courses that combine academic studies with

on-the-job training or employment, along the lines of a dual system (duales

System) called dual study (Duale Studiengänge). Students have training or

employment contracts and periods of study and work experience are distributed

according to various models (sandwich or consecutive model) and subject to the

study regulations (Studienordnung). A Fachhochschule Diplomgrad is awarded

upon completion.

Students entering the universities of applied sciences need either the general

higher education entrance qualification (Allgemeine Hochschulreife - Abitur) or

field-specific higher education qualification (fachgebundene Hochschulreife) or

the Fachhochschulreife (awarded after 12 grades at a Fachoberschule).

Establishments outside higher education (Berufsakademien)

As an alternative to institutions of higher education Germany's tertiary sector also

includes 35 professional academies (Berufsakademien - BA), which are either

publicly or privately maintained, and which are found in 8 Länder.

They have taken the principle of the dual system of vocational training

(combining practical professional training in the workplace with theoretical

162

training at a study institution – Studienakademie) and applied it to the tertiary

sector. Final qualifications in 3 Länder are recognised as tertiary sector

qualifications.

Course applicants require a general or subject-restricted higher education

entrance qualification (Hochschulreife or Fachhochschulreife), depending on the

Länder regulations, and the training contract with a suitable training

establishment.

Courses offered include, in particular, business, technology and social services.

Training is generally divided up into two years of basic studies followed by one

year of advanced studies. Each semester is divided into blocks into on-the-job

training and a theoretical part of the course at the study institution that lasts

between 10-12 weeks.

3. Continuing vocational education and training for adults

The field of CVET is of great importance in Germany. It is characterised by: a

pluralism of providers, a largely market character, and a comparatively minimal

degree of regulation by the state. Only a small part of provision leads to a formal

vocational qualification. This part has been made more flexible and differentiated

quite recently through the introduction of modular structures (supported by the

Guidelines for Continuing Vocational Education and Training from the

Association of German Chambers of Industry and Commerce) which focus more

on competences.

Continuing education and training for adults can be classified into two categories:

continuing general education and continuing vocational training. The latter again

can be classified as: retraining; occupational promotion; in-firm training for a job;

and adaptation to new occupational tasks.

163

Most Länder have passed continuing and adult education legislation, the main

thrust of which establishes the responsibility of the public sector for continuing

education and/or the basis for state support (including training leave). Specific

issues relating to continuing education are also regulated in collective bargaining

contracts, company agreements and employment contracts.

Responsibility for the promotion of continuing vocational training under the

Federal Government's Social Code III (Sozialgesetzbuch III - SGB III;) lies with

the Federal Employment Agency (Bundesagentur für Arbeit – BA). It includes the

following measures:

further vocational training: schemes to assess, maintain, extend or

adapt the vocational knowledge and skills of adults who have a

vocational qualification or appropriate work experience;

vocational retraining leading to a qualification in a recognised

occupation requiring formal training (anerkannter

Ausbildungsberuf): targeted mainly at unemployed people with no

vocational qualifications.

CVET is an element of VET as defined by Germany's Vocational Training Act

(Berufsbildungsgesetz - BBiG). Its objective is occupational reorientation,

adjustment or advancement. Adults can use the CVET system to acquire a

vocational qualification that is equivalent to one acquired through the IVET

system.

Providers and types of course/qualifications

The continuing education schemes on offer cover a broad spectrum of courses in

continuing general, political and cultural education and continuing vocational

training. They are supported by a range of institutions: state and private-sector;

non-profit-making and profit-orientated; in-company and public; as well as

institutions attached to the Protestant and Catholic Churches; trade unions and

other social groups.

164

Examples for CVET courses/programmes:

Trade or technical schools: 156,000 people attended a trade or

technical school during the 2002/2003 school year. 65% were State

regulated and publicly funded, the other 35% were privately maintained

(which may also receive government assistance). Nearly half of the

students were aged under 25 and nearly one third were 29 or older.

The vast majority had completed intermediate secondary school

(Realschule) or an equivalent level of education. Nearly one sixth had

completed lower secondary school (Hauptschule) and approximately

one seventh had acquired a qualification to attend an institution of

higher education. These schools provide advanced vocational training

(leading for example to master´s or technicians´qualifications).

Upgrading Training Assistance is regulated by the Upgrading Training

Assistance Act (Gesetz zur Förderung der beruflichen

Aufstiegsfortbildung - AFBG). This law established the individual's

statutory entitlement to financial assistance for vocational upgrading

training, in other words, for master craftsman-level programmes or

other courses that prepare the individual for a comparable level of

advanced vocational qualification. The objective of this assistance

(jointly financed by Germany's federal government and state

governments) is to help individuals acquire (a supplementary/additional

or enhanced) vocational qualification, as well as to motivate skilled

workers to undergo further training, and provide incentives for

individuals who could start up a new business.

Vocational Training Programme for the Highly Talented. This is for

gifted young people in employment who can receive grants to help

cover the cost of CVET. In 2002, more than half of all new grant

recipients were from fields related to the chambers of industry and

commerce, nearly one third from fields overseen by a chamber of

crafts and nearly 7% came from skilled health care occupations. The

165

scheme targets young employees who have completed a recognized

course of vocational training or who have a skilled health care

occupation that is regulated by federal law. Recipients must be aged

24 or younger and can receive grants up to €5,400 over a three-year

period to help defray the costs of CVET.

Adult education centres: these are facilities that focus primarily on

general CVET courses. In 2002, one eighth of attendees took a

course related to work and career. Nearly two thirds were aged

between 25 and 49. The adult education centres offer courses for

special target groups in all programme areas. These groups include in

particular older persons, the illiterate, unemployed people, foreign

nationals, disabled people and women. 15% of all courses offered by

adult education centres were provided to special target groups.

Quality assurance mechanisms

On 1 January 2003, a new procedure for the accreditation of CVET providers and

measures was introduced and providers must fulfil a range of legal requirements

(excluding employment services).

In a 2002 survey of 1,500 continuing education providers, the Federal Institute for

Vocational Training found that 96% use quality assurance systems (cf. Balli et al.

2002). They usually apply self-evaluation concepts (76%), 29% apply the ISO

9000 approach, and 24% use seals of quality. A total of 22% base their concept

on participation in competitions, and 15% use the model of the European

Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) as a guide.

Stiftung Warentest, an independent foundation for testing product quality, has

established a separate department for carrying out CVET tests. The aim is to

develop comparative training tests that can complement existing quality

assurance systems. Publication of test results enhances awareness, on the part

of providers that accept vouchers of credit for education/training, of the

importance of quality in the measures they provide.

166

CVET AT THE INITIATIVE OF ENTERPRISES OR SOCIAL PARTNERS

In-company CVET may take place in the company or outside but it is usually the

company that pays for provision and it usually takes place during regular working

hours. Recently there seems to be a small tendency towards a stronger

involvement of employees in CVET financing and also towards it taking place

outside of regular working hours. CVET which is also in an employee’s interest,

as it imparts general rather than company-specific skills, usually takes place at

least in part during non-working hours. According to the 2004 study of the

Institute for Business Research, about 84% of companies invested in CVET

activities of their employees.

The definition of CVET plays a central role when calculating the percentage of

employees taking part in in-company provision. Whether the definition should be

restricted to formal courses and seminars or whether it should also include non-

formal and/or informal forms.

4. European and international dimensions, towards an open area of lifelong learning

Since 2002 the German government has been implementing its Lifelong Learning

for All action programme comprising various sub-programmes. The major

impetus for this was drawn from the resolutions passed by the Council of Europe

and the EU education ministers in 2000 and subsequent years.

Bruges-Copenhagen process: European activities under this framework such

as the development of a European Qualifications Framework (EQF), a European

Credit Transfer System for Vocational Education and Training (ECVET) and

EUROPASS, have provided the initiative for national initiatives. For example, the

EQF consultation process gave greater momentum to thinking about a national

167

qualifications framework for Germany, including discussion of such questions as

how to record informal learning and work processes, and how to describe

qualifications and competencies. A question of crucial importance is how the

existing occupational system, geared towards formal certificates, will relate to a

competency-based system, i.e. the debate over Beruflichkeit (alignment with

recognised occupations) and modularisation.

Bilateral exchange programmes and the LEONARDO da VINCI programme

Bilateral exchange programmes support apprentices in acquiring international

qualifications. The Federal Ministry of Education and Research supports cross-

border cooperation in education and training, it promotes the transparency of

degrees and qualifications and fosters mobility in VET. Exchange programmes

are intended to motivate young adults to spend part of their vocational training

abroad.

A core element for internationalising German VET is the Leonardo da Vinci

programme.

Translation of training profiles

In the last few years, training profiles have been developed in three languages

for all new occupations requiring formal training, to supplement the final

certificate. They provide essential details about what has been taught during

training and are issued with the final certificate. In the future, they will also be

issued upon completion of further education. Germany has forged ahead with its

efforts at European level, so that this procedure for providing details on

certificates will be applied throughout Europe in the future.

168

The Emergence of the Community College Associate Degree

in Hong Kong

Gerard A. Postiglione

Steven S. K. Kwok

The MacDonaldization of the American community college model has occurred

with greater frequency in recent years in many parts of the world, including Brazil,

Canada, Chile, China, Ghana, India, Iran, Japan, Mexico, Malaysia, Netherlands, South

Africa, South Korea Spain, Thailand, Turkey, and elsewhere.75 However, nowhere has it

been more rapidly and successfully implemented as in the Hong Kong Special

Administrative Region of the People’s Republic of China. At the turn of the Century, and

while in economic decline, Hong Kong decided to rely singularly on community colleges

to double the number of places in post-secondary education within ten years, a goal it

achieved five years ahead of schedule. Moreover, it achieved this in a fee paying mode in

which student tuition costs exceeded that for university education. The paper begins with

a brief review of the Hong Kong context, and its higher education system. The next

section describes the basic characteristics of the Hong Kong CC/AD.

Context

Situated within the People’s Republic of China, Hong Kong has long been a

vibrant regional center with an academic profession that is driven by its particular

experience with urban metropolitan development. Foremost among these are a rich

Chinese cultural heritage that anchors it value system, a thriving internationalism that

75 A Global Survey of Community Colleges, Technical Colleges, and Further Education

In Different Regions of the World, Paul Elsner, Washington DC. American Association of

Community Colleges, Community Colleges Press. In press, 2006.

169

shapes the political system and economic competitiveness, and a highly mobile society of

migrant heritage that contributes to a high turnover of human resources. The education

system is viewed as central within Hong Kong’s historic role as a bridge between China

and the world, and its new vision to become Asia’s world educational hub -- a position

strengthened by its geographical position, world class communication and transport

infrastructure, bilingual capacity, rule of law, and academic freedom. In 1997, Hong

Kong was handed back to the People’s Republic of China under a one-country, two

system formula that granted Hong Kong a high degree of autonomy in all matters

including education.76 After two decades of rapid economic growth. Free speech and

movement are highly cherished characteristics within Hong Kong society, but a lack of

representative democracy, a legacy of the colonial era, remains a highly emotive issue.

Among the more positive aspects of the colonial legacy has been the safeguarding of the

rule of law and freedom of the press, and a no tolerance policy toward corruption,

something which has helped Hong Kong fortify its position as a global financial center

and the second largest banking center in East Asia, as well as one of the most open and

free media centers in Asia.

The capitalist ideology remains robust in the economic sphere, despite the fact

that most schools and universities are government-funded, something that may begun to

change with privatization. Moreover, the degree of inequality as measured by the Gini

coefficient is rising and remains one of the highest in Asia 0.525 in 2001.77 The rank in

UN Human Development Index is 22 [.916].78 The population living in poverty (there is

not official poverty line) has increased. A rapid growth rate, rapid population turnover,

and relative prosperity in comparisons to home regions across the border have helped

alleviate social instability. Nevertheless, attention to poverty has become an issue with

government and the private sector initiatives. The recent upturn of the economy has

slightly eased pressure on these issues. Cheaply priced goods from China including

76 The Hong Kong Reader: Passage to Chinese Sovereignty, with M.K. Chan, and Foreword by Ezra F. Vogel, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1996, 224 pp.

Hong Kong’s Reunion with China: The Global Dimensions, with James T.H. Tang, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1997, 302 pp.

77 Hong Kong Census & Statistics Department, 2001.78 HRD Report, 2003

170

clothing, foot stuffs and household goods (along with government subsidized housing –

nearly half of all housing) have helped ease the plight of the working classes in Hong

Kong.

After more than two decades of rapid economic growth, the 1997 Asian economic

crisis knocked Hong Kong’s economy off the rails for several years. The SARS epidemic

of 2003 further crippled development prospects. Deflation lasted 68 months. However,

Hong Kong’s Gross Domestic Product grew by 8.1 percent in 2004 (slightly faster than

the 3.1 percent figure for the previous year), making it the second best performance since

1987.79 The economy doubled in size over the past two decades at an average of 4.8

percent in real terms (compared with the world economy growth rate of 3.5 percent). The

inflation rate was -0.4 percent. Despite its small size, Hong Kong is the world’s 11th

largest trading entity. Its container port is the busiest in the world and its airport is also

one of the busiest. Moreover, it is the world’s sixth largest foreign exchange market and

14th largest banking centre.

Hong Kong has expanded its service economy in line with the global demands

pushing it toward a knowledge economy. There is virtually no primary production

(agriculture, fisheries, mining, etc.). Secondary production (manufacturing, construction,

supply of electricity, gas and water) experienced a significant decline in its share of

overall production, shrinking from 23 percent in 1983 to 11 percent in 1993 to three

percent in 2003, as most manufacturing operations moved across the border into China

where labor costs were lower. The tertiary sector consisting largely of services often

based on small scale firms, many with family roots, expanded from 67 percent in 1983 to

89 percent in 2003. Wholesale, retail, import/export trades, restaurants and hotels have

expanded their share of the tertiary sector from 23 (1984) to 32 percent (2004). Finance,

real estate, and business services has grown from 5 percent to 15 percent, trade, storage

and communications from 8 to 11 percent and community, social and personal services

from 17 to 27 percent.80 Visible trade expanded annually by an average rate of 22 percent

in value terms. That dropped to eight percent from 1994 -2004 due to direct shipping

through enhancement of port facilities and simplification of customs.

79 Hong Kong 2004, op.cit.80 Hong Kong 2004, op.cit

171

The economic links between the Hong Kong SAR and the mainland have been the

most important factor in economic growth.81 The Mainland is Hong Kong largest trading

partner, accounting for 44 percent of all trade value, and 91 percent of Hong Kong’s re-

export trade was related to the mainland. Hong Kong was the mainland’s third largest

trading partner (after the USA and Japan) accounting for 10 percent of mainland’s total

trade value.

There has been a sharp increase in the flow of people and services between Hong Kong

and the Mainland, and Hong Kong is a principal gateway to the mainland for business

and tourism. Hong Kong is a principal source of direct investment into China, accounting

for 43 percent of the total inward direct investment in the mainland. The most important

partner area if the Pearl River Delta and estimates are that 11 million Chinese workers

(10 million in Guangdong) were employed directly or indirectly by Hong Kong ventures.

The Mainland initiated CEPA trade agreement has granted Hong Kong a special

status in trade (no tariffs) and this has recently been extended to the trade in educational

services. Much of the business expertise that transformed it from a fishing village to

centre of trade and commerce came from the mainland and its manufacturing sector took

off with the migration of Shanghai region entrepreneurs after 1949. Its manufacturing

base of textiles and garments has gradually shifted over to the border into China, leaving

Hong Kong to rely almost solely on its service sector for its economic growth. This

includes an increased emphasis on tourism and the film industry. Nevertheless, Hong

Kong it faces increased competition from neighboring cities on the Chinese mainland,

including Shanghai and Guangzhou, as well as other regional centers such as Seoul and

Singapore. Much of this competition is human resource related, and the Mainland

government’s initiative to establish a number of world class universities has had an

enormous effect on higher education planning in Hong Kong.

The total employment figure for Hong Kong in 2004 was 3.29 million, of which

32 percent were employed in wholesale, retail and import/export trades, restaurants and

hotels; 27 percent were employed in community, personal and social services; 15 percent

were employed in financing, insurance, real estate and business services; 11 percent were

employed in transport, storage and communications; and only five percent were 81 Gerard A. Postiglione and James T.H. Tang, Hong Kong’s Reunion with China: The Global Dimensions, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 1997.

172

employed in manufacturing. The average wage for all selected industries was HK$10,740

per month (approx. $1380 USD). The unemployment rate of 6.8 percent in 2004 was

much higher than the rate in the 1980s and 1990s which hovered between one and two

percent. The 2005 figure for unemployment will drop to about 5.7 percent. The youth

unemployment rate for ages 15-24 was 43,700 (11.2%). The mean employment rate for

female/male working age population was 57.7 and 85.6 percent, respectively.82

Since 1997, however, Hong Kong experienced a series of crises that have left it

with a stagnant economy, and a polity frustrated by government incompetence.83

Meanwhile, cities like Beijing, Shanghai, and Guangzhou challenge Hong Kong’s

vaunted position as China’s economic powerhouse. In this new equation, the Director

General of the World Trade Organization identified the pressing role of educational

reform in Hong Kong.

The rise of an increasingly skilled Chinese workforce, as well as direct

transportation links with Taiwan, means that Hong Kong will have to fight to keep its

privileged place. If recently launched educational reforms have the intended effect of

producing a more flexible, creative, and skilled workforce, Hong Kong will have a

fighting chance to keep its vaunted position as China’s international window over a

longer time period.84

It is within this context that the Hong Kong SAR imported the CC/AD model

from the United States and situated it within a new post-colonial society that did not have

the funds to greatly expand university education due to an economic decline that began in

1997 and continued until 2005.

Higher Education

82 (Census & Statistics Department 200583 Crisis and Transformation in China’s Hong Kong, edited by Alvin So and Ming K. Chan, New York: M.E. Sharpe, 200284 Panitchpakdi, Supachai (2002). China and the WTO. New York: John Wiley and Sons.

173

Hong Kong’s higher education policies are made independently of national

educational policies. However, with increased economic integration, there is an

unavoidable recognition that educational policy decisions need to take Mainland

developments into consideration. In terms of size, Hong Kong has 12 degree-granting

institutions, of which eight are publicly funded. The Chief Executive’s 2000 policy

address set a target of having 60 percent of the 17-20 age cohorts in higher education by

2010, a doubling of the figure at the time. Due to the economic crisis, achieving this

target was planned through offering wholly self-financed community college places.

Although student fees for the community college places leading to two-year associate

degree are higher than for university bachelor degree places, the demand for higher

education was so great that the 60 percent target was achieved in half the time expected.

In terms of the shape of the system, a major policy shift will convert the traditional

British 5+2+3 education system to a 3+3+4 structure (three years of junior and senior

secondary education with a four years university system). Although competition among

the seven publicly funded universities is intense for the best students and the most

research funds, new incentives have been introduced to speed cross-institutional

collaboration as a way of cutting costs and strengthening areas of teaching and research.

The Minister of Education has also proposed the merging of two of the top three

universities, a measure that has thus far been successfully resisted.

Hong Kong higher education system was heavily influenced by its colonial

heritage. It followed the British model for most of its history. It was small in scale, fully

government funded, and with a high degree of autonomy from government. By mid-

century, Hong Kong had only one university, the University of Hong Kong, established

in 1911. Steeped in western academic traditions, with English as the medium of

instruction, its graduates became the backbone of the civil service and the teaching

profession. The Chinese University of Hong Kong, established in 1964, provided higher

education to the growing number of graduates of Chinese medium secondary schools.

The scale of higher education remained modest until a decision to nearly double the

number of students admitted to university first-degree studies was taken in October of

1989. The proportion of the relevant age group (17-20) in first-degree places climbed

from about 2.2 percent in 1981 to nearly 18 percent in 2000/01, where it still stands

174

currently, amounting to 14,500 places (Sutherland, 2001, p. 1. Between 1990 and 1998,

the number of universities grew from two to seven. Eight institutions (including an

Institute for Education) are publicly funded through the University Grants Committee

(Hong Kong Yearbook 2003).85

While the participation rate in full-time first degree programs was kept at the level

of 18 percent, the overall post-secondary participation rate rose to 53 percent in

December 2004, and then to 66 percent in August 2005, thanks to the rapid expansion of

sub-degree programs, especially the new associate degree programs. There has been an

unprecedented expansion of both self-financing associate degree programs and non-profit

“community colleges” in Hong Kong since autumn 2000.

The Chief Executive of Hong Kong in “his 2000 Policy Address, the Chief

Executive announced the Government's initiative to support the progressive increase in

post-secondary education opportunities”. The Government’s planning target was that, by

2010, 60 percent of senior school leavers will have access to post-secondary education.

To achieve this policy objective, the Government has introduced a series of support

measures for both students and providers of post-secondary programs. Among others,

they included the provision of student grants and loans, as well as an interest free start-up

loan to post-secondary education institutions (EMB, 2005e). In this light, one could

observe that given that Hong Kong had never had community colleges or associate

degree programs, the Government has taken a bold initiative in pressing ahead the

associate degree movement. It was reported that Hong Kong now had nearly 30 thousand

associate degree holders (Takungpao Daily, 2 June, 2005).

Associate degree programs and the Hong Kong-styled community colleges

The key features of associate degree programs in Hong Kong are to “provide an

enriched education at post-secondary level that prepares students for work, further study,

leisure and active citizenship. It should also cultivate a spirit of lifelong learning and

develop the student's ability to learn how to learn”. In terms of learning outcomes, these

programs “should equip students with generic skills as well as specialized 85 Apart from these eight UGC-funded institutions, there are three other degree-awarding tertiary institutions that are not funded by the UGC. These three are the publicly funded Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts, the self-financing Open University of Hong Kong and the Hong Kong Shue Yan College.

175

knowledge/skills that are sufficient to enable them to perform effectively at para-

professional level, to further their studies in universities or to pursue professional studies.

Generic skills here include languages, IT, interpersonal, communication, quantitative and

analytical skills, as well as the ability to learn how to learn” (EMB, 2005e).

The common program structure of associate degree programs is that “AD can be a

2-year program normally admitting students with one A Level or an equivalent number of

AS Level subjects; or a 3-year program admitting S5 students. For a 3-year curriculum,

the first year program may take the form of either a standalone pre-AD or a Foundation

course which forms an integral part of an AD program”. Associate degree programs are

also open to mature students and generally adopt the principle of “lenient entry, stringent

exit” (EMB, 2005e).

There is a basic difference between associate degree and higher diploma

programs: “Both Associate Degree and Higher Diploma programs equip students with

generic skills, knowledge in specialized disciplines and practical vocational skills. In

general, Associate Degree programs put more emphasis on general education, while

Higher Diploma and Professional Diploma courses are more vocational oriented” (EMB,

2005e).

The Government, education providers and students all are concerned about the

quality assurance mechanism for this new category of qualifications. The self-accrediting

associate degree programs are required to undergo their own internal quality assurance

mechanism for their regular degree programs. Others must be validated by a recognized

quality assurance agency, notably such as the Hong Kong Council for Academic

Accreditation (EMB, 2005e).

Regarding the value of the associate degree qualifications, the credential is a

standalone exit qualification for employment at the para-professional level. AD graduates

can pursue further studies or professional development (on a full-time or part-time basis)

or enter the job market. As an exit qualification for further studies, an associate degree

award is normally equivalent to 50 percent of a 4-year university degree (North American

model) or one-third of a 3-year university degree (British model). In other words,

associate degree graduates can articulate to Year 3 of a 4-year university degree (North

American model) or Year 2 of a 3-year university degree (British model). As an exit

176

qualification for employment purpose in Hong Kong, Associate Degree is generally

considered as equivalent to that of a Higher Diploma (EMB, 2005e).

The Government has taken the lead in announcing the acceptance of the

qualifications of Associate Degree as one of the entry requirements for appointment to 13

civil service grades. The starting salaries range from HK$14,000 to HK$26,000 (EMB,

2005e). Nevertheless, a local daily reported that over the past years, the Government

employed less than 10 associate degree graduates, and that there were few local job

advertisements that addressed to associate degree graduates specifically (Takungpao

Daily, 2 June, 2005).

In academic year 2004/05, there were 20 institutions offering full-time accredited

self-financing sub-degree programs. The major institutions included the University of

Hong Kong, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Baptist University,

the Open University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the City

University of Hong Kong, the Hong Kong Institute of Education, Vocational Training

Council, and Lingnan University (EMB, 2005e).86 It is reported that there were also a

number of new education providers which were undergoing academic accreditation

(EMB, 2005e), and that more institutions would start to offer such programs in the next

academic year (Singtao Daily, 17 May, 2005; Oriental Daily, 17 May, 2005; Takungpao

Daily, 17 May, 2005).

Tuition fees of self-financing associate degree programs offered by the 20 local

institutions ranged from $30,000 to $50,000 in academic year 2004/05. The Government

had pledged “to ensure that no one would be deprived of further education opportunities

because of the lack of means” (Li, 2005). Hence, the Government provides a package of

financial assistance schemes to eligible students, including means-tested grant, low-

interest loan (the ceiling of grant or low-interest loan for 2004/05 is $55,890), non-

means-tested loan and travel subsidy. Details of the schemes can be obtained from the

Student Financial Assistance Agency (EMB, 2005e). Clearly students in self-financing

86 The rest were the Hong Kong Shue Yan College, the Hong Kong College of Technology, Caritas Francis Hsu College, Caritas Bianchi College of Careers, Po Leung Kuk Community College of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Institute of Technology (formerly known as College of Info-Tech), The Hong Kong Learning Community College, Chu Hai Post Secondary College, Hang Seng School of Commerce, The Church of Christ in China Kung Lee College and The Art School, Hong Kong Arts Centre.

177

programs paid a much higher tuition than did their counterparts in publicly-funded

bachelor’s degree programs at one of the eight mainstream universities.

Associate degree programs cover a variety of disciplines, including arts and social

sciences, science and technology, information technology, business and administration,

design and architectural studies etc. “Associate Degree” includes “Pre-Associate Degree

programs”, and “Higher Diploma” includes “Higher Diploma programs”, “Honours

Diploma programs” and “Professional Diploma programs”.

By 2005, and despite the rapid expansion of community colleges/associate degree

programs, there was no indication that this self-financing form of education has reached a

saturation point. In fact, a new Chinese University-Tung Wah Group Hospital

Community College would accept its first intake of student in September, 2005, and

HKU SPACE and Po Leung Kuk planned its opening of a joint community college in

2007.

The “Hong Kong Success Formula:” Government Support for the Market

Mechanism

In contrast to U.S. public, comprehensive community colleges, Hong Kong-styled

“two-year universities” are independent, self-financing and market-oriented in character.

For regions and countries that no longer enjoy economic prosperity, but would like to

expand post-secondary education opportunities for their youngsters, Hong Kong’s

experience of non-profit-making two-year universities and self-financing associate degree

programs could provide some positive lessons to borrow.

Nevertheless, Hong Kong’s success story is one of free market, meaning that none of

government involvement or support is necessary or sensible. Quite the opposite, the

government is expected to get involved in a reform movement of such scale fairly deeply,

in both financial and policy terms. The government should play the role of regulator and

facilitator to steer – not roll – the reform movement. And the rest is left to the market

mechanism to do its job.

Right from the start, the Hong Kong Government has deeply engaged itself in

Hong Kong’s associate degree/junior college movement. It has provided an array of

financial support for post-secondary education institutions and sub-degree students.

178

For the post-secondary providers that are non-profit-making and provide full-time

accredited post-secondary programs, the Government has provided its assistance and

support in the following four aspects (EMB, 2005e):

Start-up loans. “The loan scheme operates along two stages: short-term and

medium-term. In the first stage, a short-term loan is offered to enable post

secondary course providers to: a, rent premises for two years; and b, cover

basic refurbishment and equipment. In the second stage, a medium-term

loan is offered to providers with good track record to: a, purchase or build

permanent college premises; and b, cover refurbishment and equipment.

For providers who have obtained the short-term loan, the medium-term loan

will only cover requirements additional to those already financed by the

short-term loan” (EMB, 2005e).87

Land at nominal premium. Term of the Land Lease and Ten-year Service

Agreement - The reserved sites have been granted to the successful

applicants by private treaty at a nominal premium for an initial term of ten

years and the lessees will be required to pay Government rent at 3 percent

of the prevailing rateable value of the land from the date of the land grant.

Other basic terms and conditions of the land grant will be determined by the

Director of Lands. A lessee are required to enter into a ten-year service

agreement with Government and be bound by the content of its proposal

submitted in applying for the land grant which will include a development

plan and the standards, quantity and quality targets of the education

programs offered. A ten-year period is proposed since the post-secondary

program provider would need time to construct the premises and to build up

the student population. It also takes into account the maximum ten-year

repayment period of the interest-free start-up loans. Subject to any terms

and performance measures that both sides may agree, the Government may

renew the service agreement (EMB, 2005e).88

For example, the Government granted the Hong Kong Polytechnic

University/Hong Kong Community College a site of 4,400 square meters, 87 Details can be found at http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeid=122388 Details can be found at http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeid=1224

179

not far away from the University, and a medium-term loan of HK$424

million.

Accreditation grant. The Government has set aside $30 million for

introducing a time-limited scheme to provide one-off accreditation grant to

post-secondary education providers.89 It could cost private institutions

around $1,000,000 for accrediting two new courses. These high costs partly

resulted in the bankruptcy of Hong Kong Learning Community College in

May 2005. This was the first closure in Hong Kong community college

history.

Reimbursement of government rents and rates.90 Financial assistance for

students. Back in October 2000, Chief Executive Mr. Tung announced

clearly that the Government would provide grants and loans for students,

“to ensure that no one would be deprived of further education opportunities

because of the lack of means” (Li, 2005).

For students of all self-financing sub-degree programs, the Government provides the

Financial Assistance Scheme for Post-secondary Students (FASP). To be eligible,

applicants are required to be a registered full-time student, aged 25 or below, including

sub-degree and above qualifications91 (Student Financial Assistance Agency 2005a):

Quality assurance of associate degree programs. Hong Kong education has

long been known for its high standards. The accreditation mechanisms for

associate degree programs in individual institutions are vigorous. The

university-based community colleges are planning to set up a company to

provide a joint accreditation standards and mechanism for its all member

institutions.

Chairman of the Hong Kong Association of Career Masters and Guidance

Masters Peter Chiu Wing-tak said associate degrees were an unreliable

89 Details can be found at http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeid=122590 Details can be found at http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeID=301591 For example, Open University Hong Kong’s bachelors, Hong Kong Institute of Technology’s bachelors, Hong Kong Shue Yan College’s degree, Chui Hai Post-secondary College.

180

route to university because of the small number of places available to AD

graduates, "What most AD students and their parents want is a full degree.

They are not expecting the qualification as a preparation for employment.

I'd ask students who want to pursue a degree locally to have second

thoughts about doing an AD program.''

The University of Hong Kong accepted 138, but most were given first-year

places despite assurances by the Education and Manpower Bureau that AD

graduates should be able to enter the second year of university programs.

(South China Morning Post, 30 August 2003)

Joint Quality Review Committee Limited and Quality Assurance. The

Government, education providers and students all are concerned about the

quality assurance mechanism for this new category of qualifications. The

self-accrediting associate degree programs are required to undergo their

own internal quality assurance mechanism for their regular degree

programs. Others must be validated by a recognized quality assurance

agency, notably such as the Hong Kong Council for Academic

Accreditation.

In January 2005, Chairman of the Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary

Institutions stated that the Federation had set up a working group to establish a Joint

Quality Review Committee (JQRC). The proposed JQRC would focus on conducting

periodic reviews, similar to the Teaching Learning Quality Process Review of Hong

Kong’s University Grants Committee (UGC). It would concentrate on the quality

assurance processes of those units offering self-financing sub-degree programs under the

universities. It would also conduct assessment on individual programs within the context

of the proposed Qualifications Framework (Young, 2005, p. 3).

Key Factors

Among the factors responsible for the rapid implementation of the Community

college associate degree program in Hong Kong are:

181

1. The Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions because of

the 20 education institutions offering full-time accredited self-financing

sub-degree programs, 11 institutions are members of the Federation for

Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions. The Federation plays a

significant role in the associate degree/community college movement.

2. Hong Kong’s higher education has long been under-supplied both under the

British colonial rule and even under the post-1997 SAR government. Once

the higher education supply was allowed to increase through a two-year

community college structure, popular demand took over. In fact, most AD

programs have been extensively oversubscribed.

3. Third, University-community college’s self-accrediting improved the status

of programs. Most community colleges which provide associate degree

programs are extensions of their parent universities or their continuing

education institutions, such as HKU SPACE Community College, CUHK,

HKBU, etc.

4. Globalization’s discourse of knowledge-based societies and an increasing

globalized perspective propelled the idea that AD programs and

qualifications. This is because the two-year AD programs teach more

general education/liberal arts education, and essential generic skills training

in English and Chinese languages, IT knowledge, reasoning and logics, and

research methods.

5. AD qualifications have a transfer possibility for a completion of a bachelor

degree, after completing a top-up program. In contrast, three-year HD

programs are more vocational-oriented, and generally are terminal

qualifications.

6. In 1997-2004, Hong Kong suffered economic downturn that once rendered

the employment prospects of school-leavers dimmer than ever. Under such

economic conditions, most S5 and S7 graduates would opt to stay on in

school and CC/AD provided a path to a good job.

7. The accreditation mechanisms for associate degree programs are rigorous.

Eighth, more than 50 overseas universities recognized Hong Kong's

182

associate degrees (SCMP, 6 August, 2004). Finally, the Government took

the lead in announcing the acceptance of the qualifications of Associate

Degree as one of the entry requirements for appointment to 13 civil service

grades.92

92 (http://hkucsb.hku.hk:8080/ais/query_prelim_c.htm). http://www.polyu.edu.hk/hkcc/newweb/faqs/index.html#9

183

References

Education Commission (1999). Review of education system: framework for education reform.

Learning for life. (September 1999). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government.

Education Commission (2000a). Education blueprint for the 21st Century. Review of education

system. Reform Proposals. (May 2000). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government.

Education Commission (2000b). Reform proposals for the education system in Hong Kong:

Learning for life, learning through life (September 2000). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR

Government.

Education Commission (2002). Progress report on the education reform (1). Hong Kong: Hong

Kong SAR Government. January, 2002.

Education Commission (2003). Progress report on the education reform (2). Hong Kong: Hong

Kong SAR Government. June, 2003.

Education Commission (2004). Progress report on the education reform (3). Hong Kong: Hong

Kong SAR Government. December, 2004.

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2001). A Paper prepared for Legislative Council panel

on education, subcommittee on increase in post-secondary education opportunities, Paper

No. CB (2) 1664/00-01 (02). Hong Kong: Hong Kong SAR Government.

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005a). Other education and training: Statistical

information. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?

langno=1&nodeid=1213

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005b). Other education and training: Type of full-

time

accredited self-financing programs by institutions for academic year 2004/05. Retrieved March

3rd, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeID=2479

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005c). Other education and training: Type of full-

time

accredited self-financing programs by institutions for academic year 2003/04. Retrieved April

17th, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?langno=1&nodeid=1231

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005d). Replies to Written Questions in Legislative

Council.

184

LCQ9: Pre-associate Degree Programmes, with Annex I and Annex II, as of March 9th, 2005.

Retrieved April 17th, 2005, from

http://www.info.gov.hk/gia/general/200503/09/03090231.htm

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005e). Local Post-secondary Courses. Retrieved

April 17th, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=225&langno=1

EMB (Education and Manpower Bureau) (2005f). Local Post-secondary Courses. Retrieved

August 8th, 2005, from http://www.emb.gov.hk/index.aspx?nodeID=225&langno=1

Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions (2005). Facts and figures. Retrieved

March 3rd, 2005, from www.fce.org.hk/~fceorg/facts.htm

Hong Kong Yearbook 2002 (2002). Hong Kong Yearbook 2002. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005,

from http://www.info.gov.hk/yearbook/2002/ehtml/e07-frame.htm

Hong Kong Yearbook 2003 (2003) Hong Kong Yearbook 2003. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005,

from http://www.info.gov.hk/yearbook/2003/english/chapter07/07_04.html

HKU SPACE Community College (2005). Tuition and other fees. Retrieved March 3rd, 2005,

from http://hkuspace.hku.hk/cc/eng/application/tuition.htm

Postiglione, G. (2003). Universities for knowledge economies: Hong Kong and the Chinese

mainland

within globalization and decentralization. In K. H. Mok (Ed.), Centralization and

decentralization: Educational reforms and changing governance in Chinese societies (pp.

157-172). Hong Kong: Comparative Education Research Centre.

Shive, G. (2003). Hong Kong's new post-secondary education marketplace. Journal of the

American Chamber of Commerce in Hong Kong (July 2003).

Steward R. Sutherland, Higher Education in Hong Kong, Report of the University Grants

Committee,

commissioned by the Secretary for Education and Manpower. (Hong Kong: Government Printer,

2002:1).

Student Financial Assistance Agency (2005a). Financial Assistance Scheme for Post-secondary

Students Summary Statistics. Retrieved April 18th, 2005, from

http://www.info.gov.hk/sfaa/en/statistics/fasp.htm

Townsend, B. (2002). Transfer rates: A problematic criterion for measuring the community

college.

185

New Directions for Community Colleges, 117 (Spring 2002), 13-24.

Townsend, B. (2005). A cautionary view. In D. L. Floyd et al. (Eds.), The community college

baccalaureate: Emerging trends and policy issues (pp. 1-8). Sterling, VA: Stylus.

Townsend, B., & Twombly, S. B. (2001). Introduction. In B. Townsend & S. Twombly (Eds.),

Community colleges: Policy in the future context (pp. ix-xiii). London: Ablex.

UGC (2002). Higher education in Hong Kong – Report of the University Grants Committee

(March 2002), by Stewart R. Sutherland, Principal and Vice-Chancellor, University of

Edinburgh.

UGC (2004a). Hong Kong higher education: To make a difference, to move with the times

(January 2004).

UGC (2004b). Hong Kong higher education: Integration matters. A report of the institutional

integration working party of the UGC (March 2004).

UGC (2005). Student numbers (full-time equivalent). Retrieved April 17th, 2005, from

http://www.ugc.edu.hk/eng/ugc/stat/student_full.htm

Young, E. (2003). The Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions Chairman’s

Report 2002-03. Hong Kong: Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions, dated

December, 2003.

Young, E. (2004a). PowerPoint File: Exportation of Higher Education: Policy Implications for

Hong

Kong’s Positioning as a Centre of Excellence. The 10th Anniversary Conference of the

Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions, 3-4 December 2004, Hong

Kong.

Young, E. (2004b). Paper: Exportation of Higher Education: Policy Implications for Hong

Kong’s

Positioning as a Centre of Excellence. The 10th Anniversary Conference of the Federation for

Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions, 3-4 December 2004, Hong Kong.

Young, E. (2005). The Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary Institutions Chairman’s

Report 2003-04. Hong Kong: Federation for Continuing Education in Tertiary

Institutions, dated January, 2005.

Yung, M. S. (2002a). Community college: A new born baby of the Hong Kong education system

for the new millennium. Hong Kong Teachers’ Centre Journal, 1(2000 Spring).

186

Yung, M. S. (2002b). Hong Kong Higher Education: Policy and Ideas. Hong Kong: Joint

Publishing. (In Chinese)

Notes

This research acknowledges the support of the University of Hong Kong Research Grants

Committee.

187

Community Colleges and Further Education

in Ireland

Frank McMahon

Ireland is a small island off the western coast of Europe. The population of the

whole island is about 5.5 million of whom just over 4 million live in the Republic of

Ireland while the remainder live in Northern Ireland which is part of the UK. From the

middle of the 19th century Ireland suffered a declining population, initially from famine

in 1845 -47 but continuing almost continuously because of emigration until about 1990. It

lost almost half its population which had exceeded 8 million in the mid 19th century.

The Republic of Ireland had been part of the UK throughout the 19th century but gained

independence in 1922. There had been very little industrialisation and it remained

economically dependent on the UK for most of the 20th century, mainly by supplying

agricultural products for the UK which operated a cheap food policy. In 1973, Ireland

joined the European Union on the same day as the UK and Denmark and thereby

benefited from an increase in the prices gained for its agricultural produce. It also

received generous development aid for infra-structural projects and for education and

training. At the time of joining the EU, the average income in Ireland was approx 60% of

the EU average; it has since risen to more than 100% of the average. Unemployment,

which in the 1980s was 18%, is now less than 4% and Ireland has one of the fastest

growing populations in Europe, partly through natural growth but also through net

immigration. The phrase “Celtic Tiger” has been coined to describe an economy that has

out-performed that of almost all OECD member states.

Education in Ireland

From the foundation of the state, Ireland had free primary education, the right to

which is enshrined in its constitution, but did not introduce free secondary education until

the end of the 1960s. As a result, many young Irish people left school at the end of the

188

primary cycle and the levels of illiteracy and lack of ability in mathematics is still very

high in the Irish age cohort of 55 – 65 years. In the year 2002, the percentage of the Irish

population that had attained at least upper secondary education was only 37% (as

compared with an OECD mean of 50%) for the 55-64 age cohort while it was 77% (as

compared with an OECD mean of 65%) for the 25-34 age cohort (OECD Indicators,

2004). These statistics capture succinctly the catch up achieved by the Irish education

system in the past four decades. Similar progress may be seen in the percentage of the

population that has achieved a tertiary qualification. Only 14% of the 55-64 age cohort

had such a qualification in 2002 but 37% of the 25-34 age cohort had achieved a tertiary

qualification. The level for the older age cohort was below the mean for OECD countries

but the figure for the younger age cohort was well ahead of the OECD mean.

Notwithstanding the substantial progress made, there is still a problem of low attainment

by approx 18% of young males who are not in education and have not attained upper

secondary education.

The link between education level and unemployment was vividly illustrated by a

table in the Green Paper on Adult Education. An analysis of that table shows that those in

the labour force who had only primary school education represented 14.62 % of the

population but 28.33% of the unemployed. In contrast, those with a third level education

were 28.73% of the population but only 10.86% of the unemployed.

Labour Force by Educational levels, 1997

Educational Level Employed Unemployed Total

Primary 14.62% 28.33% 16.04%

Lower Secondary 24.29% 34.99% 25.39%

Upper Secondary 32.11% 25.44% 31.42%

Third level 28.73% 10.86% 26.88%

Other 0.25% 0.38% 0.27%

TOTAL 100% 100% 100%

[Source: Green Paper on Adult Education, 1998]

189

One of the earliest pieces of education legislation in the new state was the

Vocational Education Act, 1930 which established local education committees to control

vocational education in each county and major city. These Vocational Education

Committees (VEC) continue to exist to this day though their role has changed somewhat.

Initially they were mainly concerned with providing Technical Schools as an alternative

to the more academic secondary schools. Thus, a child who struggled academically might

be advised to go to the Technical School which offered woodwork, mechanical drawing

(in boys’ Technical Schools) and home economics, shorthand and typing (in girls’

Technical Schools). In the 1970s they began to offer the Leaving Certificate examination

(equivalent of High School certificate in USA) and as Technical Schools became more

academic, the secondary schools extended the range of subjects to include subjects such

as Mechanical/Technical Drawing. In some towns, former Technical Schools and

secondary schools were encouraged to merge by the Department of Education to form

Community Colleges. Unlike their American namesakes, Irish community colleges are

second level schools, catering for 12 to 18 year-olds.

While Vocational Education Committees catered mainly for second level pupils,

they also inherited responsibility for some specialist colleges that pre-dated the 1930 Act.

In Dublin city there were five colleges, founded on dates back to 1887 which offered

specialist education in science and technology, art, commerce, women’s work

(dressmaking, cookery and laundry) and music. The City of Dublin VEC embarked on an

ambitious development of these colleges, adding a sixth college, as well as developing

the twenty-two second-level schools under its remit. As a result of this development, the

Colleges went on to become the Dublin Institute of Technology (DIT), of which more

anon. While the tertiary level colleges flourished with a regional and a national in-take of

students, the second level schools were subject to the vagaries of the demographics of

their local areas. Some found themselves without adequate student numbers by the 1970s

and had to develop a new role for themselves as the providers of post-Leaving Certificate

courses (PLCs). These courses were mainly one-year or two-year courses of a vocational

character which were attractive to students whose Leaving Certificate performance was

not good enough to win them a place in higher education.

190

In 1970, the government decided to give a major boost to technological education

by the founding of a National Institute of Education in Limerick and Regional Technical

Colleges in twelve locations around the country. Dublin was not included in this initiative

because it already had the technological colleges which were destined to become the DIT.

The new RTCs were generally organised into three separate schools or departments:

Engineering, Science and Business/Humanities and they offered a range of programmes,

mainly of two-year or three year duration in each of the three schools. These programmes

led to the award of National Certificates (2-year) or National Diplomas (3-year). In

contrast to the RTCs, the NIHE concentrated mainly on degree-level programmes. In

1980 a second NIHE was opened in Dublin. In 1986, a committee was appointed by the

government to review technological education in Ireland. In its report it recommended

that the two NIHEs should be given university status and this was done in 1989.

In 1992, two acts were passed by the Irish parliament; the Dublin Institute of

Technology Act to merge the technological colleges in Dublin city which were operating

under the aegis of the City of Dublin VEC and the Regional Technical Colleges Act to

provide a new legislative basis for the RTCs that had been established during the 1970s

under the aegis of local VECs. While there are many similarities between the two acts, a

major difference was that the DIT was given awarding powers while the RTCs were to

receive their awards from a National Council for Educational Awards (NCEA). That

position continues to this day, though some RTCs (re-titled Institutes of Technology)

have been given delegated power to make some awards by the Higher Education and

Training Council (the successor to the NCEA).

A government White Paper on Education in 1995 confirmed the respective roles

of DIT and the RTCs but did not address the growing role of the colleges that remained

under the control of the VECs. As noted above, these colleges were gradually developing

their role of providing PLC programmes but there was no adequate provision in

legislation for such programmes. When Irish commentators describe secondary and

higher education as second level and third level respectively, the PLC programmes are

sometimes described as being at two-and –a-half level. They are placed awkwardly

between the second and third level sectors. In recent years that sector has been labelled

191

the Further Education sector and the next section provides some analysis of its growth, its

contribution as well as some of the problems it faces.

Further Education Sector

Whereas most development in Irish education took place within a legislative

framework, the Further Education (FE) sector grew outside the legislative framework and

government is now trying to catch up, post hoc. Many of the PLC programmes developed

since 1985 to fill spare capacity in second-level schools were highly successful and

encouraged the VECs to designate some of their colleges as Further Education colleges.

The number of students participating in PLC programmes increased from 12,000 in

1989/90 to over 24,000 in 1999/00. Following a commitment in a White Paper on Adult

Education (2000), the government established a Steering Group to review the provision

of PLC programmes to “Examine and make recommendations as necessary regarding the

organisational, support, development, technical and administrative structures and

resources in schools and colleges with large PLC provision having regard to good

practice in related areas across the system and in other countries”. The membership of the

Steering Group included representatives of the Department of Education & Science,

VECs (college management) and teachers’ unions. Large PLC provision was defined as

over 150 students in a school or college.

An interim report from the Steering Group highlighted the problems that beset the

FE sector, arising mainly from the origins of the sector in the second-level sector:

Physical facilities are not good and there is inadequate space

There is a lack of sufficient equipment, especially computers for project

work

There is little “student experience” because of lack of student social space

The co-existence of second-level and FE students in the one building leads

to excessive supervision of FE students by teachers because of the

extension of teachers’ duty of care to younger pupils to FE students

The teaching load of staff is set at second level norms, which is excessive

for those teaching FE

Management and Administrative staffing is inadequate for FE provision

192

Addressing these problems would have significant resource implications for the

government. Reducing teaching loads of staff (typically from 22 to 16 hours per week),

adding managerial, technician and administrative staff, improving library and computing

facilities, upgrading buildings and introducing greater support services all involve extra

expenditure by the Department of Education and Science. To date, the Department and

the Department of Finance remain to be convinced of the merits of the case. But in the

meantime, the FE sector continues to grow and the student population in the sector

reached 28,588 in 2004 (Dept of Education & Science Annual Report, 2004). The

significance of this figure can be gauged when it is compared with the total enrolment in

third-level education which was 134,000 in 2004.

When the OECD undertook a review of higher education in Ireland, its report did not

mention PLC programmes as the terms of reference provided by the Government of

Ireland did not extend to Further Education (OECD Review of Higher Education in

Ireland, 2004).

In addition to the PLC programmes, the Further Education sector is responsible for

other programmes such as the Youth Reach (3258 students), Senior Traveller Training

(1076 students), Back to Education programmes (16,155 students) and Back to Education

Community programmes (2,277 students) (Department of Education and Science, 2004).

Participation in Higher Education

The advantages conferred by higher education have long been recognised in Ireland

and have led to a gradual increase in Ireland’s participation rate in higher education. It

grew from 20% in 1980, to 25% in 1986, 36% in 1992 and 46% in 1998 (White, 2001).

193

Number of Students Receiving Fulltime Higher Education

by Gender and Type of Institution (2002/2003)

Type of institution Male Female Total

HEA funded 31,132 43,790 74, 922

Teacher training 79 1,079 1,158

Technological Coll. 26,876 24,631 51,507

Other aided 1, 491 1,346 2,837

Non-aided 2,613 2,762 6,899

Total 62,191 73,608 137,323

One feature of the table is the majority of female students in HEA funded colleges

(mainly universities) but especially in Teacher training. Not shown in this table because

they are not regarded as full-time students are apprentices who number about 28,000 in

total and are almost all male.

The technological colleges offer two-year programmes (higher certificates), three

year programmes (ordinary degrees) and four year programmes (honours degrees). The

universities offer mainly honours degrees, with some provision for ordinary degrees.

Apprenticeship

Ireland has long espoused the apprenticeship approach to the training of skilled

crafts persons. Generally, apprenticeship is associated with the training of young people

by attaching them to a member of the particular profession or a company deemed fit to

train others. As an approach to training, it has its roots in the medieval system of

indenturing a trainee to a master for a pre-determined number of years while he learned

his craft. At the foundation of the state, Ireland had a system of technical education that

involved long apprenticeship to a master (often seven years) and attendance at day

release courses in technical schools. As O’Connor and Harvey have pointed out, the

system suffered the twin disadvantages that attendance at the classes was voluntary and

in any event classes were available only in urban areas. The Apprenticeship Act, 1931

gave the government the power to designate trades and establish apprenticeship

194

committees to make rules in respect of a designated trade. These rules covered duration

of the apprenticeship, conditions of employment including rates of pay and arrangements

for training. The Apprenticeship Committees could request VECs to provide to provide

courses for apprentices. While this act improved matters, it continued the weakness that

time served was a key feature of apprenticeship, rather than competency demonstrated.

A new Industrial Training Authority, known as AnCO from the Irish form of its

name, was established in 1967 to introduce more formalised training including both on

the job and off the job phases. The establishment of Regional Technical Colleges gave an

important resource to the off-the-job phases as did the availability after 1973 of EU

funding for the construction and operation of training centres. Finally, a standards based

apprenticeship system was introduced in 1991 by FAS, the successor Training Authority

to AnCO. The new system is based on seven phases of which four (1, 3, 5 and 7) are done

on the job while phase 2 is done in a training centre and phases 4 and 6 are done in an

Institute of Technology. For most trades, the phases (4 and 6) in the Institute of

Technology are 11 weeks each while phase 2 usually lasts for 22 weeks in a Training

Centre. While there has been reasonable satisfaction with the current arrangements, there

is a growing fear that the training is not keeping pace with the rate of innovation in

industry. For example, computer-aided design and manufacturing may make some craft

skills obsolete but this is not yet reflected in apprenticeship programmes.

Recruitment to apprenticeship has been very strong in recent years as evidenced

by the table below. One trade that has suffered noticeably is printing where changes in

technology seem to have had a major impact on recruitment to the trade.

Annual Total Number of Apprentices

Year Total Apprentices

1980 21,498

1985 15,968

1990 12,987

1995 10,772

2000 24,028

2005 28,602

195

A feature of Apprenticeship has been its dominance by male apprentices. Despite

efforts to encourage female trainees, over 90% of the in-take is male. This is due to some

extent to the trades that have been designated (Electricians, Construction Trades, Sheet

Metal Working, etc) while other occupations that are female-dominated are not

designated (nursing, hairdressing, etc).

National Qualifications Authority of Ireland

Through the Qualifications (Education and Training) Act, 1999 the government

established in 2001 a National Qualifications Authority (NQAI) with three main tasks:

Establishment and maintenance of a framework of qualifications for the

development, recognition and award of qualifications based on standards of

knowledge, skill or competence of learners

Establishment and promotion of the maintenance and improvement of

standards of awards of the further and higher education sector, other than in

the existing universities

Promotion and facilitation of access, transfer and progression throughout the

span of educational and training provision

Following extensive consultation, the NQAI launched the National Framework of

Qualifications in October 2003. This framework is based on 10 levels and is designed to

encompass all educational and training awards up to doctorate (level 10). All education

providers are committed to the implementation of the framework and its existence is

gradually gathering credibility with employers.

The NQAI is also committed to facilitating access, transfer and progression and

has published its policy. Its approach to policy development has put strong emphasis on

consultation with all stakeholders and the publication of draft policies on its website to

encourage debate and submission of comments.

Finally, the NQAI has commissioned a review of the effectiveness of quality

assurance in DIT (carried out by the European Universities Association) and is currently

196

completing a review of the Higher Education and Training Awards Council. The website

of NQAI gives a good deal of information on its activities and policies (www.nqai.ie).

European Dimension

In June of 1999, the Ministers of Education from 29 European countries signed

the Bologna Declaration, committing themselves to the creation of a European Higher

Education Area (EHEA). Every two years the Ministers meet to review progress and to

set new goals that lead to the ultimate objective. Thus, they have met in Prague (2001),

Berlin (2003) and Bergen (2005) and are planning to meet in London in 2007. The

number of countries participating has grown to forty-five. It now seems likely that the

EHEA will indeed be created by 2010, with each of the forty-five member states

operating in accordance with the parameters laid down by the Ministers. This will include

the provision of Bachelor, Masters and Doctoral degree cycles, a national framework of

qualifications in each state and an over-arching European framework. All universities

will use the same credit accumulation and transfer system (ECTS), thereby facilitating

increased mobility of students within Europe. Already, the EU has provided greatly

enhanced funding for student mobility and in 2005 Irish institutions of higher education

(HEIs) were asked to double the number of incoming and outgoing students on

Erasmus/Socrates programmes. The new EHEA will also facilitate the mobility of

workers, at least within the twenty-five member states of the EU, because of increased

recognition of awards. Shortages of skilled manpower in one EU state can be met by the

migration of skilled staff from other EU states.

Heads of Government in EU states committed themselves to the so-called Lisbon

Strategy in March 2000 to making Europe the most competitive economy in the world.

The modern Knowledge Economy needs a growing flow of highly skilled workers and

progress towards the achievement of the strategy is monitored. In 2001 the proportion of

students graduating in mathematics, science or technology was higher in the EU at 24%

than in the USA at 17% or Japan at 22% but the EU had fewer researchers in the labour

market. Ireland increased its number of technical graduates from 14,500 to 15,700 in the

period 2000 to 2003, giving it over 30%. This placed Ireland in a group of four EU

197

countries to exceed 30%, the others being Spain, Finland and the Czech Republic while

the EU average had grown to 26%.

One aspect of the Bologna Process has been the speeding-up of the flow of

graduates from European universities. In countries where traditionally students spent

fives years on their first degree (for example Czech Republic, Finland, Germany and

Italy), new Bachelor degree programmes have been introduced, generally of three years

duration. It was a stipulation of the Bologna Declaration that the Bachelor degree

programmes “must have relevance to the labour market”. Thus, Europe now seeks to

have a competitive advantage over other advanced economies by having a better

alignment between the output of universities and the needs of industry.

This new EHEA may well make Europe more attractive to non-European students

who hitherto have flocked to Australia and the USA. Since such students pay the full

economic tuition fee, their presence in Europe in increased numbers will boost the

finances of European universities.

Some Current Issues for Irish Education

Higher education in universities and institutes of technology is almost free

(students pay €775 per annum) but there have been various proposals to re-introduce fees

which were abolished in the mid 1990s. For example, the OECD Reviewers in 2004

favoured the re-introduction of fees as a means of improving the finances of the higher

education institutions but the government decided against fees. Although this remains

government policy (and most likely the policy of opposition parties since they abolished

the fees in the first place), the issue re-surfaces periodically (for example, it is questioned

whether the benefit goes mainly to middle class families) and is likely to continue to do

so.

Further education colleges are funded largely as second level schools but operate

increasingly at higher level. Also, the articulation between the programmes operated by

the FE colleges and programmes in universities and institutes of technology is not well

developed. Certainly it does not compare favourably with arrangements between

community colleges and universities in the USA.

198

The development of the National Framework of Qualifications has been well

received but has highlighted a break in progression opportunities from apprenticeship and

PLC qualifications which must be addressed.

The nature of the binary divide between universities and institutes of technology

is coming under strain. In particular, the Dublin Institute of Technology occupies an

anomalous position since it has full awarding powers, up to PhD, is a member of the

European University Association and the International Association of Universities but is

not designated as a university in Ireland.

199

References

Department of Education (1995) Charting our Education Future: White Paper on Education,

Dublin, The Stationery Office.

Department of Education (1998) Green Paper: Adult Education in an Era of Learning, Dublin,

The Stationery Office.

Department of Education (2000) Learning for Life: White Paper on Adult Education, Dublin,

The Stationery Office.

Department of Education and science (2004) Annual Report, website www.education.ie/

O’Connor, Len and Harvey, Noel (2001) Apprenticeship Training in Ireland, Journal of

Industrial Training, Vol. 25, No. 6, pp 332-342.

OECD (2004) Education at a Glance, OECD Indicators 2004, Paris, OECD.

OECD (2004) Review of Higher Education in Ireland, Paris, OECD.

White, Tony (2001) Investing in People, Higher Education in Ireland from 1960 to 2000, Dublin,

Institute of Public Administration.

200

Institutions in Transition:

The “Community Colleges” of Japan

Joyce S. Tsunoda

Yasuko Iida

In Japan there seems to be a preference for things that are small, discrete, yet

reflect what one might describe as “patterned regularity”. Take for example Japanese

food that many are treated to when visiting Japan: “sushi”, “kaiseki ryori”, “teishoku”.

Each dish is small in serving size, and is distinguished by its singularly special flavor and

appealing presentation. Yet there is a patterned regularity about such traditional Japanese

cuisine, for example, in the specific ingredients for each dish, the appropriate groupings

of the dishes, and even in the order in which the dishes are to be served. This patterned

regularity becomes the social norm, and while creative variations of the norms are tried

from time to time, basic patterns appear to remain unaltered. This analogy could be

applied to “community college comparable” institutions, especially to those known as

“tanki daigaku” or junior colleges.

The approach used in this chapter will be to look at case studies of three specific

institutions: two of which began as junior colleges and one as a specialized vocational

school. Their respective paths of formation, development and current status will be

described, against the backdrop of the overall history of higher education in Japan, as

well as within the context of some of the current realities confronting Japan of the 21st

century.

The “Community Colleges” of Japan

Nomenclature is all important. None of the institutions are officially called

“community colleges”, even though individually and collectively, they carry out the

functions of community colleges. The categories of institutions considered to be

201

comparable to the “community colleges” are junior colleges, professional training

colleges, and colleges of technology.

A word about vocational-technical education in Japan may be in order. At first

glance the different names or designations used for these institutions can be confusing.

According to official terminology, the post-secondary technical schools are referred to as

“professional training colleges” or as “specialized training colleges” (senmon gakko or

senshuu gakko senmonkatei). These professional training colleges accept high school

graduates or students with certification equivalency of high school graduation, and offer

two to three years of professional training depending on the field. In certain fields, the

training may require 4 years or longer. There are nearly 3000 of these professional

training schools nationwide.

Then there are the “colleges of technology” (koutou-senmon gakko). These

enroll students directly from middle schools (chuu gakko) and provide five years of

focused training in fields of engineering-related technology. There are 63 colleges of

technology, located in various regions of Japan. Eighty- seven percent of these colleges

of technology are classified as national institutions meaning that their funding comes

directly from the national government.

In addition, there are also technical high schools (koutou senshuu gakkou).

These will not be included as part of this chapter.

It should be noted that the nomenclature of institutions reflect their primary

source of funding, and the way in which the funds flow from public coffers to the

institutions. Publicly funded institutions are called either “national” (kokuritsu) or

“public” (kouritsu). The “nationals” receive their funding directly from the central

government, while the “publics” receive their funding through local, i.e. prefecture or

municipal, governments. The local governments use their discretion in distributing, for

educational purposes, funds allocated to them from the national government as well as

from their own local taxes.

The “private” institutions (shiritsu) also receive subsidies from national tax

revenues but do so through an agency called the Promotion and Mutual Aid Corporation

for Private Schools of Japan (Nippon Shiritsu-Gakko Shinkou-Kyousai Jigyoudan).

202

Junior College(2-yearcourse,3-year course)

Professional TrainingCollege(Specialized TrainingCollege for high schoolgraduates)

Lower Secondary School (J unior High School)

Secondary School(High School)

SpecializedTrainingCollege forJunior HighSchoolGraduates

University

CollegeofTechno-logy

graduateschool

Chart 1　 The flow diagram of the paths for high school to higher educationavailableto the J apanese students.

AdvancedCourse

These tax-based subsidies vary, but currently amount to roughly ten percent of the

operating

Various pathways

The flow diagram in Chart I is an attempt to simplify the varied paths from high

school to higher education that are available to the Japanese students today. According to

the 2003 report of the Ministry of Education, the percentages of high school graduates

who apply for admission to universities and junior colleges are 47.3% and 8.3%

respectively, and the acceptance rates are: universities 41.3% and junior colleges 7.7%. In

addition, nearly 23% of high school graduates enter professional training colleges and

0.8%, colleges of technology. It appears, therefore, that most high school graduates in

Japan today have the opportunity to enter the traditional institutions of higher education,

and others have choices of post-secondary professional training and education.

203

Historical Background

American historian John W. Dowar in his Pulitzer Prize winning book,

“Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II” states:

Never had a genuinely democratic revolution been associated with

military dictatorship…which, when all was said and done, is what McArthur’s

command was.” (p.81-82) Current Japanese education system was launched

during this period of occupied Japan. The enactment of the Fundamental Law of

Education and the School Education Law in 1947 established the 6-3-3-4 national

education system and promoted the principle of “all people’s right to receive an

equal education correspondent to their abilities, as provided by law (p.392).

Under the new legislation, upper secondary schools were established in 1948,

and a new system for higher education, referred to as the “university system” was

established in 1949. Then existing vocational training schools were placed under this

newly reorganized “university system” resulting in a national network of 18 public and

87 private colleges/universities and 69 national universities. When many of the

vocational schools failed to meet the academic standards of the “university system”, a

new category of institution, the junior colleges, was authorized as a provisional measure.

Thus in 1950, 17 public and 132 private junior colleges were launched.

In 1964, through an amendment to the School Enactment Law, the junior

colleges were given permanent status and were recognized as official part of the Japanese

university (higher education) system. This permanent status enabled the junior colleges

to receive government subsidies for programs and research.

The Junior Colleges

The period of 1960s and 1970s saw a rapid growth in both the number of and

enrollment in the junior colleges, some as free-standing colleges and others as two-year

colleges within organizational structure of universities. In the 1970s nearly one out of

four high school graduates advanced to either university or junior colleges (males, 29.2%,

females, 17.7%) as compared to an overall rate of ten percent in 1960. This “going- rate”

204

increased to 37.4% by 1980 with remarkable increase in females to a rate of 33.3%.

Junior colleges contributed to this increased female participation in higher education. As

a matter of fact, attending junior colleges, dubbed “hanayome gakko” (bridal preparatory

schools), was the socially appropriate route for young girls who were ultimately expected

to assume the traditional roles of marriage and motherhood.

By the late 1980s Japan’s economic faltered and at the same time the number of

college applicants began to decline due to continuing downward trend in birthrate. There

were also other factors affecting junior colleges enrollment and program offerings.

Increasing number of girls opted to go directly from high school to four-year institutions,

many of which welcomed these high school graduates as an important source of their

enrollment. The image of junior colleges as “bridal training schools” gradually

disappeared, and many junior colleges began to offer more vocationally oriented

programs that prepared graduates for employment in fields open for women, such as early

childhood education, dietetics, nursing, allied health, and expanded to information and

management sciences, human services, foreign language skills to meet changing

employment opportunities.

Efforts to internationalize the junior college environment led to establishment of

study abroad and other cooperative relationships with foreign institutions, including

formal relationships with AACC and various American community colleges.

During the late 1980s to mid-1990s when student exchanges and visits between

the U.S. community colleges and Japan’s junior colleges were at their peak, there were

nearly 500 junior colleges throughout Japan. Approximately fifty of these were public

junior colleges, ten or so affiliated with national universities (kokuritsu) and the

remaining four hundred or so were private (gakkou houjin) junior colleges. Two national

associations, the Japan Association of Public Junior Colleges and the Association of

Private Junior Colleges of Japan, were formed in 1951. These two associations co-exist

to this day and serve as the coordinating headquarters for each group of junior colleges.

In most cases, the public junior colleges are relatively small in size with less

than 500 students and has specialized programmatic offerings, such as a college of

nursing or college of commerce. Private junior colleges tend to be somewhat larger in

enrollment and are often more comprehensive in their programmatic offerings. Both the

205

private and public junior colleges require entrance examinations, and the traditional roles

of faculty in research appear to remain the valued norm. The concept of “open door” is

not part of the lexicon of Japanese junior colleges.

The Professional Training Colleges and Colleges of Technology

During the 1960s even as junior colleges were being established, a movement to

include yet another category of institutions as part of the higher education system was

well underway. These were specialized technical schools to educate and train engineers

and other technologically skilled personnel for Japan’s growing industrial economy.

Thus in 1962, the five-year technical school system was launched to provide training in

specialized fields including engineering construction and maritime technologies. These

five-year technical schools, established within nearly every prefecture, were expected to

play an important part in economic revitalizing local communities. As described earlier

these institutions called colleges of technology, accept students who complete lower

secondary schools, the equivalent of intermediate or middle schools, and offer intensive

five-year programs of vocational-technical education.

This was not all. By the mid-1970s the industrial structure of Japan was

transforming from heavy industry to high technology, and increasing demand for high-

technology workforce outstripped the capacities of the existing universities and colleges

to produce them. Therefore, in 1975, the School Education Law was once again

amended to set and clarify standards for establishing and maintaining college-level

specialized training institutions as part of the higher education system.

Under the revised legislation, professional or specialized training colleges were

authorized. These are defined as colleges which provide 800 hours or more technical

education a year to high school graduates in fields of industrial science, agriculture,

medical care, health maintenance, education and social welfare and practical business.

The normal training period in a specialized training college is two to three years,

depending on the field. Currently students who complete over 1,700 hours within a

period of two years or more, and who graduated in or subsequent to 1996, may be granted

“specialist degrees”(senmon-shi) which are deemed equivalent to the associate degrees

earned by junior college graduates. Furthermore, graduates with these specialized

206

degrees are eligible to apply for admission to the upper division universities. The level of

certification authorized for specialized training colleges is now raised to include

baccalaureate degree (gaku-shi) for those fulfilling additional requirements specified

through the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation.

Universal Higher Education

The historical development of higher education system in Japan parallels that of

American higher education in many ways. In both countries, the twentieth century

witnessed the democratization of higher education. Both countries now have an

extensive and overlapping networks of public and private universities, four, three and two

year colleges and a variety of vocational-technical institutions each claiming its place

under the sun.

Dr. Akito Arima, the former Minister of Education and former President of the

University of Tokyo in his lecture on the future of higher education in Japan given at the

United Nations University in December 2002, stated that both the United States and

Japan have entered the stage of universal higher education. According to the theory of

American educator Martin Trow, a ratio of enrollment to college age students up to15

percent marks the elite stage of higher education, 15-50 percent as the popularization

stage, and over 50 percent marks the stage of universal higher education. Whether or not

universal higher education, in and of itself, is in the best interest of a country is an issue

that Dr. Arima seems to challenge his country to reflect on.

It is important to note that universal higher education in Japan exists within a

firmly ingrained pattern of institutional hierarchy which is reinforced by societal attitudes

and behaviors. While the “pecking order” among institutions of higher education is

found in other countries, in Japan the unquestioned reverence given to the “elite”

universities, such as Tokyo and Kyoto Universities or to the historically well-known

private universities such as Waseda and Keio, resembles a mixture of religious veneration

and commercial brand-name worship.

The hierarchy in Japanese higher education is perpetuated and reinforced by

prevalent practice of tracking and screening students into various narrow education

pathways. Competition for university entrance can begin as early as pre-school and

207

kindergarten. Many children are sent after schools and on weekends to supplemental

preparatory schools (juku) and are drilled and coached to pass the highly competitive

entrance examinations for seats in selectively “elite” kindergarten, elementary school,

middle school and high school, all of which form set pathway for placement within the

educational pyramid. Most “juku” are for-profit business enterprises, and these are often

referred to as the “other educational system” of Japan. There is even a hierarchy within

the juku business based on the rates of entrance of their students into the “top” schools

and universities.

Current Realities

Sixty years after the end of the world war that changed Japan, the country is

once again facing a period of major changes in all aspects of its national life. The people

that experienced the war, the defeat, and its aftermath are passing away. The once robust

economy built out of the ashes of war seems to be tired and worn out. The usually quiet

and somewhat apolitical populace is awakening to the reality of having to confront some

fundamental issues facing them, such as Japan’s national identity, its place and role in the

global society, and thorny internal problems ranging from constitutional revision to the

revamping of the massive governmental bureaucracies.

Demographic profile poses further concerns. Total fertility rate is predicted to

fall below one percent by the year 2010 if current trend continues. Continuing increase in

the 65-years and older population with concomitant decrease in the very young (0-

14years old) and in the mid-age levels is prompting questions about the future capacity of

the country to support itself.

The burst of the economic bubble forced changes in the traditionally valued

business practices such life long employment. There are also significant changes in

attitudes of young people toward education and work. Even though there are greater

opportunities and more options for higher education than ever before, many young people

are choosing not to follow the expected rites of adulthood through entering in higher

education or training, and then settling into a job. “Freeters” (those who by choice are

living on part-time and frequently changing jobs) and “NEET” (Not in Employment or

Education) confound and frustrate parents and the country as a whole.

208

Educational Reforms

Within this unsettling environment, educational reform efforts are moving along

at a pace set by the national agenda of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science

and Technology. High on the current national agenda for higher educational reform

appear to be the “privatization” of national universities and strengthening graduate

education. Very little attention seems to be given to the junior colleges per se, even

though it is this sector of Japanese higher education that faces the heaviest pressure of

survival.

Higher education in Japan has always been a nationally managed enterprise.

Both public and private institutions of all types are expected to adhere to the very

prescriptive rules for starting up of institutions, as well as for subsequent changes or

developments in academic programs and curricula. Operational matters such as the

setting of enrollments targets, and numbers and qualifications of faculty also require

ministry approval. It is not possible, for example, for a junior college to alter its scope

and nature of offerings to meet local needs or to build its enrollment without going

through time-consuming approval process of the central ministry.

It is being said that as part of recent reform efforts, the central government may

be relaxing its tight hold over universities and colleges, and may be promoting greater

local responsibility. .

The “Incorporation of the National Universities” or “houjinka”, loosely

translated as “privatization”, implemented in July 2003, may be a case in point. This

“hojinka” legislation delegates greater power and responsibility for institutional

management to the chief executive officer (president) and expands the participation of

outside members to the executive committee of each university. The “houjinka” also

introduces the concepts of competition, institutional accountability, self-improvement

through third-party evaluation (accreditation), and significantly changes the employment

status of faculty and administrative staff from being governmental employees

(“koumuin”) to that of university employees.

It is interesting to observe that such action for less governmental control is

viewed with both hope and apprehension by the higher educational community. It

209

appears that while many educators often complain about the centralized control and the

lack of flexibility, there also seems to be an acceptance or even a comfortable

dependency on this paternalism as a “security blanket”

While the “houjinka” reform applies currently to the national universities, it is

expected that the principle of “local autonomy and responsibility” will trickle down to

other public higher educational entities including the junior colleges and the publicly

funded professional training colleges.

In terms of implementing the provision for third party accreditation, due credit

needs to be given to the leadership of the Japan Private Junior College Association who

took the initiative to formulate and implement a comprehensive accreditation system

which includes processes of institutional self study and third party visitations which

began in fall 2005. This initiative was carried out in collaboration with the U.S.

accreditation associations.

The Tale of Three Institutions

This section will feature three institutions as sample case studies of what is

happening to the “community colleges” in present day Japan. One of the institutions

capitalized and expanded on its vocational education mission, the second chose to

discontinue its original identity and role as a junior college, and the third became an

integral component of a consolidated mega-university system. The three institutions

described are the Jikei Educational Group, the Hakuoh Women’s Junior College, and the

Tokyo Metropolitan College of Allied Medical Sciences

The Jikei Group

In response to the increasing demand for a highly trained and solidly educated

technical workforce, the 1976 amendment to the School Education Law formally

authorized and set standards for professional training colleges, also referred to as

specialized training colleges, as part of the higher education system of Japan. The Jikei

Educational Group (Jikei Group for short), is an thriving example of this category of

colleges.

210

The Jikei Group is a private system of professional training colleges comprised

of 35 separate colleges enrolling over 25,000 students throughout Japan. It is an

educational enterprise that fully capitalizes on its core mission of vocational education,

and adds to it the vital elements of humanistic and global education. Its founder, Dr.

Kunihiko Ukifune says:

Our Group has three basic educational policies. The first is practical education

aimed at acquiring the knowledge and techniques necessary to be competitive

and successful in the business world. The second is humanistic education aimed

at developing our students’ character so that they can have interpersonal

communication skills and teamwork skills both of which are indispensable for the

workplace. The third is global education aimed at raising our students’

understanding and access to various values, and at the same time building their

identities as Japanese. We put these policies into action in our schools. We have

had active partnerships with institutions worldwide including the United States,

Canada, China, Australia and some European countries with student and faculty

exchanges. For example, the “Semester in Japan” program with the University of

West Florida has been taking place every summer since 1991. Jikes is a board

member of Community Colleges for International Development (CCID).

The Jikei Group began in 1976 with the establishment of the Shin-Osaka Dental

Technician Academy, which was subsequently renamed Shin-Osaka Dental Technician

College. This was rapidly followed by the opening in 1978 of two more colleges, the

Osaka College of Medical Technology and the Tokyo College of Medico-Pharmaco

Technology for training of paramedical technicians in the two greater metropolitan

regions of eastern and western Japan. The growth and development of Jikei colleges and

programs, strategically located throughout Japan, continue to this day. Its vast program

offerings include for example, Biotechnology which covers a vide field including

fermentation (for rice wine, miso, soy sauce production) to DNA protein analysis;

training of clinical engineers to operate and service life-support equipment; para-medics

training; Speech-Language-Hearing Therapy; Acupuncture and Moxibustion; Pet

211

Business; Animal Care; Hairdresser, Make-up Artists and Aestheticians training;

Animation and Multi-Media Art; Performing and Broadcasting Arts and Professional

Musician training. The most recently opened colleges in include a Film School, and a

College of Patisserie. (Refer to The Jikei Group web-page http://www.jikeigroup.net for

the names and locations of all of the Jikei Group institutions)

The Jikei Educational Group is supported by the Jikei Co. Ltd and other

associated company groups within the system whose main functions are to provide

operational, technical, and service support to the colleges and to the students. For

example, the associated companies, the Jikei Space, Inc. provides management and

maintenance support services for all the college buildings including dormitories; and the

Brain Staff Consultants (BSC) is in charge of the computer systems of the entire Group.

A board of directors headed by the Chairman and CEO, Dr. Kunihiko Ukifune governs

the organization. The Colleges are headed by Executive Directors who are the chief

operating officers of the organization. The colleges’ administrators and faculty are

selected on the basis of their professional expertise and accomplishments, and are given

wide latitude of responsibility in the academic and training operations of the respective

colleges.

Dr. Kunihiko Ukifune, the charismatic founder of the Jikei group is a sharp and

pragmatic businessman whose credentials include an honorary doctorate in international

education from the University of West Florida. When asked about the uniqueness of the

Jikei Group, he replied:

First of all, we have a cooperative system with business and industry.

Students tackle tasks from real companies, and user evaluate their work.

We also have another system called the “major educational system” which

allows students to find out for themselves which course of study is most

suitable for them. We are committed to structuring curriculum for each

individual rather than having exactly the same for everyone. Each college

makes an effort to let students know about the real conditions and

practices in each field of specialization, while at the same time nurturing

212

student’s hopes and dreams, and helping them to become professionals in

their chosen fields.

He further comments on Jikei’s uniqueness:

The Group operates with the aim to realize the four trusts: trust

from the students and their guardians; the trust from the high schools; the

trust from the business world; and the trust from the local community. We

repeatedly emphasize the importance of vocation-focused education, the

preparation of syllabus and curriculum to suit the objective, and

collaborative work with business world into which students will enter. In

the area of design or music, for examples, the given business or enterprise

gives specific theme for which the students endeavor to create a “product”

such as a car design or a musical piece. The student’s creation is then

evaluated by the teacher and the industry. Individualized counseling is

provided for each student to acquire skills necessary in the work site. In a

selected area the curriculum is customized for each student. At the same

time we provide humanistic education that is indispensable to work as

specialists in the business world.

Where government certification is a requisite for employment, all

possible efforts are made to achieve 100% success rate in licensure

examinations. A career center assists student to fully apply what they

have learned in their work environment. We have been highly evaluated

by employers. All students find jobs of their desired areas.

An investment in state-of-the-art facilities and equipment, as well

as continuous programs of professional development for faculty and staff

form the cornerstone of the Jikei Group. The quality of the teaching is

reexamined and improved through the support of the Jikei Education

Science Center.

213

When asked “What type of education is required to survive in the 21st Century?”,

he responded:

English education and information technology education. The ability to

use both English and information technology as communication tools is

becoming indispensable. These skills are being incorporated into our

curricula. Students are encouraged and supported in planning and

arranging for study and internships abroad.

On plans for the future, he shared that:

Higher education system is undergoing reforms toward diversification of

certification. Graduates of professional colleges can now receive

“senmonn shi” equivalency to associate degrees and “koutou senmon shi”

equivalent of baccalaureate degrees. Master’s programs are to be opened

to graduates of professional college graduates. Regulations are being

relaxed for establishing professional training colleges. Therefore courses

of studies will be widely available to meet all levels of personnel that the

business world needs. Night schools will be simultaneously opened and e-

learning and distance education will be widely available. Types of

students are now wide and varied including the traditional students

directly from high-schools, college or university graduates and those with

experiences in the society, and many foreign students.

Maintaining and building on its core strength of relevancy and responsiveness,

the future for proactively positioned professional training colleges such as the Jikei

Group looks very bright indeed.

214

Hakuoh Women’s Junior College

Hakuoh University and Hakuoh Women’s Junior College is a private institution

located in the city of Oyama in the prefecture of Tochigi which lies north of Tokyo and

may be considered the entrance to the Tohoku (northeastern) provinces of Japan.

The northeastern provinces still remain largely rural and relatively

unsophisticated in many ways. However, the charm of “old Japan” where human

relationships matter and family values still influence the young, can still be found even

among the freeways, “gas-stops” and the ubiquitous shopping malls and convenience

stores. The world famous Nikko region with its historical shrines dedicated to Tokugawa

Ieyasu, founder of the Tokugawa Shogunate that ruled Japan for 250 years until the

arrival of Perry’s Black Ships, is located in the picturesque mountains of Tochigi.

Expanded bullet train services from Tokyo Station to the Tohoku region can reach

Oyama City in less than half an hour. At Oyama Station the passengers can see in the

skyline the towering building of the Hakuoh University-East campus which houses its

newly opened Graduate School of Law.

Hakuoh University’s roots are in the historical Ashikaga City, which thrived as a

feudal strongpoint during the Muromachi Period of Japan (14th Century). Hakuoh

University began as the Ashikaga Textile Women’s School in 1915 which was

incorporated into a high school in 1927, bringing needed educational opportunities to the

rural region. The Hakuoh Educational Foundation was incorporated in 1951, followed by

the establishment of the junior high school in 1961 and the women’s junior college in

1974.

The founder, the late Dr. Kazuyoshi Kamioka, a life-long educator, wanted to

make a difference for ordinary students through higher education. He was an idealist

inspired by the spirit of Jonathan Livingston Seagull and chose the words “plus ultra”

(More Beyond) as the motto of his educational institution. The name Hakuoh means

White Seagull. The founder’s dream was to open an institution that effectively bridged

the gap between theoretical and practical education and to enable students to acquire

skills for working and living in an increasingly global and technological society. He was

particularly interested in Eigo-ka, English teaching and learning, and wanted to

strengthen the skills of Japanese teachers who taught English in local schools.

215

When Hakuoh Women’s Junior College opened its doors in 1974, it was

authorized by the national Ministry of Education to enroll 100 students in Early

Childhood Education to become teachers for pre-schools and kindergartens, 50 students

in Eigo-ka for preparation as English teachers in the middle schools of the region, and

100 students in business communication and clerical skills. All of these fields enabled

local young women to prepare for employment. But that was not all. Along with the

practical skills, the Hakuoh Women’s Junior College students were given opportunities to

enroll in arts and cultural studies, with a special focus on music, including the rare hand-

bell orchestra which has won several national and international awards.

In 1986 an application was submitted to the Ministry of Education to add a four-

year university to its enterprise in order to offer fields of study which could not be

authorized under the junior college structure. When the application was finally approved

in 1991, the Faculty of Business Management was established, followed by the Faculty of

Law, and in 1999, graduate programs were added in both Business Management and

Law.

The institution officially became Hakouh University and Junior College. With 4000 plus

students coming from the wider Kanto-Tohoku (northeastern) region, Hakuoh University

is a major contributor to the economic base of Oyama City and the neighboring localities

of southern Tochigi prefecture. Hakuoh Junior College was truly a community’s college

in the fullest sense of the term.

Given its historical roots and remaining true to the founder’s vision, the decision

to discontinue the separate function and identity of the Hakuoh Junior College was not an

easy one to make. This decision in 2003 was an inevitable one, necessitated by the

pressure to remain competitive in the highly volatile and competitive educational market.

As mentioned elsewhere in this chapter, the decline in college-age population, as well as

the changing ambitions of young women, made the operation of a traditional junior

college economically untenable, especially for a private college located in a relatively

rural region.

Other factors contributed to the demise of this junior college. One was the

nationally centralized educational policies which prescribed and limited programs

offerings at the junior colleges. The other factor was the lack of articulated academic

216

transfer pathway for graduates of junior colleges to enter the universities. For Hakuoh

Junior Colleges students in the two-year education program for pre-school and

kindergarten teachers, a natural and often desirable career option was to be certified to

teach at the elementary school level. Such certification, however, could only be obtained

through a four-year university program. But there was no articulated transfer pathway

into a university for these students. Likewise, the expansion of a successful program for

training of English teachers for middle schools to also train high school English teachers

was not permitted under the centralized policy which limited high school teacher training

to a four-year university.

Articulation with universities and credit transfer remain a major challenge for

Japan’s junior colleges, and contribute to the continuing decline in junior college

enrollment. While there have been successful attempts at systematic credit transfer, such

as that at the University Consortium Kyoto, which involved public and private

universities and junior colleges largely in Kyoto which is known as a university town,

such efforts appear not yet to be common in other parts of Japan..

Given such circumstances, there was very little option for the leadership of

Hakuoh other than to take the step to absorb the existing junior college programs under

the university umbrella. This decision resulted in the creation of a new four-year program

of Educational Development (Hattatsu-kagakubu) which incorporated the junior college’s

early childhood education program, and the move of the junior college’s business

education into the University’s Business Management program as a sub-program. In

the spring of 2006, Hakuoh Junior College will graduate its last class and the name

“Hakuoh Junior College” will be history.

The Metropolitan College of Allied Medical Sciences (and the Tokyo Metropolitan

Junior Colleges)

As of April 2005 there is no public junior college in Tokyo. In order to

understand this situation, a look at the history of the publicly funded higher education in

metropolitan Tokyo is necessary. The Tokyo Metropolitan government funds the

operations of publicly funded higher educational institutions excluding the national

universities and colleges which are funded directly by the national government.

217

When the recent national university reform movements began, the Tokyo

metropolitan government also decided to proceed with its own efforts to consolidate and

streamline the operations of the various colleges and universities directly under its

jurisdiction. Therefore, in April 2005, after several years of discussions and arguments, a

single unified university corporation was forged out of the merging three metropolitan

universities and one metropolitan junior college.

This unified metropolitan university is named Tokyo Metropolitan University

(Shuto-Daigaku Tokyo) and is under the jurisdiction of a public university corporation.

This mega-university claims all of Tokyo as its university campus, and promotes

collaboration among not only its member institutions but with all other educational

institutions within Tokyo as well as industries and government. Efforts toward academic

articulation are being made with the introduction of the credit bank system.

Administrative functions such as personnel management are being streamlined.

It is important to note that each of the four metropolitan institutions that were

consolidated can look back with pride to its respective history as productive professional

training schools (senmon gakko) or as junior colleges in the late 1940s and 1950s.

These four institutions were: (1) Tokyo Metropolitan University, by far the

largest university in the Tokyo Metropolitan system, formed in 1949 out of the merger of

six professional training school precursors. (2) Tokyo Metropolitan University of

Technology, established in 1986, and was originally a college of technology providing

critical technical training in engineering and industrial technology, including aeronautics,

during the hearty economic growth periods of the 1950s and 1960s. (3) Tokyo

Metropolitan University of Health Sciences, which was originally the Tokyo

Metropolitan College of Allied Medical Sciences, a three-year junior college, which

became a baccalaureate-granting university in 1998. The story of this particular junior

college will be the main focus of this portion of the chapter. (4) Tokyo Metropolitan

Junior College, the last metropolitan junior college remaining in Tokyo prior to April

2005, was originally two separate junior colleges which were merged in 1996.

The rise and fall of the metropolitan junior colleges in Tokyo may be the

changing sign of the times. The first junior colleges in Tokyo, the Tokyo Metropolitan

College of Commerce and the Tokyo Metropolitan College of Technology were among

218

oldest of the public junior college in Japan. These two junior colleges founded in 1954

offered day and night courses for Tokyo’s working students who eagerly sought

education, training and retraining during Japan’s economic growth period of the 1950s

through the1970s. Yet today, these junior colleges have disappeared into the mega-

university system.

On the other hand, it is also a reflection of changing Japanese society that

enabled the Tokyo Metropolitan College of Allied Medical Sciences to keep its basic

mission essentially intact as it transformed from a junior college into a four-year

university, and subsequently integrated into the consolidated mega-university system as

the Faculty of Health Sciences. As an important component of the newly unified Tokyo

Metropolitan University, the Faculty of Health Sciences currently offers four schools of

study: nursing, physical therapy, occupational therapy, and radiological technology.

Located at the center of the greater Tokyo metropolitan area with over 12 million

residents, the former junior college continues to provide relevant education and training

opportunities for nearly 900 students. Dr. Masahiro Shigeta, the current Dean proudly

states, “We intend through education and research to prepare students to be excellent

health professionals to serve the metropolitan residents to fulfill longevity in good health

and sense of well-being and fulfillment.”

Reflecting on the history of the College of Allied Medical Sciences, one cannot

avoid seeing the intertwining threads of political ambitions and economic realities.

Nursing education in Japan languished for a long period as vocational training for women

with relatively lower level academic backgrounds. But as the society’s needs for highly

competent “co-medical” professionals with strong scientific background, reasoning skills

and leadership potential became apparent, political attention began to shift in this

direction.

Thus, in the early 1970s an ambitious proposal for a Tokyo Health Sciences

University as the most advanced education and research center in nursing and

rehabilitation in Japan was raised by the then metropolitan political leadership. But as

political leadership changed, so did the plans, and a more realistic plan of establishing a

junior college was put into place. Thus the three year junior college as established in

1986, offering programs in four allied health areas and nursing with a total enrollment of

219

600 students. This junior college replaced three metropolitan vocational schools which

had been offering programs in nursing, rehabilitation and radiological technology. The

three-year junior college was subsequently authorized to offer one-year advanced courses

in Midwifery and in Public Health Nursing, thus set the stage for the transformation into

a four-year institution in 1998, under a different Tokyo metropolitan administration.

The ultimate unification of all of the Tokyo metropolitan colleges and

universities, as mentioned earlier, took place under the current administration guided by

the strong hands of Governor Shintaro Ishihara. The total unification plan was not met

with unanimous support of the personnel of the affected colleges and universities.

Nevertheless, the consolidation became a reality in April 2005.

While it is still early, there are hopeful signs that the new directions may be

infusing new energy and boosting the far-flung Tokyo metropolitan higher educational

community with a sense of renewal and revitalization.

Quoting Dean Shigeta once more:

The mission of the new unified university is to seek the ideal

image of human society within the greater metropolis environment. The

education and research are to proceed on the basis of promoting the key

principles of metropolitan environment improvement, enhancing academic

quality within a dynamic industrial society, and to realize the potential of

an energetic society of people with longevity.

That, indeed, is a noble ambition, made possible by the achievement of the

unsung heroes, the metropolitan junior colleges and professional schools that led the

way.

Summary: Guideposts for the Future (Michi Shirube)

The “community colleges” of Japan as identified in this chapter are the junior

colleges, the professional/specialized training colleges, and colleges of technology. Each

category of institution has its assigned role and place within the educational hierarchy.

220

Each was established and developed under the carefully laid out rules and guidelines of

the central governmental ministry. And, each will most likely “live or die” as separate

and discrete entities. That seems to be the Japanese way.

Among these institutions, the junior colleges appear to be most susceptible to the

winds of change that blow around them. The case studies of two junior colleges, one

private and the other public, may typify the fate of other Japanese junior colleges. There

are unofficial speculations that within the next five years, possibly twenty or so junior

colleges may close their doors. There appears to be no public outcry or campaign to stop

this direction. Instead the potential junior college students are heading for the four-year

institutions which has become more “open” in admission. Others students are attracted to

the pragmatic vocational institutions represented in this chapter by the Jikei Group.

In Japan, the concept of “education as a business” does not raise eyebrows as in

the U.S. The “non-profit” and “for profit” line in Japanese education appears blurred.

Many colleges and universities, not just the more recently established professional

training colleges, have been started by business-minded founders with the blessing of the

government ministry.

While higher education is valued in Japan, issues such as access, diversity, and

equity do not yet appear to be burning issues on the public agenda. Current top issues in

higher education appear to be national university governance, graduate school reforms,

and something referred to in the government literature as “enhancements to

undergraduate education”.

A careful reading of the White Paper on Education, Culture, Sports Science and

Technology 2003 regarding the future concept of higher education unveiled the following

statement:

“…under the new framework to guarantee quality and more

competitive environment, each higher education institution is to develop

its own future vision. ….in taking the view that society as a whole

benefits from higher education, it is necessary to strengthen cooperation

with society greatly with respect to both education and research. When

doing so, it is necessary to reconsider the respective positioning of

221

universities, graduate schools, junior colleges, colleges of technology and

professional training colleges, while taking into account wide-ranging

educational opportunities after secondary education. It has been suggested

that the essential social missions and development directions of each of

these types of higher education have become unclear.” (ibid. pages 71-72,

underline added).

This statement could indeed serve as the “michi shirube” or “guideposts” for

the Japanese higher education community to be used in develop its own future. It seems

to be saying to the colleges and universities in Japan: “Take responsibility to plan and

develop your own future. And, in so doing, look at the whole forest, instead of the

individual trees.”

Such is the Japanese challenge, and the solution is in Japanese hands.

We wish them well. And may we all continue to savor the joys of good sushi,

kaiseki ryori and the teishoku dishes.

222

References

Arima, Akito (2002,December). United Nations University Public Lecture: The Future of

Higher Education in Japan. United Nations University Press. 2003.

Kitamura, Kazuuki. Can University be Reborn? Chukou-Shinsho. 2002.

Nakai, Kouichi. Toward University Corporation. Chukou-Shinsho. 2001.

Amano, Ikuo. University Reform. Tokyo University Press. 2004.

Dower, J.W. Embracing Defeat: Japan in the Wake of World War II. Norton Press. 2000.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan. School in the

New Era: Japanese Government Policies in Education, Culture, Sports, Science

and Technology 2002. Tokyo, Japan. 2002.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan. White Paper for

Heisei 16. Tokyo, Japan. 2004.

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology Japan. Statistical

Abstract, 2005 edition. Tokyo, Japan. 2005.

Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare. White Paper for Heisei 16.Tokyo, Japan. 2005.

Statistics Bureau, Director-General for Policy Planning & Statistical Research and

Training Institute, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications. The

Statistics of Japan 2005. Tokyo ,Japan. 2005.

Foreign Press Center Japan. Facts and Figures of Japan. Tokyo, Japan.2005.

Japan Public Junior College Association. Commemorative Publication of the 50th

Anniversary of Foundation. Tokyo, Japan. 2000.

Japan Private Junior College Association. Commemorative Publication of the 50th

Anniversary of Foundation. Tokyo, Japan. 2000.

Japan Specialized Training Colleges Association Anniversary Fair. (2005). Looking over

a Period of Thirty Years with a Promise of a Bright Tomorrow : The 30th

Anniversary Fair Guidebook. Tokyo, Japan

Tokyo Metropolitan University Administrative Headquarter. Outline of Principal

Business for the Heisei 15. 2003.

Public University Corporation: Shuto-Daigaku Tokyo. Outline of Principal Business for

the Heisei 17. 2005/10/18

223

Tokyo Metropolitan University. Background and History. Available from

http://www.metro-u.ac.jp

Tokyo Metropolitan University of Technology. Background and History. Available from

http://www.tmit.ac.jp

Tokyo Metropolitan Junior College of Commerce. College Outline. (1987)

Tokyo Metropolitan Junior College. College Outline. Available from

http://www.tmca.ac.jp

Tokyo Metropolitan University of Health Sciences. Outline of Principal Business. Heisei

12-15. (2000-2003).

Jikei Educational Group. Jikei Colleges and Centers. Available from

http://www.jikeigroup.net

Hakuoh University. Plus Ultra. Available from http://www.hakuoh.ac.jp/univ.html

The JIKEI. Jikei Education Science Center. Tokyo, Japan. 2005

224

Universidades Technologicas de Mexico:

Technical Institutions Extend Higher Education to the People

Bertha Landrum

Veronica Murillo

David Valladares Aranda

Arturo Nava Jaimes

Brief Summary

The system of public two-year technical institutions of higher education, called

Universidades Technologicas or UT’s, originated in 1991. A major purpose of these new

educational institutions was to improve and increase the opportunities for high school

graduates, populations for whom nine out of ten are the first in their families to

participate in higher education.

Now, in 2005, the 66,000 students currently enrolled represent 60 institutions in

26 of Mexico’s 31 states look forward to becoming members of a workforce with upward

mobility options.

The UT’s have developed during a pronounced period of change in Mexican

higher education, marked by substantial growth in student enrollments, a shift to

technological institutions, efforts to reach under-served populations and extensive growth

in women’s enrollments.

The next ten years will be an effort for the UT’s to (1) continue to provide a

higher education experience to a segment of society that otherwise would not have

access, (2) offer programs that have a high level of applicability and that employers judge

to be of high quality, (3) offer a degree recognized by other institutions of higher

education, i.e., for transferability, (4) show that graduates are incorporated into the labor

market, and (5) show accountability and transparency in managing the finances and other

resources of the institutions.

225

The system also envisions a change in the educational model of curriculum

development that moves from program development along traditional lines to a process

of delineating competencies for each program that students are expected to achieve. This

change should lead not only to employer confidence to employ graduates, but also gain

recognition and respect by residents in the community.

The Universidade Technologica del Sur de Sonora in Ciudad Obregon in the

State of Sonora is an example of a young higher education institution striving to prepare

local citizens for a more technologically capable workforce in a changing employment

and business development market.

Mexico, Briefly

Mexico shares the North American continent with Canada and the United States

of America and borders the U.S. on its Southern border. Mexico came under Spanish

rule early in the 16th Century when Hernan Cortez conquered the Mexican territory that

was under Aztec occupancy for Spain.

Mexico proclaimed independence from Spanish rule on September 16, 1810 but

the struggle for independence continued until 1821. Emperor Napoleon III of France, the

nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte, attempted to install Maximilian, a Hapsburg heir, as

Emperor of Mexico in 1862 following a military attempt by European powers to collect

foreign debts. Napoleon’s forces were defeated on May 5, 1862 at Puebla, Mexico, by

General Ignacio Zaragosa and Brigadier General Porfirio Diaz. Porfirio Diaz was later

elected president of Mexico. Cinco de Mayo, or May 5, is therefore a celebrated holiday

along with September 16, the Day of Independence.

Mexico, a country of 106,202,903 population, is a federal republic with its capital

at Mexico, D.F. (Distrito Federal) and has 31 states. The official language is Spanish, but

several regional indigenous languages are spoken.

Mexico has a free market economy with a growing private business community.

Since joining the U.S. and Canada in 1994 in NAFTA (North American Free Trade

Agreement), trade with the U.S. has tripled. Economic challenges include supporting

economic growth, improving international competitiveness and reducing poverty. The

role of higher education is seen as immensely important to future economic growth.

226

A Decade of Change in Mexican Higher Education

According to Roberto Rodriguez-Gomez and Hugo Casanova-Cardiel in their

article “Higher Education Policies in Mexico in the 1990s”, Mexican higher education

experienced significant change in many ways in the 1990’s. They point out that change

occurred in “organization, scale, geographical distribution and performance” of higher

education institutions. The Universidades Technologicas have been an integral part of

this decade of change.

Rodriquez-Gomez and Casanova-Cardiel group these main areas of

transformation into seven areas as follows:

1) Enrollment growth. At the beginning of the decade in 1990, 13.5 percent of

the 18 – 23 year old cohort was enrolled in the Mexican higher education

system. Ten years later, in 2000, 20 percent of this age cohort was enrolled in

higher education institutions.

2) Enrollment shift to technological institutions. Nearly 100 technological

oriented institutions (institutes and technological universities or UT’s) were

created. “The technological subsystem grew by over 60 percent, increasing

from 20 percent to 36 percent of public higher education system supply.

During this same time period university enrollments remained steady.

3) Growth of the private higher education. During the 1990’s private higher

education grew 2.5 times. In particular private graduate student enrollment

expanded by 4.5 times. These private institutions have emphasized training

for professional and semi-professional career opportunities, but unlike most

public universities they do not support research projects, nor an emphasis on

academic subjects, nor do they make efforts to reach cultural groups. About

20 percent of the 700 private higher education institutions are universities.

4) Reaching under-served populations. Prior to 1990, 23 percent of students in

baccalaureate-type programs were in Mexico City, Federal District. As of

227

2000 that enrollment was 21.5 percent. In contrast student enrollment

increased 2 times or more in the states of Aguascalientes, Baja California Sur,

Campeche, Chiapas, Hidalgo, Morelos, Oaxaca, Quintana Roo, Tabasco,

Tlaxcala, and Yucatan. Other states also showed lesser, but positive increases

in enrollments.

5) Student program choices moved toward the business and administrative

services. Student enrollments have decreased in agricultural and science

programs while remaining stable in the areas of health sciences, education and

humanities. However, enrollments in the social and business and public

administration programs have grown to represent about 50 percent of students.

Typical programs that now attract students include law, accounting and

administration.

6) Growth of postgraduate programs. Prior to 1990 postgraduate enrollments

slightly exceeded 40,000 annually. But by 2003 the number of students was

138,287 in specialty, masters and doctoral programs. This phenomenon was a

result of policies to further professionalize higher education, and also reflects

the role of the labor market in rewarding the pursuit of further education as a

means to gain employment. Nonetheless, only about 15 percent of

baccalaureate-type degree completers pursue a graduate degree.

7) Role of women pursuing higher education. Coming to the year 2000 the

number of women in higher education equaled that of men. This change

reflects the growing number of women pursuing higher education particularly

in teacher training and technology. It also reflects the lack of growth of male

entry in higher education. Women now constitute about 70 percent of

enrollments in health sciences, social and administrative science, education

and humanities.

Other changes during the 1990’s in Mexican higher education were evident in

policies concerning financing, evaluation, accreditation, quality and coordination.

However, major emphasis was directed toward student enrollment growth and improving

the quality of faculty.

228

Creating the System of Universidades Technologicas

The development of the Technological Universities emanated from a strategic

objective of the National Program for the Development of Higher Education 2001-2006

to improve the opportunities for graduates of high schools to participate in higher

education.

As an outgrowth of that strategic objective, a system for developing new,

individual UTs across the nation was designed. Thus, the development of a new

Technological University occurs as a result of an agreement between the Mexican federal

government and each state government based on five feasibility studies. These feasibility

studies address the following:

An analysis of the surrounding region for the proposed institution regarding

the economic and workforce situation as compared with other areas of the

state, neighboring states and the country. This study includes a review of the

economic prospects and sites, standard of living of the residents, condition of

the state educational system, currency of technological capacity and the

justification for a new Technological University.

A more localized study that looks at cultural, current and historical economic

and socio-political issues. This study includes a review of local economic and

business activities and the expectations that a Technological University would

fulfill.

A labor market study reflecting the human resource requirements of the public

and private sectors. This study is used to determine educational programs and

to gain industry participation in the academic processes of the university.

A study of the expectations of students completing high school provides

information on student interest to attend a Technological University, the social

and economic situation of families and the educational background of parents

and their expectations of further education for their sons and daughters.

A review of the current supply and demand for higher education in the region

through an historical analysis of student enrollment in higher education. Also

229

this study considers projections of demand and enrollments five and ten years

into the future.

The feasibility studies provide a basis for creating and operating a Technological

University and its educational programs. Once the formation of the institution is

authorized, an agreement of coordination is signed between the Secretary of Public

Education and the State Government. The State provides the land (a minimum of 20

thousand hectares) along with an assurance that the land and the composition of the soil

are suitable for construction.

The plan for financing a Universidade Technologica calls for the federal

government to provide fifty percent of first year start-up costs via the Office of the

General Coordination of Universidades Technologicas. The remaining fifty percent of

funding is provided by the state. This funding mechanism includes project start up

funding and operating expenses for the first year.

Each UT exists in Mexican law as a single legal entity with the ability to own

property and possess wealth in order to assure the financial viability of the institution.

After 15 years of remarkable development with 60 UT’s in 26 states of Mexico,

and with a population of approximately 66,000 students the UT’s have gained recognition

for the professional abilities of the graduates. Gradually, the UT’s see increasing demand

and recognition by the business community for graduates of the programs.

Factors Shaping Universidades Technologicas in the Next Ten Years

The point of view of the Coordinator General of the Universidades Technologicas

includes a perspective of the universities operating in a social context. The way in which

the university affects society and vice-versa is not always clear. What seems clear is that

institutions of higher education will shape, transform, create, influence and change social

realities as a result of lively exchanges, confrontations and dialogs.

In ten years, by 2015, the institutions will be a product of actions taken now and

the social context in which they occur. Today, the issues are ones of consolidation and

development. Five of these issues are outlined as follows:

230

In the student issue, the UTs offer higher education to a sector of society that

otherwise would not have access to a post secondary level of education if a

UT were not accessible in the development area in that region of the state.

In the academic issue, programs offered have a high degree of applicability

and the external evaluation of student results indicates an acceptable level of

quality. Also faculty benefit from opportunities to come together in their

academic areas.

In the social issue, the goal is to obtain increased recognition of the degrees

awarded by the UTs. This is an area that needs more dedication of time and

work. This is also an area where the professions exert a cultural and status

element rather than a rational view of the realities of what is needed to

perform in certain careers.

In the labor issue, it is sometimes the case that institutions of higher education

fail to satisfy the skills requirements needed in the labor market. The UTs

have worked to minimize this situation by linking with business/industry.

These collaborative efforts have enabled graduates to move more quickly into

the workforce. In a study of 89,643 graduates, 76 percent secured their first

career positions within six months.

In the financial issue, the need for resources to operate the UTs with

efficiency and quality depends on providing clear and transparent fiscal data

that shows how resources are used.

The system of UTs is proud of its efforts as depicted in the review of UT

programs by the Interinstitutional Committee for the Evaluation of Higher Education

which determined that 158 programs were operating at highest quality levels.

Also, the UTs have supported the development of programs of Continuing

Education which were reviewed by international teams that found the educational models

to be promising. These reviewer results have generated action plans to work to fulfill the

recommendations for development.

For the future of the UTs, the system has selected a process of continuous

development rather than sporadic efforts that are not administratively connected. The

231

objectives for the future, in the judgment of the Coordinator General, will center on the

following considerations.

The technological revolution and the spectacular and dramatic impact on the

content of programs and the performance requirements for technical careers.

Insufficient economic growth to reduce unemployment.

The inevitable slowness of change in educational processes, especially at the

primary and secondary education levels.

Activating the accreditation process in an environment of an abundance of

degrees and of doctoral programs of low quality in a world that expects

professional competence.

The administration of the UTs is particularly concerned about the ability to arrive

on-time to incorporate the “Third Industrial Revolution” of technology along with the

concomitant social-labor changes. These technologies, according to the Office of the

Coordinator General, may include artificial intelligence, genetic engineering, robots, new

materials, laser exploitation, optic fibers and more.

Additional challenges include responding to globalization, environmental

deterioration, social inequities, deformation of values and the culture of minimum effort

among others.

Thus, the vision for the UTs for the coming decade will be a higher education

system that offers good quality education that fulfills the expectations of students and the

community, responding in an effective way to the needs of the business community with

competent graduates. Within the UTs the future looks to greater cohesiveness of

academic faculty and closer relationships with the social fabric of the cultural and

business communities. Evaluation processes will be further developed along with

methods of external accreditation reviews.

A major goal is for the UT system to be flexible, innovative, integrated with other

systems of higher education and with transparent processes in both finances and methods

of operation.

232

The UT system looks to the possible re-engineering of the educational model,

with greater applicability of the educational programs, not only to the business

community, but with greater acceptance from the public. This recognition, if achieved,

will most likely be based on professional competencies wherein graduates of the UTs will

have the abilities to perform the tasks of a professional occupation. It is most important

that the students become the competent workers of the future. Basing future curricula on

competencies will surpass the concepts of traditional credentials and enable the student to

reply to an employer with what he or she can do rather than what he or she studied.

This qualitative jump requires the UTs to organize programs with flexibility,

address new and forgotten populations through programs of professional certification and

offer companies a new worker with the abilities to plan, solve problems, show creativity

and have the abilities to communicate, collaborate and innovate.

Universidad Technologica del Sur de Sonora (UTS)

Universidad Technologica del Sur de Sonora, hereafter referred to as UTS, was

selected as an example of a two-year technical institution of higher education partly due

to its newness, but also as an example of how it has developed its mission and its

relationship to the communities it serves.

UTS was proclaimed an approved and new institution of two year technical higher

education on August 30, 2002 and commenced operations on September 2, 2002 – a rapid

deployment in a very few days.

The two year university was developed in accordance with feasibility studies

focusing on the needs of the Southern region of the State of Sonora. Based on these

studies the State decided to locate the technological university in Ciudad Obregon, the

principal city in the county of Cajeme, to serve students in the 12 southern counties of the

state. This is a region with a population of 900,000 persons or 40 percent of the

population of the State of Sonora.

The primary mission of the institution is to serve the people and the communities

of the region. Therefore, in what has been a principally agricultural and sea fishing

economy, UTS endeavors to bring new knowledge and skills to the people and the

community in order to enable the development of a broader economy. Hopefully this

233

will serve to enable young people to remain in the area and contribute to the development

of communities and standard of living.

UTS is located in the center of the Yaqui Valley, a place of ancestral history and

culture that has been home to local peoples in the past, today and tomorrow. The major

endeavor is to continue the development of the valley, but in new ways with know how,

creating and using new techniques, methods, equipment and tools, resulting in students

and alumni who are responsible, enterprising, creative and continually learning. A goal

of UTS is to enable local people to develop the knowledge and skills to attract business

and industry or to emerge as entrepreneurs to that they do not have to leave the area to

secure employment.

The four technical major programs are as follows:

Production and process technology

Marketing/commerce

Computer Science/Information Technology

Electronics/automated systems

Currently in 2005, 541 students are enrolled in the four programs, that 10 years

earlier would have been unlikely programs in these communities. The students represent

a steady growth in enrollment since 2002. For example the student cohort of 2002 –

2004 enrolled 138 students. Of that number 86.7 percent graduated and 61.2 percent are

employed in the area of their major area of study. Of the current class, 123 were

scheduled to graduate in November 2005.

Additional program areas involve preparing students for Certification in CISCO,

Microsoft certifications and Java and Solaris languages. Ten professors have achieved

certification in these specialties and 80 Information Technology students have completed

their certification exams.

To support these programs the college has maintained relationships with 80 large,

medium and small corporations in the area to support the programs.

234

The Language Center is another specialty program area at UTS featuring

language schools in English and French. For the French language a relationship with the

University of Regina in Canada has resulted in internships for faculty in 2004 and 2005.

An innovative project of UTS is the Software Site, an in house “company” of the

university that employs students as interns in software development for and with local

corporations. The project enables companies to develop software and applications for a

lower cost and provides the students with work experience. The institution as has been

working with industries to certify labor force capabilities, using agreed upon standards of

performance.

Another direction of UTS has been to focus on the quality of education, giving

primary attention to the process of teaching and of continuing education. As a part of this

effort UTS has worked to establish a process of evaluation of instructor performance and

faculty development. This can be a challenge in an institution where of 61 professors, 24

are full time and 37 are part time.

Professors are evaluated on seven variables, as follows:

Punctuality and attendance

Timely delivery of information to Department of Academic Services

Teaching performance

Participation in related activities

Development of knowledge in teaching area

Cooperation in university affairs

Involvement in activities that complement the subject area taught

The faculty improvement program depends in some degree on the cooperation of

major universities in the State of Sonora and across Mexico. In August to December

2005, 28 professors were enrolled in programs of advanced technology, representing 45.9

percent of the professors in the areas of Information Technology and Engineering.

The development of programs at UT del Sur de Sonora in three short years

exemplifies the pressure on these institutions to rapidly develop new programs for the

twenty first century while responding to local economic development goals for change.

235

At the same time the UT is working to bring along the industries of the area and the

residents of the surrounding communities to a common vision of development for the

future.

Acknowledgements

Our gratitude goes to Dr. Arturo Nava Jaimes, the Coordinator General of the

system of Universidades Technologicas for his excellent assistance to develop the

sections describing the process of creating and planning for the Universidades

Technologicas in the 31 states of Mexico. Dr. Nava Jaimes has been the chief

administrator of the system of UTs since its inception in 1991. He developed a

comprehensive monograph addressing the history, challenges and future of the system for

this chapter. We are also grateful to Veronica Murillo of the UT de Coahuila for her

translating assistance of Dr. Nava Jaimes’ monograph and tailoring the information to my

questions for the chapter. Our gratitude also goes to Lic. David Valladares Aranda, at UT

del Sur De Sonora for his paper outlining the beginnings of his institution and the

projections for the future.

236

References

CIA – The World Factbook, http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mx.html

Nava Jaimes, Dr. Arturo, Coordinator General, Universidades Technologicas, Secretary

of Public Education, Mexico, D.F., Unpublished Monograph, December 2005.

Secretary of Public Education, National Program of Education 2001-2006,

First Edition, Mexico, SEP, 2001, pp. 270.

CGUT (2004) Strategic Agenda of the Subsystem of Technological

Universities, Work Document, CGUT: Mexico

Gomez, H. (1997) The Agenda of the 21st Century. Towards a Human

Development. Mexico: UN Program for the Development.

Secretary of Public Education, Information System about Linkage of the

Technological Universities, institutional support unedited, General

Coordination of Technological Universities, Mexico, 2005, 03-2001-

080109522000-01.

Secretary of Public Education, Educational path of the young people of the

Technological Universities, institutional document unedited, General

Coordination of Technological Universities, Mexico, 2004.

Secretary of Public Education, The external evaluation in the Technological Universities.

An effective way to the accounts revision, reports and recommendations 1996,

1999 and 2002, institutional document unedited, General Coordination of

Technological Universities – Limusa Editorial, Mexico, 2004, pp.136.

237

Rodriguez-Gomez, Roberto and Casanova-Cardiel, Hugo, “Higher Education Policies in

Mexico in the 1990s: A Critical Balance”, Higher Education Policy, 2005, 18, pp.

51 – 65.

Valladares Aranda, Lic. David, Director, Division of Careers, Universidade

Technologica del Sur de Sonora, “The Beginning of the UTS in Cajeme in the

XXI Century”, unpublished paper, November 2005.

238

Further Education in New Zealand

Jim Doyle

New Zealand consists of two main islands situated in the south west Pacific mid

way between the equator and the Antarctic. It has a population of 4 million, 13% of

which is identified as Maori, 75% European and the balance of Pacific Island or Asian

extraction. It is generally accepted that Maori settlement dates back to about the 12th

century whereas European settlement did not begin in earnest until the mid 19th century.

The land area is 104,000 sq miles (265,000sq km), the same as the State of

Colorado. In terms of both length and latitude New Zealand would stretch from Los

Angeles to Portland Oregon.

New Zealand is a British Commonwealth country and has strong British traditions

in its form of government (parliamentary democracy) and its education system in

particular.

Policy Context

The entire New Zealand education system and in particular the post secondary

sector has been the subject of sweeping reforms since 1990. In order to fully understand

them it is necessary to place the reforms within the wider reforms that took place in New

Zealand during the mid 1980s.

New Zealand’s response to the oil shock of 1973 was to adopt a ‘fortress’

approach of protectionism and increasing subsidies to support its agriculture sector which

accounted for the bulk of foreign exchange earnings. By 1984 the country was on the

verge of bankruptcy and the election of a centre-left Labour government in July of that

year marked a watershed in economic policy. The new government was faced with a

series of crises and responded with a set of the most rapid and sweeping reforms in the

country’s history. Indeed these reforms, in terms of pace and impact were probably

unsurpassed by any democracy in modern times.

239

The reform process itself involved an immediate devaluation and subsequent

floating of the New Zealand Dollar, a replacement of the highly complex and

progressive taxation system with a flatter and simpler system, the introduction of an

almost universal consumption tax93, and the complete removal of all agricultural and

consumer subsidies together with the removal of import licensing and export incentives.

In addition to the above reforms the Government moved quickly to reform the

State sector. These reforms involved three strategies; (a) corporatization, or

commercialization, (b) deregulation and (c) privatization. Commercially-orientated state

enterprises that were not privatized were established as State-Owned Enterprises (SOEs).

The government then turned its attention to the efficiency and effectiveness of the public

sector which had been significantly down-sized. The intent was to expose the public

sector to the same realities faced by the private sector.

One of the key intentions behind the reform process was to establish government

Ministers as ‘purchasers’ of defined ‘outputs’ and departments of the State as suppliers of

‘outputs.’

The macro reform process adopted by the New Zealand government replicated as

far as possible the conditions existing within a free market. Wherever possible, the

‘purchaser’ and ‘provider’ of specified services were to be clearly identified and

separated. These elements of the reforms (market imperative and ‘purchaser/provide

split’) are crucial in understanding the post-school reform process which was to begin in

1988.

Development of the New Zealand Polytechnic System:

The New Zealand polytechnic system evolved out of the high school system. In

the latter half of the 19th century a network of ‘technical high schools’ emerged beside

the more traditional academic high schools. Initially these technical high schools had a

duel vocational and hobby focus94 but gradually evolved into a distinctive alternative to

the more academic traditional high school. By 1939 more than 13,000 full time students

were attending 27 technical high schools.93 Goods & Services Tax (GST)94 Ian Dougherty, Bricklayers & Mortarboards: pp16, Dunmore Press (1999)

240

In the immediate post World War II years an increasing number of trades required

compulsory attendance at technical high schools. At about the same time, ministers and

senior officials95 began to see the need for technical education to focus more on higher

levels in order to meet the demands of a post-war economy. The first step in this

direction was taken with the establishment of the Technical Correspondence Institute96 in

1946 which was intended to provide distance learning opportunities in technical

education for servicemen returning from the War. In 1956 Dr Beeby, the Director-

General of Education recommended to Parliament that the technical high schools in the

main centres be converted into senior colleges. That process took place during the 1960s.

At that time they were known as Technical Institutes. By 1970 there were eight technical

institutes in the country.

During the 1970s pressure mounted from regions outside the main urban centres

to establish technical institutes in the regions. It may be of interest to American readers

that the ‘60s and early ‘70s were marked by a flirtation with the US Community College

system, in particular the two year transfer concept and the non-vocational, Liberal Arts

feature. In 1974 legislation was passed enabling the establishment of Community

Colleges which included some but not all features of the US model. The New Zealand

community colleges would include a ‘continuing education’ component in addition to the

usual vocational education focus. In this way community colleges would be in a position

to reach a ‘critical mass’ level that otherwise might not be possible if they were confined

to only a vocational focus. By the end of the ‘70s nine community colleges had been

established.

The 1980s saw the establishment of an additional 8 community colleges, giving a

total of 25 technical institutes and community colleges.

The 1984-87 governments embarked on a series of sweeping reforms as

mentioned above. The then Minister of Education97 sought to remove the perceived

differences between Technical Institutes and Community Colleges by encouraging all of

95 in particular Clarence Beeby, Secretary of Education 1940-1960 and Bernard Lee, Director of Technical Education, 1952-196996 currently called The Open Polytechnic of New Zealand97 Russell Marshall

241

them to use the word ‘Polytechnic’ to describe themselves. All but two98 choose to do so.

Since that time there has been somewhat of a trend for polytechnics to use the term

Institute of Technology to describe themselves and by 2005 nine of the 20 polytechnics in

New Zealand use the term Institute of Technology. An amendment to the Education Act

recognized the term Institute of Technology as being equivalent to the word Polytechnic.

The election of 1987 returned the government to power and it immediately

embarked on a series of reforms in the ‘social portfolio’: education, health etc. The

policy decisions relating to the tertiary education reforms were published in August

198999. This policy document led to a major amendment to the existing Education Act

(1989) in 1990100. The objects clause101 of the Education Amendment Act states:

The object of the provisions of this Act relating to institutions is to give

them as much independence and freedom to make academic, operational, and

management decisions as is consistent with the nature of the services they

provide, the efficient use of national resources, the national interest, and the

demands of accountability.

As part of the overall reform process the Department of Education was

disestablished in 1989 and replaced by a much smaller, policy-focused Ministry of

Education. A new single bulk funding system was introduced in 1991 to cover all

institutions including universities, polytechnics and colleges of education (teacher

training colleges). A new governance structure was created102 and a new strategic

planning mode of operating was put in place.

In addition to establishing an entirely new Ministry of Education, two other key

agencies were established under the education reforms: The New Zealand Qualifications

Authority and the Education and Training Support Agency later renamed as Skill New

Zealand.

98 Auckland Institute of Technology and the Central Institute of Technology99 Learning for Life Two, Education and Training Beyond the Age of Fifteen 1989100 Education Amendment Act(1990)101 S160 102 S171 Education Act

242

The New Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA) was established under Part

XX of the Education Amendment Act and the objects clause of that part of the Act states:

The object of the provisions of this Act relating to the Authority is to establish a

consistent approach to the recognition of qualifications in academic and vocational areas.

In addition to being charged with the quality assurance function inherent in the

clause above, NZQA also had the following listed among its functions:

To oversee the setting of standards for qualifications in secondary schools

and in post-school education and training

To develop a framework of national qualifications in secondary schools

and in post-school education and training in which-

(i)All qualifications have a purpose and a relationship to each

other that students and the public can understand; and

(ii)There is a flexible system for the gaining of qualifications,

with recognition of competency already achieved

It should be noted that the powers of the NZQA described above did not extend to

the universities. The Act confers all academic quality assurance oversight within

universities on the New Zealand Vice Chancellors’103 Committee.

An appreciation of the place of the framework of national qualifications referred

to above is crucial in understanding the role of industry in tertiary education. The

framework, The National Qualifications Framework (NQF) was an ambitious

undertaking. Put briefly, NZQA attempted to develop a comprehensive framework of

national qualifications extending from year 11 at high school (10th grade) through to post

graduate qualifications. The key characteristic of the NQF, however, was not its scope

but rather its very concept; it was to be entirely standards-based rather than norm-

103 The title Vice Chancellor is equivalent to the title President in the US

243

referenced. In this case every qualification would consist of a set of competencies

(standards) and learners would be assessed on their ability to demonstrate the various

competencies. The achievement of a particular competency would earn a certain number

of credits and the accumulation of a pre determined number of credits would earn a

qualification. On average one credit would be expected to equate to 10 hours of learning

and a year’s work to 120 credits. Each qualification would be comprised of a collection

of unit standards which would describe the required skills. The initial Framework had 8

levels: levels 1-4, National Certificate, levels 5-6 National Diploma, level 7 Bachelor’s

degree and level 8 post-graduate.

The NQF was enthusiastically welcomed by industry leaders who saw the

initiative as an opportunity for industry to define the skill sets industry required and

thereby end the monopoly which hitherto had been enjoyed by the academic community.

A brief description of how industry ‘engaged’ the NQF is contained elsewhere in this

chapter under the heading Regulatory Environment. Not surprisingly the universities

rejected the very concept of the NQF believing it would lead to ‘atomization’ of their

holistic degrees and a rejection of the concept of excellence inherent in norm-referencing.

The other key agency that was established at that time was Skill New Zealand.

Section 271 of the Education Act (1989) states:

The functions of the Agency are to administer the Access Training

Scheme, the Apprenticeship Schemes, the Primary Industry Cadet

Scheme, and such other activities and programmes relating to education

or training as the Minister determines after consulting such bodies and

persons as the Minister considers appropriate.

This description does not accurately capture the key function of Skill New

Zealand which was to assist industry training. It performed this function by (a)

registering Industry Training Organisations (ITOs), (b) negotiating training agreements

with ITOs and (c) allocating public funding for ITOs.

January 1991 marked the beginnings of the new system. This new environment

would be characterized by a group of independent institutions formulating their own

244

strategic plans and competing for students. The funding system was relatively simple

and based on a subsidy which was paid to institutions on the number of equivalent full

time students (EFTS) the institution enrolled. The subsidy itself was differentiated

according to the type and level of programme a student enrolled in, i.e. the subsidy for

engineering programmes was higher than the Business subsidy and the subsidy for

Medicine was higher than Engineering. Subsidies were delivered ‘in bulk’ on a

monthly basis and none of the funding was ‘tagged’, in other words an institution was

completely free to decide on how it should spend its revenues, be it capital, payroll,

whatever.

A standard tuition fee system was introduced in 1990 to offset the costs of rapid

expansion of the system. This was repealed by a new government from 1992. In

addition to receiving subsidies for tuition costs, institutions were free to set tuition fees.

Students were eligible for allowances intended to meet their living costs, targeted on their

parents’ income. A government subsidized student loan scheme was introduced to meet

students’ tuition fees, up-front course and as a contribution to living costs for students not

entitled to an allowance. Repayments are made through the income tax system and the

minimum repayments are income contingent.

During the course of the 1990s the growth in the number of EFTS places the

government was prepared to subsidize was rationed at about 5% per annum. At the same

time the subsidy rate was being cut by about 5% which resulted in institutions passing on

the cuts through higher tuition fees. As the decade progressed, the involvement of

private training establishments (PTEs) was encouraged thereby increasing the

competitive pressures on the state institutions. It should be noted, however that the level

of subsidy available to PTEs was significantly lower that that available to the state

institutions (which included an identifiable capital component) and the competitive

pressures were moderated by the tight ‘rationing’ of funded places imposed by

government.

One of the most significant reforms made at this time as far as the polytechnics

were concerned was the right granted by the Education Amendment Act to institutions

other than universities to offer degree programmes. The polytechnic sector responded

positively to this opportunity and by the end of the 1990s more than 100 degree

245

programmes were being delivered by polytechnics. Having regard to the fact that all

polytechnic degrees are required to be ‘taught mainly by people engaged in research’104

the growing burden of this condition is showing signs of causing some institutions to

reflect on the sustainability of the current suite of degree provision.

The decade following the initiation of the reform process witnessed many changes for the

polytechnic sector. Steady growth saw the number of equivalent full time students

enrolled in the polytechnic sector double to 60,000. By the end of the ‘90s more than

10,000 students were enrolled in more than 100 degree programmes in polytechnics.

The ability of polytechnics to offer degree programmes led a number of the larger

polytechnics to seek university status. In New Zealand the use of the word ’university’

is protected by the Education Act105. Bodies seeking to use the term ‘university’ are

required to apply to NZQA for consent. Before NZQA deals with such requests, the

Minister must consider whether or not the establishment of an additional university is in

the national. Subject to this requirement the consent process involves NZQA

establishing an international panel to determine if the applicant institution displays the

necessary characteristics of a university. NZQA then advises the Minister who may

then, after appropriate consultation with interested parties, recommend to the Governor-

General that the applicant be established as a university.

The Auckland Institute of Technology (AIT) was the first polytechnic to embark

on the ‘university’ quest and in November 1999 just a week before the General Election

of that year the Minister of Education consented to the establishment of the Auckland

University of Technology as from 1 January 2000. In addition to AIT, Unitec Institute

of Technology, also in Auckland, initiated an application to become established as

university in the late ‘90s. The incoming government in 1999 made it clear that it did

not wish to see another university established but this did not deter Unitec from

proceeding with its application. At the time of writing (late 2005) the Unitec application

had led to the introduction of two pieces of legislation hostile to the application being

introduced in Parliament. Partly in response to those moves Unitec adopted a litigious

104 S254 Education Act(1989)105 S264 Education Act(1989)

246

approach. It won a significant High Court action against the government in 2005 and was

pursuing further litigation.

In addition to the attempts by the two Auckland institutions, Wellington

Polytechnic considered its prospects of becoming established as a university and on

concluding that its prospects were extremely slim, adopted a strategy of ‘merging’ with

an existing university. In 1999 Wellington Polytechnic went out of existence as a

separate institution and became part of Massey University.

While the glittering prize of university status beckoned a few of the bigger

polytechnics during the ‘90s, the growing competitive pressures presented an entirely

different reality for a number of other polytechnics. By 2001 three institutions had

experienced insolvency and were disestablished and the assets ‘merged’ with other

polytechnics.

During 1998 the government decided that the time was appropriate to introduce a

fully competitive market. By way of achieving that objective, the cap on funded places

in tertiary education was removed and private providers would henceforth receive the

same level of subsidy as State institutions. This policy decision was based on the belief

that as a result of many years of steady growth in participation in tertiary education, the

capacity for continued growth was limited, so the fiscal risk to the government was not

high. That policy advice proved to be dramatically flawed but it would take a few years

before the true magnitude of the error was manifested.

Regulatory environment: 1988-1999

Under this new regime, each institution is required to publish a set of goals and

objectives together with quantifiable performance measures. A formal annual report by

each institution is required to be published as a public document and presented to each

member of Parliament. Annual reports must include financial reports based on full

accrual accounting and comply with standard accounting practices. In addition the report

is required to contain the institution’s performance against its stated objectives.

The 1990 amendment to the Education Act addressed the entire area of academic

quality assurance.106 The legislation provided for the oversight of academic quality

106 Part XX Education Act(1989)

247

assurance in the tertiary sector, apart from the universities to be exercised by the New

Zealand Qualifications Authority (NZQA). The Act also allowed NZQA to delegate

these powers to a body established by institutions other than universities107. In the case

of the polytechnic sector such a body existed in the form of the Association of

Polytechnics in New Zealand, since renamed as Institutes of Technology and

Polytechnics of New Zealand. The Association successfully sought such a delegation in

1992 and established the New Zealand Polytechnic Programmes Committee (NZPPC)108

to discharge that responsibility. The NZPPC became operational in 1993.

Another significant piece of legislation pertinent to the reform process was The

State Sector Act (1988). This Act designates the chief executive of a polytechnic as

being the employer of all staff and faculty109. The Council or governing body of each

institution therefore employs only one person, the chief executive. The decision to

designate the chief executive as the employer of all faculty and staff was based on the

principle of clearly splitting the functions of governance and management, governance

being the responsibility of the Board and management the responsibility of the chief

executive. Employment matters were clearly seen as management issues.

While the reform process in the tertiary education sector had a primary focus on matters

academic including mainstream academic tertiary qualifications, it did not stop there. It

also included industry training. The Industry Training Act (1992) allowed for the

establishment of Industry Training Organisations (ITOs). Which were established by

groups of employers on an industry basis and mandated under the Industry Training

Act110 to:

Set skill standards for their industry

Develop arrangements for the delivery of training in their industry

To receive funding for training in their industry

Undertake a strategic leadership role on behalf of their industry

107 S260 Education Act (1989)108 now called ITP Quality109 S2 State Sector Act (1988)110 S10 Industry Training Act(1992)

248

Within a few years 53 different ITOs had been registered. These ITOs covered

more than 85% of the country’s workforce.

By way of supporting industry training the government appropriates a level of

funding each year for industry training and distributes this money through detailed

contracts with each ITO. The ITOs are free to use this money to ‘purchase’ specific

training for people in their industry. Most of this training leads to national qualifications

which have been developed by the ITO itself. While an ITO can set standards and

develop qualifications it cannot provide the training itself. This in line with the principle

of the ‘purchaser/provider split’ referred to above.

Regulatory Environment

The General Election in late 1999 resulted in a change of government and with it

a change in policy. The policy of the incoming centre-left government included (a)

moderating those aspects of competition that were deemed to be destructive and (b)

moving the tertiary education system towards a more collaborative and strategic

environment. To provide advice on how to move towards this new direction the

Government established a Tertiary Education Advisory Commission (TEAC) in 2000.

By November 2001, TEAC had produced four separate reports on how to achieve the

government’s objectives.

The most significant outcome from the TEAC process was the recommendation to

establish a new agency, the Tertiary Education Commission. This recommendation was

accepted by government and the Commission was formally established as from 1 January

2003. The Commission itself consists of eight persons appointed by the Minister of

Education

The functions of the Commission are listed in S159F of the Education Act and

include:

Negotiating charters and profiles with organizations

Allocating funds to organizations

Building capability of organizations and

Providing advice to the Minister

249

Fundamental to the thrust of the reform process is the concept of a Tertiary

Education Strategy (TES) and a Statement of Tertiary Education Priorities (STEP).

The current government’s Tertiary Education Strategy (TES)111 contains six goals:

Raise foundation skills so that all people can participate in our knowledge

society

Develop the skills New Zealanders need for our knowledge society

Strengthen research, knowledge creation and uptake for our knowledge

society

Contribute to the achievement of Maori development aspirations

Education for Pacific peoples’ development and success

Strengthen system capability and quality

The following quote is an extract from the Minister of Education’s comments in

the Statement of Tertiary Education Priorities (2005/07) document:

“In summary, this STEP focuses on ensuring that students and learners

progress to higher levels of study through accessing tertiary education, which is

of excellent quality and relevant to the needs of New Zealand. It will be provided

by vibrant, highly capable and well-connected tertiary education organizations.

It wants tertiary education organizations to build upon their areas of expertise,

develop strong strategic links with their stakeholders, and complement their

strengths with the strengths of others through partnerships and alliances.”112

The document itself identifies eight key change messages:

Increased quality

Greater system collaboration and rationalization

More future-focus

Improved global linkages

Increased responsiveness to students and learners111 www.minedu.govt.nz112 Office of the Minister of Education: Statement of Tertiary Education Priorities 2005/07

250

Greater alignment with national goals

Stronger linkages with businesses and other external stakeholders

A culture of optimism and creativity

Finally the STEP focuses on four major connected themes:

Investing in excellence in teaching, .learning and research

Increasing the relevance of skills and knowledge to meet national goals

Enabling students and learners to access excellent and relevant tertiary

education, and progress to higher levels of study and achievement, and

Enhancing capability and information quality in the tertiary system to

support learning, teaching and research.

Both of these documents provide a set of signals regarding the current

government’s vision for the tertiary education sector over a five year timeframe. Under

this new policy each tertiary education provider is required to prepare a charter and a

profile. A charter is a high-level document that describes an organization’s role in the

tertiary education system and how it aligns with the government’s Tertiary Education

Strategy. It covers a long-term time-frame and provides the basis for a Profile.

A Profile113 is a document prepared annually by providers which:

Sets out the organization’s operating plans and proposed activities for the

next three years

Sets out the organization’s objectives together with performance measures

and targets

Identifies those areas of activities for which funding is being sought

Demonstrates how the organization will give effect to its charter

In preparing their Charters and Profiles each institution is required to take into

account both the Tertiary Education Strategy and the Statement of Tertiary Education

Priorities.

113 S159W Education Act

251

In short the primary function of the Commission is to ‘steer’ the tertiary education

sector towards the achievement of the TES and at the same time have regard to the STEP.

Apart from the charter and profile documents, funding will act as the primary steering

instrument.

As outlined previously the existing bulk funding system is a relatively simple

‘subsidy’ system which is based on providing subsidies to institutions on the basis of the

number of equivalent full time students (EFTS) enrolled. Apart from tuition fees (which

are linked to enrolments) and some modest revenue from industry training there is no

other source of funding available. The funding model was designed for a ‘demand

driven’ system to encourage increased participation and has served that environment

well.

Inherent in every funding system is a set of incentives, intentional or otherwise.

In the case of the EFTS funding system the major incentive was to grow, to grow in

absolute terms and to grow at the margins. Every student in a given cohort may attract

say $US 5,000 by way of subsidy plus another $US 2,500 in tuition fees. The same

level of revenue, $US 7,500 could be earned for every additional full time equivalent

student enrolled. The marginal benefits are considerable.

Can the existing funding system, designed as it was to serve a demand driven

system, serve the needs of a system which is now looking to ‘intervene’ on the supply

side? Probably not, as the incentives in the existing system do not necessarily deliver on

the priorities. For sure the government can, through the Tertiary Education Commission

impose a form of rationing by refusing to fund certain programmes on the grounds of low

relevance or quality but it is not well placed to ‘encourage’ the delivery of programmes

where the market demand may be marginal. In any event attention will need to be given

to encourage participation by students in areas of low demand but high national priority.

So, incentives will need to be devised to (a) encourage institutions to engage in high

priority activities and (b) encourage students to enroll in such programmes.

Current Developments

252

The policy decision made by the government in 1998 to remove the cap on funded

places led to a series of responses by some providers which produced the most significant

policy issues facing the polytechnic sector for decades.

That decision to remove the cap on funded places was based on the premise that

the potential for significant growth in tertiary education participation was likely to be

modest in the foreseeable future, so the risk of a serious fiscal blow-out was low. This

assumption was based on two observations, (a) participation in tertiary education had

been steadily growing over the previous two decades to more than the OECD average and

(b) that there is a natural limit to participation in higher education and that limit had

probably been reached.

While those assumptions may have been valid they did not complete the picture.

For sure, participation in higher (degree) level qualifications had indeed reached a plateau

but the potential for growth in lower level activity was almost unlimited, especially in

those areas where there were no academic entry requirements. Having regard to the

opportunities open to institutions that lay behind the policy it should have come as little

surprise that sooner or later some provider(s) would find a way to maximize the

opportunities for growth which were inherent in the policy. They did.

The area identified by a number of providers as having the greatest potential for

growth was community education. This category of delivery did not have any entry

prerequisites nor did the courses necessarily have any assessment requirements. In

addition, community education courses did not necessarily lead to a qualification. All of

these factors allowed providers to offer low intensity, low cost courses to a wide public

with almost unlimited potential for growth, especially if offered on a zero fee basis. At

the same time such courses attracted the same level of subsidy as higher level

qualifications which included intensive learning and assessment. By way of illustration,

some providers offered basic computing for free and attracted many thousands of

learners. The combination of low cost and relatively high subsidies resulted in healthy

‘profits’ from such ventures.

By the beginning of 2003 the government had estimated that the provision of

‘community education’ courses had, over a period of just two years, risen from fewer

than 3,000 equivalent full time (EFTS) students to more than 26,000 at an additional cost

253

of more than $US70 million. In the face of widespread political and public criticism, the

government then moved to significantly reduce its exposure in this area. In July 2005 the

government announced a series of decisions diverting expenditure from ‘community

education’ to areas more in line with the government’s strategy and priority areas.

The 1998 policy decisions to (a) remove the cap on funded places in tertiary

education and (b) to allow private providers access to the same level of subsidies as State

institutions were driven largely by a firm belief that a fully competitive market

environment would deliver optimum results. The centre-left government elected in late

1999 certainly did not subscribe to the view that a highly competitive market

environment would produce optimum results and its policy position reflected that view.

It was noteworthy however, that the same government did nothing to reverse the 1998

decisions despite its stated opposition to a market model and its commitment to removing

the more destructive elements of competition. Whatever the reason for its inaction, the

1999-2005 administration was happy to see participation increase and did not become

concerned until both the scale of the increase and the nature of it became evident. In

short the government failed to appreciate the capacity for players in the marketplace to

respond to market opportunities.

The Way Ahead

Having regard to the experience of the competitive market, it is highly unlikely

that any future government will risk the unexpected outcomes which are inherent in such

deregulated environments. Having said that, it is extremely unlikely that any future

government will wish to return to the type of ‘command and control’ environment that

existed prior to the 1990’s. The universities were never in a position to compete in the

‘mass market’ even if they wished to and the experiences of the uncapped period

basically passed them by. During this period the universities operated as they had for

many decades and it is safe to assume they will continue to do so in the coming decades.

In contrast to the universities the future for polytechnics and institutes of

technology is more likely to be influenced by change.

254

While degree programmes will continue to be a feature of polytechnic provision it

is unlikely they will represent a growing component of that provision and it is extremely

unlikely that any polytechnic other than Unitec will pursue university ambitions.

Polytechnics will be actively ‘steered’ towards reinforcing their vocational

missions and the imperative to grow in order to compete let alone survive, will be

moderated. This new redirection will be aimed at strengthening the links between

polytechnics and their particular geographic regions. This process will be designed to

cement the role of the polytechnic as an integral component in regional economic

development.

The structure for achieving this synergy between polytechnics and regional

economic development is now in place through the Tertiary Education Commission and

some of the tools it will use have been designed. At the time of writing (August ’05)

there is still work to be undertaken in developing a range of instruments that will produce

the desired behaviors.

The key element to this new environment will be the funding system. There is

little doubt that the existing system whereby funding is driven almost exclusively by the

choices of hundreds of thousands of individual students, will be moderated. Those

individual students are likely to be largely immune to high level government strategies or

priorities. The institutions, for their part will continue to keep a sharp focus on that

student market. The challenge facing the present and future governments will be to

introduce a variation to the funding system that will act to ‘steer’ institutions in the way

desired and at the same time acknowledge the fundamental fact that students will make

individual decisions based on what they believe is in their own best interests.

It is highly likely that the new system will involve some element of the

appropriated funding being made available to the Tertiary Education Commission to (a)

allow the smaller institutions in particular to operate without the relentless pressure to

seek growth and thereby achieve critical mass and (b) ‘encourage’ institutions to engage

in high priority activities that otherwise would not be delivered on pure economic or

business grounds. In addition, the Commission is likely to see the need for it to have

access to funds that will enable it to facilitate some rationalization, at least of

programmes if not of institutions.

255

Obstacles, challenges, successes and triumphs:

The most obvious characteristic of the reform process that began in 1991 was the

move from what had been a highly centralized system to a more devolved and

competitive one. While competition was a key component in the policy mix during the

‘90s, the fact was that the relatively tight rationing that existed up to 1999 acted as a

strong counterbalance against excesses. Despite the rationing constraint, or perhaps

because of it, three polytechnics experienced insolvency and at least two universities

experienced serious financial difficulties. The environment was, if nothing else,

challenging.

The 1998 decision to remove the cap on funded growth dramatically changed the

equation, at least for those parts of the sector other than the universities. For four years

(1999-2002) the tertiary education sector experimented with a true market model,

probably to a greater extent than any other country. The experience of that particular

experiment proved to be interesting. A number of institutions, in moving to maximize

the benefits that flowed from the uncapping decision generated significant surpluses but

in doing so strayed from their more traditional academic roots. Demonstrably successful

business decisions turned out to be liabilities when measured against political and public

opinion. The reality was that no political party was prepared to accept a true business

environment once they saw the reality.

The challenge now facing government and policy makers is to find a way back

from the highly competitive environment towards a more collaborative and strategically

focused one. It is certain that, while many of the leaders of the institutions will voice

their support for a less competitive system, they are likely to balk at any moves that

restrict their autonomy and freedom to act. The challenge of ‘squaring the circle’

between greater collaboration and less autonomy will be considerable and will take great

skill and patience if it is to be successfully met. It is certain that the universities will be

the most vociferous opponents of any move to reduce institutional autonomy. That in

itself will add to the challenge.

Any reflection or analysis on the performance of the New Zealand tertiary

education system since 1990 will lead inevitably to the question, were the reforms

256

successful? From the polytechnic sector’s perspective the answer would have to be

largely positive. Participation in polytechnic institutions has more than doubled and the

range and variety of programmes offered by polytechnics have expanded enormously.

The introduction of degree programmes into polytechnics has had the effect of improving

the academic quality assurance processes across the sector.

The establishment of the New Zealand Polytechnic Programmes Committee

(NZPPC) in 1993 began a process of steady improvement in the academic quality

assurance systems across the polytechnics sector. The NZPPC adopted a formative or

supportive approach to academic quality assurance. This process involved requiring each

institution to develop and document a comprehensive Quality Management System

(QMS). The sector itself, through its national Association (APNZ), developed a set of

12 standards relating to academic quality. These standards were approved by NZQA and

became requirements in 2000. With the quality management systems in place and the

standards adopted, the NZPPC moved to an academic audit system which audited the

effectiveness of a polytechnic’s quality management system in meeting the 12 standards.

The audits themselves are conducted by panels of external auditors. If there are no

significant non compliances as a result of an audit a polytechnic will be granted Quality

Assured Status for a period of four years. In cases where significant ‘non compliances’

exist a polytechnic will receive Provisional Quality Assured Status for one year. This

process usually requires the polytechnic to undergo a further full external audit in 12

months. Further information on the work of ITPQ can be obtained on its web page:

www.itpq.ac.nz.

A Profile of Three Polytechnics

The three polytechnics described in this section, Manukau Institute of Technology

(www.manukau.ac.nz) Eastern Institute of Technology (www.eit.ac.nz) and Nelson

Marlborough Institute of Technology (www.nmit.ac.nz) represent a balance of

urban/regional, large/medium/smaller, and north island/south island institutions. The

New Zealand polytechnic sector is highly diverse and it is difficult to use the term

‘average’ or the term ‘typical’ with any degree of confidence.

257

Manukau Institute of Technology is, by New Zealand standards a large urban

polytechnic located in Auckland, New Zealand’s biggest city which has a population of

1.2 million. In 2004 the polytechnic enrolled more than 10,000 equivalent full time

students. Its operating revenue was $US62 million and its asset base was $US75 million.

The institution receives just 50% of its revenues from government subsidies with tuition

fees accounting for 45% of revenues.

Academic activities cover the following areas: Applied Studies, Computing & IT,

Electrical & Computer Engineering, Further Education, Nursing & Health Studies,

Business, Visual Arts, Maritime, Social Sciences, Technology, and Maori.

The institution has three main objectives:

To offer a wide range of relevant education and training programmes in a

positive, innovative, and equitable learning environment.

To appoint and develop staff to enhance the provision of high quality

education and training

To manage resources efficiently and effectively in an equitable and

entrepreneurial environment.

Each of those objectives is broken into more detailed objectives each of which has

measurable achievement targets.

The Eastern Institute of Technology Hawke’s Bay is located on the eastern coast

of the North Island. It serves the Hawke’s Bay region which includes the twin cities of

Napier and Hastings which have a combined population of 100,000 people. The wider

region has a population of 140,000 and the regional economy has a significant

agriculture, horticulture and wine focus.

In 2004 EIT enrolled 3,600 equivalent full time students. Its operating revenue

for 2004 was $US23 million and its asset base was $US40 million. Government

subsidies accounted for 59% of revenues with tuition fees accounting for 30% of

revenues.

258

Academic activities cover the following areas: Arts & Social Sciences, Business

& Computing, Health & Sport Science, Maori Studies and Science & Technology.

The institution has the following goals:

To strengthen system capability and quality

To contribute to the achievement of Maori development aspirations

To raise foundation skills so that all people can participate in our

knowledge society

To develop the skills New Zealanders need for our knowledge society

To educate for Pacific Peoples’ development and success

To strengthen research, knowledge creation and uptake for our knowledge

society.

Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology is located at the top of the South

Island with Nelson City (pop. 40,000) as its main centre.

In 2004, NMIT enrolled 2,600 equivalent full time students. Its operating revenue

for 2004 was $US15 million and its asset base was $US28 million. Government

subsidies accounted for 50% or revenue with tuition fees contributing 23%.

Academic activities cover the following areas: Arts, Business & Computer

Technology, Health & Social Sciences, Technology & primary Industries, Maori.

The goals of the institution are related to the various academic departments:

To provide quality education and training which is responsive to the needs

and opportunities of the region and beyond in the areas of Art & Design,

Media, Tourism, Hospitality, Adventure Tourism and English Language

To provide quality education and training which is responsive to the needs

and opportunities of the region and beyond in the areas of Business &

Computer Technology

To provide quality education and training which is responsive to the needs

and opportunities of the region and beyond in the areas of Nursing,

259

Health, Early Childhood Education, Counseling, Social Services,

Psychotherapy and Special Education.

To provide quality education and training which is responsive to the needs

and opportunities of the region and beyond in the areas of Seafood,

Science, Trades, and Land-based training such as Agriculture, Forestry,

Horticulture, Conservation, Animal Care.

To provide quality education and training that is responsive to the needs

and opportunities of the Marlborough region with a special emphasis on

education for the wine and aviation industries.

To provide quality education and training which is responsive to the needs

and opportunities of the region and beyond in Te Reo114and Tikanga

Maori115

Overview of Provision116:

There are currently 20 Institutes of Technology and Polytechnics in New Zealand.

Every town with a population of at least 20,000 has a significant polytechnic presence

and many more centres with populations of a lot less than 20,000 have some polytechnic

presence.

The sector generates about $US600 million in revenue, 60% of which comes

from government subsidies and 20% from domestic student tuition fees. International

student fees account fro 11% of overall revenue.

Polytechnics enrolled nearly 200,000 individual students in 2004 which equated

to 95,000 equivalent full time students (EFTS). The average age of students in the

polytechnics sector is 29 and rising.

The polytechnic sector employs more than 4,400 academic staff and 3,700 non-

academic support staff. Fifty four percent of academic staff in polytechnics are female

compared to 42% in the university sector and 56% are full time compared to 61% in the

university sector.

114 Maori language115 Maori tradition116 www.minedu.govt.nz

260

The number of equivalent full time students per academic staff in the polytechnic

sector has increased from 14 in 1997 to 22 in 2004. The corresponding figure for

universities in 2004 was 16.

Of students completing qualifications in the polytechnics sector, 79% receive

Certificate level qualifications, 11% Diplomas and 10% Degrees. In the university

sector, 18% graduate with Certificate level Qualifications, 5% Diplomas, 53%

Bachelors Degrees and 24% Post graduate.

The range of qualifications offered by polytechnics is extensive. The principle areas

cover:

Agriculture, Equine Studies, Forestry

Arts, Design, Fine Arts

Aviation

Beauty & Health

Building & Architecture

Business & management

Community & Social Sciences

Computing & information Technology

Education

Engineering

Environmental Studies

Foundation

Health Sciences

Language & Culture

Marine Studies

Media & Communications

Music

Office Systems

Performing Arts

Science

Sports & recreation

Tourism & Hospitality

261

Trades & Technology

Veterinary Studies

Viticulture & Beverage Studies

Contacts:

www.itpnz.ac.nz

www.itpq.ac.nz

www.minedu.govt.nz

www.tec.govt.nz

262

Public Further Education and Training Colleges

in South Africa

Glen Fisher

Marianne Scott

An historical note: the concepts of ‘community college’ and Further Education and

Training in South Africa

South Africa does not have a ‘community college’ system as such, but this does

not mean that the community college concept has not been explored in this country, or

that the influence of the American and Canadian community college systems cannot be

seen in South African policy and practice. As will be shown, the policy intention behind

the transformation and re-branding of South Africa’s former technical colleges as Further

Education and Training (FET) colleges is to create a new colleges sector which will bear

more than a passing resemblance to the community colleges of North America (and the

Further Education colleges of the United Kingdom) – although, in many cases, South

African colleges have some way to go before the family resemblance becomes strongly

apparent in reality.

A number of South African colleges have had long-standing linkages with

Northern American community colleges and, in the late 1980s and early 1990s,

particularly, a north-south network of community college advocates actively promoted

the community college concept in South Africa, driven locally by the National Institute

for Community Education (NICE) and supported by the Tertiary Education Program

Support (TEPS) project of USAID (NICE, 1995; see also Strydom et al., 1995).

Interestingly, the previous, apartheid government, in its final attempts to shape

education policy in the emerging democratic context of post-1990 South Africa, lent

indirect support to such a concept, in its proposals for the transformation of some

technical colleges into colleges for advanced or further education – the name ‘edukon’

263

was mooted, but thankfully won no public support. Such colleges, significantly, would

have included the academic bridging and transfer functions of American community

colleges. The motivation behind this proposal of the apartheid government’s Education

Renewal Strategy (ERS) was, ostensibly, one of efficiency:

…university and technikon117 studies have become increasingly

expensive…. In view of these high costs it is imperative that only students

who have a realistic chance of completing their studies successfully should

be admitted to these institutions. Less costly preparatory study avenues

which could lead up to tertiary studies are, therefore necessary (DNE,

1991: 59-60).

In the contested environment of a society undergoing a profound political and

social transition, from apartheid to a new, post-apartheid democratic order, it is not

surprising that the ERS proposals were read in some quarters as a coded attempt by the

old regime to limit the access of the disadvantaged black majority, victims of a highly

discriminatory school system, to higher education and, by extension, to maintain the

privileged and elitist status of the universities, in particular.

Regardless of the actual intentions behind the ERS proposals, it was argued that

they failed to address the need for transformation in higher education, and the social and

political imperative for higher education to become fully representative of all South

Africa’s people. Likewise, it was argued at the time by one of the authors of the present

paper, on the basis of the critical American literature, that transfer programs within a

college environment would have only limited impacts on black access to the universities;

conversely, that the most effective way to improve black access and success was within a

transformed and more conducive higher education environment (Fisher, 1993).

If one line of criticism of the ‘community college’ concept centered on the

problematic transfer function of colleges in the peculiar socio-political circumstances of

South Africa, a second focused on the perceived emphasis of the South African

community college discourse on a vaguely defined notion of ‘community education’ (see 117 The technikons were essentially polytechnics in nature. They are now known in South Africa as universities of technology.

264

NICE, 1995), drawing its inspiration in part from the discourse of ‘peoples’ education’

propounded by opponents of the apartheid education system. As one radical critic argued

at the time,

…the theoretical indeterminacy of the concept of ‘the people’ has placed

tremendous obstacles in the way of the realization of a coherent goal for

people’s education. State repression has undoubtedly contributed greatly

to the impasse but the imprecise notions of ‘the people’ and ‘the

community’ have enabled government to attempt to take over the concept

of people’s education and mould it for its own purposes. The chances of

this type of educational reform succeeding seem remote… (Levin, 1991:

129).

If the concept of ‘community education’ could be challenged from a radical

intellectual perspective, so too was it open to criticism from employers and from

organized workers, who were primarily concerned with employment, workforce

development and economic growth. Put simply, it was not clear to policy actors from

both business and labor where in the community education discourse these priorities

featured.118

When, in 1997, the recently elected democratic government appointed a National

Committee on Further Education to advise on the development of education and training

within this intermediate band of the new National Qualifications Framework119, it

appeared to signal in its choice of terms not only a wider focus than the then technical

colleges, but an agnosticism towards the concept of a ‘community college’,

notwithstanding that the chair of the NCFE was also the chief executive of the National

Institute for Community Education. In the event, in addition to considering the

118 One of the authors of this paper, Glen Fisher, was a member from 1997-8 of the National Committee on Further Education, appointed by the Minister of Education, and closely involved in the drafting of the Department’s 1998 Green and White Papers on Further Education and Training.119 Further education and training comprises Levels 2 – 4 on the NQF. General schooling constitutes Level 1; Levels 5 – 8 are higher education. Complicating this determination is the fact that FET colleges offer some programmes at Levels 5 and possibly 6; institutional and qualifications boundaries are not necessarily congruent.

265

‘community college model’ as advocated in its South African variant by NICE, the NCFE

looked more broadly at international models, closely examining, in particular, the system

of Further Education in the United Kingdom, and drawing on the English example, for

instance, in its approach to a funding model for the colleges’ sector.

Ultimately, given these contestations, the term ‘community college’ appeared to

generate more heat than light, and government chose to adopt the term, ‘Further

Education and Training college’ – the inclusion of the word ‘training’ representing an

explicit recognition of the emphasis on training and skills sought by both organized labor

and the private sector.

This brief and necessarily selective account of the term and concept ‘community

college,’ in the context of South Africa’s transition to democracy over the past fifteen

years, serves to remind us that terms and labels have histories, and are not neutral in

content or significance. It highlights, too, the complexities of policy borrowing and

policy influence across different countries and contexts; and it demonstrates how

contestations over language and terminology may also be conflicts over the interests and

demands of competing sectors of society. In this case, it can be argued that the dispute

over the term and concept of the ‘community college’ was, in a fundamental sense, a

dispute over the future institutional mission and purposes of South Africa’s technical

colleges.

Finally, perhaps, this short history of the term ‘community college’ and its

application to colleges in South Africa is a salutary reminder that policy development and

policy implementation are seldom linear and straightforward, particularly in periods of

far-reaching social and political transition, but are subject to ongoing contestation and

reinterpretation. It is this contestation, reinterpretation and ‘re-visioning’ of policy, and of

the ambiguities and challenges of system change, that is the focus of much of the

following discussion.

The development of the technical colleges system in South Africa, 1884 – 1990120

120 A fuller account can be found in Fisher et al., 2003

266

The development of technical and vocational education in South Africa is

integrally related to the development of the modern South African economy,

commencing with the mineral discoveries of the late nineteenth century. The location of

diamonds and gold in the remote hinterland, and at great depths, required the

development of railways for the transport of heavy equipment and supplies, the

development of power supplies and the mobilization of large labor forces. From these

developments in turn rose new urban centers and the growth of commercial farming and

manufacturing.

On the heels of these developments came the establishment of the first

apprenticeships at railway workshops in Natal (1884) and the Cape (circa 1890) and the

introduction of programs in mining engineering in the Cape in 1894. Over the next

twenty years, certain of these technical training institutions evolved into South Africa’s

first universities, in Cape Town, Natal and the Witwatersrand, while others became

technical institutes.

The period between the two World Wars was one of accelerating industrialization,

under the protectionist policies of the PACT government. This period saw a rapid

expansion of technical college enrolments, fuelled in part by the Apprenticeship Act of

1922 which required that apprentices attend formal technical classes. Between 1935 and

1955, full-time technical college enrolments grew from about 4000 to 9000, but part-time

enrolments soared from 16000 to 55000. The great majority of these were whites, while

Indian and colored enrolments grew slowly off a very small base, and Africans remained

largely excluded from technical and vocational education.

During this period, technical colleges enjoyed considerable autonomy and close

linkages with local employers and communities, functioning in effect as “…the peoples’

universities. Their organization was flexible and adaptable, so that they could readily

meet the educational needs of all ages and all levels in almost every conceivable subject.

For the most part it was education provided cafeteria style (Malherbe 1977: 173).

The assumption of political power by the National Party in 1948, and the

introduction of its policies of apartheid and racial exclusion, saw the weakening of the

technical colleges sector, as the new government asserted centralized control over the

colleges, and sought to promote the development of Afrikaans-medium institutions and

267

the establishment of school-based technical and vocational education in the

predominantly Afrikaans-speaking rural areas, beyond the reach of urban institutions.

State funding of technical colleges fell sharply relative to higher education, laying the

basis for the present ‘inverted triangle’ of FET college and higher education enrolments.

Shortages of skilled personnel to meet the rapidly growing needs of commerce

and industry prompted the passage in 1967 of the Advanced Technical Education Act,

transforming a number of the larger urban technical colleges into colleges for advanced

technical education (CATEs – later ‘technikons’). By 1969 there were six such colleges

enrolling over 23000 students.

The late 1970s and the 1980s marked a period of steadily intensifying political

conflict and of declining economic growth; but also a shift within government away from

heavily interventionist economic policies towards a more market-friendly approach. By

the beginning of the 1980s, skills shortages had again become a pressing concern for

government and for the private sector. This time, however, the issue was bound up with

the pressures of increasing black urbanization, and the demand of sections of big business

for greater political and economic liberalization. The racial basis of education and

training, and the concentration of technical and vocational skills within the relatively

small white population, were increasingly contested politically, and challenged on

economic grounds by some large employers.

Technical and vocational education for black people, especially for Africans, had

always been limited: over the quarter century from 1946 to 1970 African enrolments rose

from a mere 2015 to a miserly 3652, while colored enrolments at the end of the 1960s

barely exceeded 2000, and Indian figures stood at some 1300 full time and 4500 part time

enrolments. Now private sector actors, and the state, sought to address this issue, often

however from competing political and economic perspectives.

Technical training institutions for blacks were established in urban townships, in

some cases with significant financial support from the private sector (see Chisholm,

1984; Swainson 1991). By the beginning of the 1990s the technical colleges sector

compromised a total of 123 institutions, including 67 white, three Indian and eight

colored colleges. Technical colleges for Africans included 22 in the then-Republic and a

further 23 in the so-called ‘independent’ homelands for Africans. Still, by 1991 African

268

technical college enrolments equaled only 0.45 per thousand of the African population, as

opposed to 10 per thousand for whites. Put differently, of the 76,435 technical college

students in 1991, after a decade of so-called reform, fully two thirds were white.

The 1980s, in short, saw important efforts by the state as well as by employers

and by a black trade union movement which was growing rapidly in strength and

determination, to address the issues of skills and of technical and vocational training.

State initiatives however were compromised by a narrowly instrumental concept of

‘skill’, as understood by the 1981 Report of the De Lange Commission (HSRC, 1981)

and by the inability of the National Party government to embrace a wider program of

social and political reform.

Furthermore, following the Soweto uprising of 1976, both education and the

workplace were emerging as critical ‘sites of struggle’ against an increasingly embattled

and repressive apartheid regime. Legislative reforms in these and other arenas were

dismissed as irrelevant and illegitimate by significant sections of the population, and

quickly ground to a halt. In the words of the mass democratic movement’s National

Education Policy Investigation (NEPI),121 the 1980s in South Africa marked a period of

‘stalled reform’ (NEPI, 1993a).

Political transition and education policy contestation, 1990 – 1994

The un-banning of the African National Congress (ANC) and other liberation

movements in February 1990 set in train a far-reaching process of change in South

Africa, marked most obviously by the transition to a new, ANC-led democratic

government in 1994, but with long term consequences which are still playing themselves

out in the social, economic and political terrains today.

While national and international attention was largely focused, understandably, on

the transitional and constitutional talks that were taking place between the principal

actors, the period from 1990 to 1994 was also one of considerable ferment and debate

across many areas of public policy, not least the politically symbolic and fiercely

contested arena of education and training.

121 NEPI was the major education and training policy initiative of the anti-apartheid National Education Coordinating Committee (NECC) in the early 1990s.

269

As has been seen, the apartheid government sought to shape education policy in a

period of rapid and unpredictable change, through the release of its Education Renewal

Strategy. At roughly the same time, under the auspices of the National Education

Coordinating Committee, a broad grouping of anti-apartheid organizations, the National

Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) mounted an unprecedented extra-governmental

policy inquiry into almost all aspects of education in post-apartheid South Africa –

although, mindful of the political leadership role of the ANC, other liberation

organizations and the trade unions, NEPI was careful to cast its research and consultation

in terms of the development of ‘options’ for the consideration of a future, democratic

government, and not of policy choice or recommendation.

The private sector, likewise, was closely engaged in the education and training

debate, and, while it did not put forward its views in one, overarching policy statement,

the sum of its statements and interventions lent strong support to the qualitative

improvement of basic education and to improvements in the scale and quality of technical

and vocational education. The Congress of South African Trade Unions, at the same time,

was a powerful advocate of the systematic skill-building of both the existing workforce

and of work-seekers and the unemployed. The international community was also active in

the policy debates that accompanied South Africa’s political transition over this period,

through the development of reports and proposals on primary and higher education

(USAID) and human resources (Commonwealth Expert Group), while a variety of special

interests in education and training sought to mobilize themselves and stake out their

positions in the fluid and evolving policy arena (NEPI, 1993a: 40).

As the NEPI reports noted (NEPI, 1993a: 39 – 47), there was some common

ground amongst these various policy interventions and between the various stakeholders

and policy actors. These included broad agreement on the need for a unified national

education system and policy framework; the need for improvements in the quality of

basic education and in the range and relevance of vocational education and training; the

importance of adult education and training; and improved access to and success within

higher education by the black and particularly the African majority. However, agreement

on broad principles masked significant differences of approach amongst the various

players.

270

Key amongst these were competing interpretations of the meaning and priority to

be accorded to concepts of equity, equality and redress; the centralization or

decentralization of educational control; access to education and the nature of the

curriculum; educational financing and management; the organization of higher education;

and the nature of democratic policy making in a post-apartheid state.

In the arena of vocational education and training, agreement on broad principles

hid significant differences of emphasis amongst the players. The key state and private

sector proposals were outlined in ‘The NTB/HSRC Investigation into a National Training

Strategy for the Republic of South Africa’ (NTB/HSRC: 1991), which proposed the

introduction of a competency-based modular training system, the establishment of

Industry Training Boards, and the creation of a sense of partnership between the main

stakeholders in the training system.

The National Training Strategy proposals, however, while they emerged from an

extensive process of consultation between government and employers, were developed

without the participation of the trade unions, particularly the largest confederation,

COSATU, which had put forward detailed and comprehensive proposals of its own.

COSATU envisaged a national system of vocational education and training financed by

the state and employers, with active union involvement in the management of industry-

based training, and with training linked to a comprehensive qualifications framework

allowing learner mobility both horizontally and vertically, right up the occupational

ladder.

Employers on the other hand favored more flexible and diversified forms of

training, and expressed competing views regarding the role of the state, employers and

workers in the financing and management of training.

There is not space here to explore in more detail the intricacies of the education

and training policy debates of this period;122 for present purposes however what is

important to recognize is the thrust of the education and training policy debate, amongst

what one might term the broad democratic movement, including NEPI, towards the

coordination of education and training, within an integrated system of qualifications and

122For a thorough examination of the competing vocational education and training policy proposals of the former government, the private sector, COSATU and the ANC, see the NEPI Human Resources Development Report (NEPI, 1993b).

271

provision, and its alignment with economic policy and a national growth and

development strategy. Training policy, in particular, notwithstanding the differences of

emphasis and approach noted above, drew on a rich and vibrant process of debate and

engagement between the state, employers and organized labor – while, in contrast, state

policy on education was largely a closed affair, conducted within the state education

apparatus (NEPI, 1993b).

The actual playing out of these debates within the technical colleges sector,

‘declared’ as FET colleges in 1992 in terms of the FET Act, No. 98 of 1998, provides an

interesting illustration of the long and winding road from education and training research

and analysis, to policy development and policy implementation, over the past fifteen

years.

Colleges were and remain the responsibility of the Departments of Education.

While the thrust of policy regarding vocational education and training in the transitional

period of 1990 – 1994 saw a broad convergence of principle between the state, employers

and organized labor regarding systems coordination and the integration of education and

training, it has been argued that the then-government’s Education Renewal Strategy, and

its proposals for the development of technical colleges as ‘edukons,’ were developed

within a relatively closed educational discourse and in isolation from the vocational

education and training debates that were occupying the minds of employers, unions and

other government departments.

As will be seen in the following section, the commitment to coordination and

integration was followed through, albeit in different forms and with different emphases,

in the development of new education and training policies and human resource

development strategies, in the first term of office of the new, post-apartheid government.

Yet, from the vantage point of the present,123 it is one of the ironies of the post-apartheid

period that the ‘separate development’ of the colleges sector, symptomatic of a wider

dichotomy between education and training has, in the actual implementation of policy,

stubbornly persisted, long outliving its apartheid-era origins.

The reins of government, 1994 – 1998

123 February 2006.

272

In the run-up to the historic 1994 democratic election, the ANC had published its

education and training manifesto, popularly known as the ‘Yellow Book’ - building on a

process of research, consultation and policy debate that had commenced two years

earlier, in 1992, with the release of an initial policy statement entitled ‘Ready to Govern’.

The policy proposals in the Yellow Book were formally released by the ANC in 1995 in

the form of a published report entitled ‘A Policy Framework for Education and Training.’

At the heart of the ANC’s proposals was, again, a commitment to the integration

of education and training:

For education and training to make a significant contribution to social and

economic development, they need to be seen as an integrated whole. Until now,

the two have been strictly separated, since education has been seen primarily as an

academic activity and training has been seen primarily as a vocational activity. As

is increasingly recognized here and abroad, this is a false dichotomy which does

not correspond to the structure of knowledge, the needs of the workplace or the

requirements of ordinary life in society (ANC, 1995: 34).

Prior to the election, this emphasis on the integration of education and training

had extended to the planned combination of the Departments of Education and

Manpower into a single new Department. In the new Government of National Unity

established under President Nelson Mandela, however, the separation of Departments

was maintained; and proposals for their unification were quietly dropped from the 1995

ANC Policy Framework.

The new government did move quite rapidly however with a second, key element

of its strategy for the integration of education and training, with the joint sponsorship by

the Departments of Education and Labor of a National Qualifications Framework (NQF)

and the establishment of the South African Qualifications Authority (SAQA).124

124 This warrants a separate, in-depth discussion of its own, insofar as the history of SAQA and the NQF captures in microcosm the contested and apparently stalled attempts to integrate education and training in South Africa over the past decade. A ten-year official review of SAQA, completed in 200?, remains embargoed by the two Departments, apparently over unresolved differences between them.

273

In March 1997 the Department of Labor published its Green Paper entitled ‘Skills

Development Strategy for Economic and Employment Growth in South Africa’,

following this up with a raft of legislation in 1998 that created the basis for the

introduction of a national skills levy, the establishment of an initial twenty-five Sector

Education and Training Authorities (SETAs), and the launch of a new system of

‘learnerships’ and skills programs that were intended to replace the established but

declining system of apprenticeships. The Green Paper called for a ‘skills revolution’ in

South Africa; in his Foreword, the Minister of Labor highlighted the discussions that had

taken place ‘between the social partners in the National Training Board and in Industry

Training Boards’ as well as other consultations, specifically those through the tripartite

consultative body, NEDLAC.125 The only explicit reference to the Department of

Education, however, concerns the joint sponsorship by the two Departments of the SAQA

Act.

Nonetheless, in keeping with the thrust of ANC education and training policy, the

Green Paper stressed the need for integration and coordination, as well as for partnerships

between government, business, labor and communities. The substantive discussion in the

Green Paper, however, focused almost exclusively on skills development, within the

context of employment, and portrayed the Department of Labor’s Skills Development

Strategy as ‘complementary’ to the formal education system, with little discussion of

what that ought to entail in practice.126

In a short passage in the Green Paper, (DoL, 1998: 77 – 78) however, one

practical link with the Department of Education’s Further Education and Training

strategy is suggested, in the form of a reference to the role of the then-technical colleges

in education and training and skills development. In a section entitled ‘Linking

Learnerships and the Technical Colleges’ the Green Paper suggests that the ‘technical

college sector represents a critical supplier of the country’s mid-to-high level technical 125 Explain NEDLAC126 Some hint of the sensitivity between government departments is apparent in a definitional note immediately following the Minister of Labour’s Foreword to the Green Paper. It explains: ‘Earlier drafts of this document were referred to as “An Integrated Human Resources Development Strategy”. However, since the term human resources development embraces the work of many other government departments and social actors – most importantly the work of the Departments of Education, Health and Welfare, the term “skills development” has been used to capture the specific perspective that the Department of Labour brings to the project of people development’ (Department of Labour, 1997).

274

skills’. Observing, however, that graduates from the colleges were often unable to find

employment within industry, the Department of Labor Paper suggested that the delivery

of learnerships by colleges, and the introduction of a revised funding mechanism which

incorporated some form of ‘conditional link to industry’ could help to remedy an

unsatisfactory situation.

Suggesting that colleges ‘are the obvious institutions’ to respond to the need for

‘improved institutional technical education and training,’ the Green Paper went on to

suggest that a portion of the Department of Education budget for colleges might be used

as part of government’s support for the ‘structured learning’ component of learnerships.

This link between the learnerships and colleges, however, would depend ‘on the technical

colleges improving the quality and relevance their outcomes in relation to industry.’ The

way to achieve this, the Green Paper proposed, was to earmark part of the technical

college budget for learnerships, and to release this funding only once the college had

entered into a SETA127-registered learnership contract with an employer and learner.

At the same time as the Department of Labor was busy with its Skills

Development Strategy, the Department of Education was initiating a National Committee

on Further Education (NCFE) – the term ‘training’ being absent from its title, though not

necessarily its brief.

The 1995 ANC Policy Framework had in fact proposed the early establishment of

two National Commissions, on Higher and Further Education; in the case of further

education, it was argued:

The main issues of contention concern the institutional form of post-

compulsory schooling, the relationship between Adult Basic Education

and Further Education, and the nature of the existing technical colleges,

the roles assigned to regional training centers, company training centers

and private training centers, and finally, the function of any future

community college sector128 (ANC, 1995: 126).

127 The Green Paper refers to SETOs – Sector Education and Training Organisations. The term SETA (Sector Education and Training Authority) was finally adopted, however, and is used here for purposes of clarity and consistency.128 Emphasis added.

275

In the case of further education, the Department of Education opted in September

1996 for the establishment of a National Committee on Further Education (NCFE) – a

Ministerial committee enjoying a lesser status than a Presidentially-appointed

Commission – and charged with reporting within a much shorter timeframe. In the event,

the timeframe was extended, and a final report was presented to the Minister in August

1997. Just over a year later, in September 1998, the Minister’s White Paper 4, ‘A

Programme for the Transformation of Further Education and Training’ (Ministry of

Education, 1998)129 was released, a month after the Department of Labor’s Green Paper.

In his Foreword, the Minister of Education set out a cooperative and integrated

vision of human resources development:

This White Paper, and the White Paper on Higher Education, are the

companion strategies of the Skills Development Strategy of the Ministry

of Labour, all three of which are central features of our national Human

Resource Development Strategy. Accordingly, this White Paper provides

for close collaboration with the Ministry of Labour in sharing labor market

information, providing career guidance through market training needs

(sic), building links between training and job placement, and sharing

information on tracer studies of graduates.’

Education White Paper 4 referred explicitly to the need for close cooperation

between the Departments of Education and Labor, arguing, inter alia, that

The Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Labour have a joint

responsibility for providing education and training pathways for young

people and adult workers, and for developing more effective linkages

between training and work. The introduction of learnerships in FET

institutions is an important development. For this purpose, FET

institutions will be advised on how to access programme funding through

129 A Green Paper, a public discussion document, was released in April 1998. One of the authors of the present paper, Glen Fisher, was a member of the NCFE and of the task teams responsible for the drafting of the Green and White Papers.

276

the Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) and the National

Skills Fund.

…In the market for education and skills, the Ministry of Labour operates

mainly on the demand side, while the Ministry of Education operates

mainly on the supply side. The Skills Development Strategy of the

Ministry of Labour provides a framework for determining the training

needs in the labor market…. The FET policy framework provides, in the

main, a strategy for suppliers of education and training to respond to the

labor market needs as identified by private and public employers.

…The Skills Development Strategy of the Ministry of Labour and the new

FET framework are complementary. To this end, the two Ministries must

work in close collaboration….(Ministry of Education, 1998: 16-17).

The observant reader will notice some critical differences in the approaches of the

two Departments to the question of the role of colleges in the delivery of learnerships.

Most obviously perhaps, the Department of Labor looked to the education budget to

supplement the funding of the skills strategy; while the Department of Education hoped

to identify mechanisms for colleges to access additional funding through the Department

of Labor’s skills levy. Perhaps as important if unstated a difference lay in the

unambiguous focus of the Department of Labor on ensuring that colleges improved the

relevance and quality of their programs in relation to the requirements of industry.

Along with its concern with coordination and cooperation between Education and

Labor, and its acceptance of learnerships as one of the key avenues for ensuring the

responsiveness of further education and training to the needs of the economy, Education

White Paper 4 also placed much emphasis on the need for partnerships:

We will build new partnerships with the social partners, communities,

NGOs and others, to promote the development of new, more responsive

program(s) and curricula, build capacity and mobilize resources and

277

expertise for the development of the new FET system. In particular, we

will deepen the relationship between FET and the Skills Development

Program of the Department of Labor (DoE, 1998: 37).

The Ministry would allocate earmarked funding for the development of

college-industry linkages and partnerships, with the aim of developing

new programs and curricula and to modernize existing programs, to meet

the needs of the labor market. Such initiatives would aim particularly to

promote linkages with industry that combined theory and practice and

offered learners practical and on-the-job training (DoE, 1998: 38).

Further,

A high-priority initiative, in collaboration with the provincial education

departments, the Department of Labour and the new National Skills

Authority and Sectoral (sic) Education and Training Authorities, will be

promoted, to fast-track a systematic preparation for the introduction of

learnerships in FET colleges and other programme(s) envisaged by the

Skills Development Act (DoE, 1998: 40).

Policy Implementation, 1999 – 2004

Notwithstanding the positive messages about collaboration in the implementation

of policy, the goal of closer coordination and integration has remained elusive, while the

national Human Resource Development strategy has effectively lapsed. Although SETAs

were rolling out 5 year plans meant to be supporting the implementation of the National

Skills Development Strategy of the Department of Labor, the equal buy-in of employers,

organized labor and government was absent. The Department of Education also did not

participate in the development of these 5 year plans.

As for the introduction of learnerships in colleges, early on a number of

collaborative pilot schemes were initiated, with some success, while some colleges took

the initiative and introduced learnerships more or less independently and usually funded

through the SETAs or other forms of funding. Because the legislative framework did not

278

provide for colleges to offer these learnerships using funding from the Department of

Education in fear of being accused of ‘double-dipping’ into state funds, colleges then

established separate section 21 (not-for-profit) companies in order to create the legal

framework for the delivery of more responsive programs such as learnerships. Clear

guidelines from the Department of Education were never issued, and in some cases

provincial education departments actively discouraged the offering of programs outside

of the official Department of Education curriculum, in spite of the specific reference to

‘fast-track’ the introduction of learnerships in FET colleges. (DoE, 1998:40)

Without clear official direction, the provision of so-called non-formal (non-DoE)

programs, or learnerships and skills programs other than those approved and funded by

the Department of Education, expanded unevenly and off a low base but more rapidly

than the overall growth. Unweighted FTEs for non-DoE programs in 1998 is 8 169 out of

a total of 122 742 to 19995 out of 143 913 in 2002. Reform and modernization of the

dated official curriculum was placed on hold, and, as will be seen in the next section,

other key elements of Education White Paper 4 were also delayed, while the Department

of Education focused its attention on the reorganization of the institutional landscape of

colleges.130

One unintended consequence of this situation was that in many colleges a

growing institutional divide emerged between those programs and teaching departments

which offered the by now outdated national curriculum of the Minister of Education,

primarily to full-time young learners, and those which engaged directly with industry and

some Sectoral Education and Training Authorities (SETA’s) in the provision of training

for workers and employees.

As was noted above, vocational education and training in the technical colleges at

the beginning of the 1990s remained heavily skewed towards whites, while the technical

colleges sector itself was relatively small and fragmented, with some 76,000 students

enrolled across 123 racially divided institutions. Alongside this provision was a system of

employer-provided training, much of it informal and uncertified, and constrained by the

weak state of the economy. Training for the unemployed was provided by Department of

130 See Fisher, Jaff and Scott (2003?) for an analysis of the uneven process of FET policy reform from 1999 onwards.

279

Manpower training centers – the quality and effectiveness of which was variable and

uncertain, however (NEPI, 1993a, 1993b).

Again the colleges system as a very important tier of the SA education and

training system needed dedicated focus, leadership and resources. The private sector

realized the significance of this sector and through the National Business Initiative (NBI)

brought collective action to this arena from as early as 1997 by participating actively in

the development of policy for the sector. To support the successful implementation of this

policy, business through the Business Trust, invested R85 million for 5 years (1999 –

2004) in the sector by establishing the Colleges Collaboration Fund (CCF), managed by

the NBI.

The CCF program was implemented through a service level agreement with the

Department of Education (DoE), supporting the DoE in its re-landscaping of the sector

from 150 small and medium-sized technical colleges to 50 large multi-campus FET

colleges. The CCF produced 3 sets of comprehensive data based on situational analyses

of the FET sector. These informed the first period of policy implementation. It also

provided extensive capacity building in the sector: to the management of these

institutions, to the provincial departments who had executive authority over these

colleges, to emerging middle managers of mainly historically disadvantaged background

through an exchange program with UK colleges, supported by the British Council. A

significant contribution to the sector came in the form of support to the newly merged

institutions addressing change management and also strategic planning for every

institution at the end of 2003.

However, in spite of the availability of significant financial resource and the

support of expertise, the implementation of policy was very slow. It could be argued that

the political will to transform these institutions as critical to the skills development

challenges in South Africa was not evident. In the first 5 years many significant areas of

policy implementation had not been addressed and little show of plans for future

implementation could be seen.

In their analysis of the policy framework for Further Education and Training in

South Africa, Fisher and Jaff refers to the perspective of Ashton and Green (1999) who

argue that a policy framework for education and training which aims at improving the

280

national skills base and at placing a country on the path to a high-skill, high-wage

economy requires an effective integration of education and training policies with national

trade and investment and labor market policies, a robust institutional framework and

strong political and social consensus, especially between government and business elites.

They use this wider sense of a ‘system’ for skill formation, linked to policies for

economic growth and development to inform their discussion of the policy framework for

Further Education and Training in South Africa, and the implementation thereof. They

argue that in 5 years of FET college policy implementation much of it was focused on the

transformation of the institutional landscape of the colleges sector and on college

capacity building, resulting in uneven developments in the sector.

Based on the evidence gathered, they point to the fact that the question of delivery

by FET colleges cannot only be answered at the level of the college itself, but must also

be answered in terms of the immediate policy and institutional contexts, especially the

development of new programs and qualifications, the implementation of new funding and

quality assurance regimes, and in terms of the integration and linkages between FET

policy, other education and skills policies and their institutional arrangements, and the

articulation of these with current skills requirements as well as with the intended

economic development and skills paths that are aimed at.

The key features of the new Further Education and Training System towards a

‘progressive approach to system change’ as the White paper 4 sought to map out, are

about creating a new governance framework, changing learning and teaching through the

National Qualifications Framework (NQF) by looking at qualifications, programs and

curriculum, developing a new funding system as a lever for system change and promoting

and assuring quality.

White Paper 4 proposed a new FET framework which would be founded on the

principle of cooperative governance, with a ‘strong steering, coordinating and

developmental role’ for government, substantial authority for colleges, and partnerships

between government, organized business and labor, and communities (Department of

Education 1998b: 19). A National Board for FET (NBFET) was to be established as a

‘major statutory body’ to advise the Minister, and provincial advisory bodies were also to

be set up.

281

Cooperative governance during this period is reflected primarily in the various

committees and sub-committees of the Heads of Education Department Committee

(HEDCOM) concerned with FET, as well as in three ad hoc but important exercises that

played a significant part in shaping the new FET colleges sector over the past four years.

The first was the National Landscape Task Team (NLTT), appointed by the

Minister of Education to advise on the restructuring of the colleges landscape. Its Report

(Department of Education 2001) laid the basis for the merger as mentioned before.

Flowing from this, the appointment of College Councils and principals in terms of the

FET Act could proceed.

The Department of Education then established a Merger Operations Task Team

(MOTT) to oversee and support the process of mergers, the declaration of colleges as

FET institutions, and the appointment of Councils and principals. A smaller task team of

national and provincial representatives, with the Colleges Collaboration Fund support,

was responsible for the drafting of an initial proposal and financial estimates for the

development of a new FET funding regime in 2003. With the merger and declaration of

colleges and the appointment of new governance and management structures, the

devolution of greater authority to colleges could follow, as envisaged in White Paper 4

and in the FET Act.

These cooperative governance structures and key initiatives demonstrated that the

will in the Department to play a ‘strong steering, coordinating and developmental role’

certainly existed, and visible results could be produced.

Partnerships formed a further element in the new governance arrangements.

‘There is little doubt that the partnership with business through the Business Trust and

through the close working relationship between the Department and the CCF has

provided critical technical and financial support to the change strategy of the Department,

and is a tangible expression of the commitment to partnerships in the White Paper’

(Fisher and Jaff 2003). Partnerships between colleges and business, government

departments and communities were also growing. However, it was clear that more could

be done by the national and provincial department in collaboration where necessary, with

the Department of Labor and other government departments, to encourage the

development of mutually beneficial partnerships and to create an appropriate enabling

282

environment, especially with respect to such factors as governance, programs, staffing,

infrastructure and funding.131

As mentioned, the other element in the new governance framework is the

National Board for FET and the related provincial structures. The NBFET was

established, not as a statutory body, but by Ministerial appointment in terms of the

National Education Policy Act (No. 27 of 1996). “The perception is common amongst

observers that the Board lacks status and recognition and has not played a particularly

effective role and that its profile and influence with key stakeholders, including the

Department of Education itself as well as organized business and labor, has been limited.

Provincial advisory boards, where they have been established, would seem to be faced

with the same difficulties.” (Fisher and Jaff)

The key consequence, from the perspective of the new governance framework, is

that FET lacks a credible, high-level and knowledgeable advisory forum capable of

forging consensus amongst key stakeholders on the development of the FET system and

of providing robust and independent advice to the Minister. Moreover, the NBFET in

some respects parallels the National Skills Authority established by the Department of

Labor, but there would appear to be little structured or systematic communication or

cooperation between the two bodies. Following Ashton and Green (1999), the lack of an

effective national forum for forging consensus and shaping the national agenda is a

critical weakness in the development of the national system for skill formation.

The second pillar of the FET policy framework was about programs and

qualifications. Department of Education programs currently offered by colleges in terms

of Nated 190 and Nated 191 are widely criticized as out of date and as failing to provide

the educational and generic underpinnings required, not only by the wider social and

individual aims of FET policy but by the modern workplace.132 The modernization of

these programs commenced during this period was put on hold until the landscaping was

131 The National Business Initiative, with the endorsement of the Department of Education and the Department of Labour, is currently seeking the support of business leaders and leading companies for the establishment of strategic partnerships between the colleges and key industry sectors.132 The Green Paper on the Skills Development Strategy provides a broad definition of skill which complements that of Education White Paper 4.

283

in place. Along with the lack of cooperation between the Departments of Labor and

Education, clear guidelines on the implementation of learnerships, and the development

and motivation of college educators, this area of implementation did not receive the

attention that it should have.

In order to implement quality assurance – the third key factor as envisaged in

White Paper 4 - an enabling environment and with the role and interrelationships between

the different structures needed to be created, clarified and communicated. Work in this

area commenced at a time when the entire quality assurance and accreditation

architecture was under review by the two sponsoring government departments

(Department of Education and Labour, 2003) and was contested by stakeholders.

The notion of a funding system as the fourth pillar for system change extended

well beyond a new funding formula; it included the development of reliable management

information systems, the building of planning and managerial capacity in the national and

provincial education departments, and the building of college systems and capacity

accompanied by the phased delegation of budgets to colleges.

Some progress was made. Proposals for significant new public investments in

colleges, and the outlines of a new programs based funding regime including funding

envelopes for capital investment, staff development, student financial aid and innovation

were under consideration in the Department of Education.

Work on a new FET Management Information System (FETMIS) was ongoing

but not ready for underpinning the new funding and planning mechanisms. The planning

and managerial systems and capacity in the education departments to implement the new

funding regime are still to be developed. These constraints and time-lags indicated that it

was likely to take some time before a new planning and funding cycle could be

implemented and before the new funding would begin to flow to the colleges system and

to impact significantly on its quality and performance.

Reflecting on the systemic nature of policy implementation in the FET sector over

the first 5 years and asking whether the changes that had taken place amount to real and

sustainable system change, Fisher and Jaff (2003) conclude ‘that, at one level, the

evidence has shown that implementation of FET policy over the past five years cannot be

regarded, at the present moment, as amounting to system change, although in some

284

important respects it has begun to lay the foundations for this. At the same time, key

elements of the policy framework have yet to be addressed, and the mechanisms for

funding, planning and steering FET colleges as a system are not in place.’

Significant time and effort had been invested by the Department of Education and

the colleges, and through the CCF, by the private sector. The most significant of this was

visible in the new institutional landscape of FET colleges. However, it was clear that

from a wider perspective the limitations to the steering, coordinating and developmental

role of the Department were not in the capacity or will to mobilize around policy

objectives, but in the failure or inability to ‘develop a sustainable capacity to guide and

monitor the overall development of the FET system on an ongoing basis’ (Fisher and

Jaff).

In the history of TVET in South Africa business has always had a significant

interest. Again the case for business to continue bringing collective action to contribute to

the effective transformation of at least the FET colleges sector was evident. If business

wanted to see its investment and involvement of nearly 9 years and of over R85 million

in the CCF as well as the intended R1,9 billion investment to be made by government to

bear fruit to the economy and society in general, it needed to participate actively in

creating systemic change for sustainable impact. This should become visible in achieving

the intended outcome of a modern and responsive FET colleges sector. In support of the

White paper 4, partnerships seemed to be the most appropriate vehicle towards the key

rebirth for responsiveness.

During 2004 some companies rose to the challenge by committing to the concept

and framework of a high-level strategic and developmental partnership between business

(supported by the NBI) and the new Further Education and Training (FET) Colleges

sector was accepted. The partnership would assist business leadership, on both an

industry-sector and regional/provincial basis, to play the pivotal role in capacitating and

shaping the development of a new sector of leading-edge education and training

institutions that will meet the intermediate and higher skills needs of the economy and of

society.

285

Leadership is essential if colleges are to be assisted to play a larger and more

strategic national role in skills development and uplifting communities, if government is

to be supported at the highest levels in its efforts to build the sector, and if employers are

to share collectively both in the benefits of a new system and in making the investments

of time and resources that will be necessary. The CIP initiative seeks to promote practical

working relationships between colleges and companies that will build the capacity of

colleges to respond to industry, and national and provincial further education and training

demands, and continuous engagement of business leadership with the FET colleges sector

in addressing the skills challenges of SA.

As stated above, a real breakdown of relationships between the government and

its colleges on the supply side, and the parties such as business and communities on the

demand side occurred during the 1980s. The parties lost the ability to work together on

finding solutions to the mid-to-higher level education and training needs and actually

testing and learning from real joint practice.

During 2004 and 2005 the President of South Africa, Mr. Thabo Mbeki, in his

State of the Nation address referred to the importance of the FET colleges in the skills

development challenges of SA. A new Minister of Education was appointed and a serious

reshuffle of top senior positions in the Department of Education occurred. It was clear

that new political focus was to be given to this sector. At the beginning of 2005 the

President and Minister of Education announced a R1,5 billion (which later became R1,9

billion) new investment by government over a 3-year period into the recapitalization of

the FET colleges sector. An initial R50 million was granted to the Department of

Education by the Department of Finance to prepare for the roll-out of this investment

from 2006 onwards. It is envisaged that this will kick-start the FET colleges on the road

towards responsiveness, supporting the government in its economic growth and

development strategy which will see big investment in infrastructure and other areas, and

also business in terms of relevance to its ever changing and growing skills needs. The

recapitalization will focus mainly on supporting colleges in the development of their

human resources, programs and curriculum, infrastructure and equipment, administration

systems and site or building upgrading and acquisition.

286

2005 onwards

As illustrated in the first part of this document, the role of FET colleges in

fostering skills development has been embedded in the social and cultural development in

South Africa, and also related to the economic growth and development path of the

country that they seek to underpin in their role as public education and training providers.

Mayer and Altman contextualizes the debate about the most appropriate skills

development for South Africa by locating it within the economic development trajectory

of both the apartheid (pre 1994) and democratic (post 1994) periods. They argue that ‘the

economy’s inability to absorb unskilled and semi-skilled labor, particularly in the

democratic period has created an unemployment crisis,’ and that the resolution of this

crisis will be a policy imperative for the next decade. They believe it is therefore

important that policies to foster skills development are aligned to this imperative. It is

here that the role of FET colleges, at least in the education and training focus of skills

development, becomes even more critical than before. They are after all public

institutions that have a major role to play in providing intermediate to higher skills

development, as recognized by both the Departments of Education and Labor.

There are sound public policy reasons for investing in Technical and Vocational

Education and Training (TVET) in South Africa that will speak to developing both the

wider unskilled and semi-skilled workforce but also responds directly and effectively to

the specific needs of the economy. Private providers also form an important part in the

delivery of TVET in South Africa. However, a strictly market-led approach in a country

like South Africa with its history of limiting access to TVET for the majority of the

population and also experiencing the pressures of having entered the global market poses

dangers to this country. It is also true that if the public policy system and the public

providers are not able to respond to the immediate and wider needs of the economy, it

will result in more and more private education and training. It can be argued therefore

that if the tension between public policy and economic arguments cannot be resolved and

a balance sustained, it will result in public policy failure. This could lead to a public

parking lot for learners not ready for the labor market.

The point of departure for policy implementation should have been with the

White Paper 4 on Further Education and Training. It provided a comprehensive policy

287

framework identifying key leaders for systems change that should have ensured the

effective integration of education and training where the supply side speaks to the

demand side of the labor market and economic growth. In the single-mindedness of the

focus of the DoE to utilize the Colleges Collaboration Fund to focus mainly on creating a

new landscape of the FET colleges sector in the first 5 years, many other significant

policy implementation areas such as curriculum reform and developing a funding strategy

to drive the systems change, were placed on hold. This meant that little or no expression

of those areas could happen and FET colleges were left to devise their own institutional

arrangements to address delivery in a policy implementation vacuum. College Councils

and Chief Executive Officers were tasked with areas of governance which again had to

happen without any policy implementation framework. The other significant consequence

was that in the focus on the restructuring of the new landscape, the paralysis that had

become evident between the two departments (DoE and DoL) deepened which did not

speak to the integration of education and training as intended, and a strong education

supply side focus remained and grew in the DoE.

However, over the past year the policy impetus has in many ways gone back to

the key leaders of the White Paper. This is happening under the leadership of the Minister

of Education and also because of the real pressure from the demand side in terms of

wanting the Department of Education and its providers to prove that they can deliver on

being responsive to the economic growth of the country.

The government’s recapitalization of FET colleges strategy to the tune of R1,9

billion over the next 3 years (2006 – 2008) is an important show of commitment to put

action to policy implementation. Modernizing the national DoE curriculum, a process

started in 2005 as part of the recapitalization strategy, through a systematic review and

development process is a significant and necessary move. The impetus is correct in

responding to the critical skills shortage in SA at the artisan and technical level, and

developing programs and curriculum that would speak to the wider apprenticeships

developing artisans for the 21st century.

However, all of this must be set within the context of the continuous changes

faced by employers in response to technological innovations, global competitiveness,

productivity issues and structural changes within different sectors of the economy. The

288

organization of work and the development and honing of skills against the economic

realities of continuous changes demands a dynamic approach to the review of education

and training programs. The process and approach to review and update college programs

must also accept that this must be continuous and dynamic. Shaping the learning

pathways for the 21st century artisan from an educational rather than an integrated supply

and demand side perspective is dangerous. Not including government and business as

employers in the design of these pathways can lead to further ‘unemployable’ potential

entrants to the labor market. It does not provide sufficient engagement that could draw on

the vibrant policy debate and implementation that the state, employers and organized

labor have been participating in. The development of these programs is one key to the

continuing transformation of FET colleges. Their relevance depends on the provision of

programs that meet the needs of learners, the labor market that will employ these

learners, and the communities they serve within the wider economic demands. If this is

not the focus, it could lead to a pool of ‘qualified’ learners that will still not be recruited

into the labor market.

As a result of the initial partnerships established in the Mining and Steel sectors,

as well as exploring a potential partnership in the Construction Industry, another

significant step towards the achievement of a modern and responsive FET colleges sector

came in the form of an understanding reached between the Minister of Education and a

number of prominent business leaders at the end of 2005. A concept proposal for a joint

business-government initiative for College Excellence and Priority Skills Acquisition

(CEPSA) was developed. The initiative will mobilize business leadership and company

support to develop centers of technical and vocational excellence, within the framework

of government’s recapitalization of the FET colleges sector. CEPSA will also make a

contribution to the delivery of the Joint Initiative for Priority Skills Acquisition (JIPSA)

launched on 27 March and led by the Deputy President of South Africa in support of the

government’s Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa (ASGISA).

In the words of the Minister of Education on 7 November 2005, a responsive FET

Colleges system for South Africa should ‘be ready to equip youth and adults to meet the

economic and social needs of the 21st century, provide relevant further education and

training that speak to the needs of industry and communities, focus on the job creation

289

and skills agenda that are key to SA’s future success, support a massive and rapid growth

in intermediate skills’. This then speaks to further education for school leavers and adults,

community and socio-economic development, technical, vocational and career skills

development.

The relationship between business and society in South Africa is also relevant

here. Business sees itself as part of society, not separate from it. It seeks to operate in a

society which is stable and prosperous. Business therefore sees the need for shared

growth and social inclusion. It recognizes that employees are also citizens, parents and

human beings with talents and abilities that should be developed; sincere recognition of

its role as a responsible corporate citizen is growing and being acted upon.

Business naturally has a particularly direct interest in vocational technical career

education. It also wants colleges to play a role in further education and community

development and sees colleges providing the underpinning knowledge and structured

learning in skills development. It is also true that by definition successful vocational end

technical education requires the engagement of business.

If the above rings true, then the basis for a meaningful relationship between

business and the FET colleges sector must give recognition to business as part of society

and as such to have legitimate interests and a legitimate role. Because business

understands that it is not the whole of society, the engagement therefore needs to focus

most directly on those aspects in education and training where business has a contribution

to make. Business also has a broader interest in education and training in so far as it

contributes to a sustainable and economically successful society.

For such a relationship to grow and be sustained, that if education and skills are to

prepare for people for life, then they must prepare them for work as part of that life.

Preparing for work means preparing for a changing workplace but also preparing them

for quite specific roles, tasks and responsibilities. In making the judgement about these

different roles of education and training, business must be an integral and pro-active part

of the discussion. Conversely these debates cannot be generated within a education and

training establishment such as the Department of Education and then be presented to

business for comment or participation at a later stage. The comment will probably follow

290

but whether employers will recruit from the pool of FET college graduates based on such

a cosmetic form of engaging, is doubtful.

Early learnings that have come from the current colleges-industry partnerships

indicate that there is real value to be found in a partnership between companies and FET

colleges. It is important that parties to the partnership need to be prepared to learn and

move beyond entrenched stereotypes. A very significant lesson teaches that the space for

critical dialogue and exchange of perspectives between parties has to be consciously

constructed and directed, recognizing the complexity of the issues at hand, the roles,

responsibilities and interests of the parties, fitness for purpose as a guiding principle for

the design and delivery of FET college programs. Systemic, sustainable change has to be

framed within its context.

In conclusion, through a real engagement between government, business and

other partners, it is believed that responsive FET colleges delivering to the real needs in

South Africa can be created. The colleges will recognize the interdependence of

education and training, and work. They are based on a broad understanding of

relationships between education and training, and work and require specific knowledge of

particular aspects of work requirements and of education and skills development. They

depend upon a systematic and open engagement aimed at producing learning programs

and qualifications which are fit for purpose - relevant to the learner, educationally

responsible and responsive to the economy. They are comfortable with institutional

arrangements that are open and responsive.

Conclusion

Under apartheid, education had been a key instrument of subjugation against an

oppressed majority; and a key site of mass resistance against the apartheid regime. With

the election of a new, democratic government in 1994, it was to be expected that

education policy reform should become a national priority. At the same time, the

boundaries of education policy reform and system change were established by the terms

of South Africa’s political settlement.

291

It has been argued by one influential critic in South Africa that a consequence of

this was a government emphasis on ‘symbolic’ rather than substantive reform (Jansen, ).

(Kraak argues for partial reform…Certainly, one of the themes of the immediate post-

apartheid period was the rapid development of education policy, accompanied by

significant lags and delays in policy implementation. A further consequence of this

period of major social and political transition in South Africa was the often piecemeal,

haphazard and contradictory implementation of policy, coupled with the stubborn if often

unrecognized persistence of education discourses from the struggle era – and from the

apartheid education bureaucracy.133

As the political pressures become stronger, it is believed that the real driver for

education and training reform is going to come from the need for accelerated and shared

economic growth in South Africa. Government has shown great commitment in its

willingness to pay more, but it is still not clear that FET colleges under the DoE will

produce what is needed by the economic growth. It is expected that due to the political

and economic pressures a real shake-out will lead to the promotion of those institutions

that are willing and able to deliver on the economic imperatives, also speaking to the

unemployment and poverty challenges of the country. This will include a pool of public,

private and also corporate providers of education and training – a competitive

environment which FET colleges have become parts of and where the demand will

dictate. It is here that the development of sustainable relationships with employers and

co-operative agreements with private and corporate providers may provide the vehicle for

real engagement towards relevance and responsiveness in the next decade of democracy

in South Africa.

133 A classic example of the latter is the persistence of the language of ‘general, pre-vocational and vocational’ education and training over a fifteen year period, from the apartheid government’s Education Renewal Strategy of 1991, through to the latest (2005) programme and curriculum policy statements of the Department of Education. This language, and the conceptual and policy distinctions that it seeks to make, have persisted alongside – and remained unaffected by – major developments in government’s training strategy, including the development under the Department of Labour and Sector Education and Training Authorities (SETAs) of a new framework of skills programmes and ‘learnerships’, tied to a notionally over-arching National Qualifications Framework (NQF).

292

References

Chisholm, 1984

Department of National Education (DNE) 1991 Education Renewal Strategy: Discussion

Document. Pretoria

Fisher, Glen 1993 Access to post-secondary education in South Africa: taking the community

college route. National Education Policy Investigation Working Paper.

Fisher, Glen, Ros Jaff, Lesley Powell and Graham Hall 2003 Public Further Education and

Training Colleges, in Human Resources Development Review 2003, Cape Town, Human

Sciences Research Council, 326 - 351

Groener, Zelda 1998 Political roots of the debate about the integration of education and training.

In Morrow, Wally and Kenneth King (eds), Vision and Reality: Changing Education and

Training in South Africa. Cape Town, University of Cape Town Press, 86-95

Jansen, Jonathan

King, Kenneth 1998 Policy coherence in education, training and enterprise development in

South Africa: the implementation challenge of new policies. In Morrow, Wally and

Kenneth King (eds), Vision and Reality: Changing Education and Training in South

Africa. Cape Town, University of Cape Town Press, 4-19 Kraak

Levin, Richard 1991 People’s education and the struggle for democracy in South Africa, in

Unterhalter et al (eds) Apartheid Education and Popular Struggles. Ravan, Johannesburg,

117-130

Levy, Norman 1991 Matching education with employment: targeting the black labor force. In

Unterhalter, Elaine, Harold Wolpe, Thozamile Botha, Saleem Badat, Thulisile Dlamini,

Benito Khotseng (eds), Apartheid Education and Popular Struggles. Ravan,

Johannesburg, 19-34

Malherbe, E.G. 1977 Education in South Africa Volume II: 1923 – 1975. Juta, Cape Town

Ministry of Education 1998 A Programme for the Transformation of Further Education and

Training. Government Gazette No. 19281, 25 September. Pretoria

National Education Policy Investigation (NEPI) 1993a Education planning, systems and

structure. Oxford University Press/NECC, Cape Town - Human Resources Development

Post-secondary education

293

National Institute for Community Education (NICE) 1995 Community Education in South

Africa: Conference Report. Creative Associates International

Strydom, A.H., E.M. Bitzer and L.O.K. Lategan 1995 Community Colleges for South Africa.

Bloemfontein, University of the Orange Free State

Swainson, Nicola 1991 Corporate intervention in education and training, 1960-89. In

Unterhalter et al, Apartheid Education and Popular Struggles. Ravan, Johannesburg, 95-

115

294

Survey of the Community College & Vocational System

in Spain

Sandra de Bresser

David Roldán Martínez

María Esther del Moral-Pérez

Background information

Spain is located in the South-West of Europe and includes most of the Iberic Peninsula,

the Balear Islands in the Mediterranean, the Canary Islands (of the African Coast) and

Ceuta as well as Melilla, cities in the northern part of Africa.

During the last years of the 1970’s, Spain suffered a major political, social and

economical change caused by the transition of a dictatorial regime into a democratic one.

In the Spanish Constitution, issued by Spanish Parliament in 1978134, the Spanish State

was constituted as a parliamentary monarchy.

As Article 137 of the Constitution states, from a territorial point of view Spain is

organized into municipalities, provinces (50) and autonomous communities (17 plus the

autonomous cities of Ceuta and Melilla). The number of inhabitants in Spain in 2004 was

42,935,001. The mainland accounts for 85% of the total land area, 505,990 km2.

The autonomous communities and map of Spain are shown in Figure 1.

134 This Constitution is still in force.

295

Figure 1. The administrative structure of the Spanish State

(Source: http://www2.trainingvillage.gr).

As all these entities have full legal entity, there are three administrative levels: the local,

the autonomous (communities and cities) and the central administration. In fact, article

149 lays the foundations for a process of decentralization of authority that is still in

progress. In the context of this survey, the decentralization process can be divided into

three major ways changes:

1.) Decentralization in the area of education

Spain is witnessing a gradual process of decentralization of power coming from a

central government in favor of more autonomous communities and regional

governments in educational matters. Until this process is finalized, it will be

necessary to make a distinction between autonomous communities having full

authority in education and those that remain under central government control (to

be concrete, under the Ministerio de Educación y Cultura, MEC).

2.) Decentralization of the vocational training system

296

The vocational training system is affected by this trend of decentralization as

well. Law 19 of 9 June 1997 established the creation of the General Council for

Vocational Training (the Consejo General de Formación Profesional) and gave

the autonomous communities full control of the new national vocational training

plan, together with the central government and social partners. The main objective

of the Council is to create a national system of vocational qualifications, although

some autonomous communities have created their own vocational training

councils.

3.) Decentralization in matters of occupational training.

Occupational training refers to the training of unemployed people and it is being

decentralized as well. In this case, the social partners and other bodies of the

public and private sectors are also involved in the training.

The Spanish education system

Until the 4th of October 1990, when LOGSE (Ley de Ordenación General del Sistema

Educativo) became a reality, the Spanish education system was under regulations as

dictated by the 1970 laws. The reform introduced by LOGSE involved changes in the

whole education system and, thus, was being introduced gradually and completed by the

2002/03 Academic Year. This new system is well adapted to the social, technological,

economic, political and cultural changes that took place in Spain during the two last

decades of the twentieth century. These changes rendered the previous education system

to become obsolete. At the same time there was a need to integrate the education system

into the European Union guidelines, so that the Spanish population would not find

themselves disadvantaged compared to other citizens of the European Union (formerly

known as the European Community) in terms of mobilization. The current education

system, put into place by LOGSE, is based on the British education system.

Previous education system & social changes

297

The new education system had to function within the old education system until the

2002/2003 Academic Year. To understand the changes made, we will need to describe

the old system briefly.

The General Law on Education (Ley General de la Educación, LGE) of 1970 stated the

basic general education (Educación General Básica, EGB) for students aged between 6

and 14. However, the lack of funds caused it to be not put into action until the 1980’s. At

the Secondary Education level, there were two options for students continuing their

education after completing their EGB: the vocational training level I or the unified

baccalaureate (Bachillerato Unificado y Polivante, or BUP). After BUP, students had to

take a pre-university course (Curso de Orientación Universitaria, COU) in order to

continue to the university or to the Level II of Vocational Education.

The LGE law also regulated the adult education and offered those who weren’t able to

complete their schooling, a special education program in arts and languages. This

program is similar to a literacy program (certificado de escolaridad) and is completed

with a certificate.

After 1970 Spain underwent major social and political changes. This has entailed

transformations in all spheres of life (social, political, economical, etc.) and logically,

changes in the education system. In parallel with those political changes, the Spanish

society has also gradually evolved into a democracy. The integration of women in the

labour market, the decline in the birth rate, the increase of the population living in large

urban centers and the increase in the number of immigrations are but a few symptoms of

that change. During this same period, Spain joined NATO (1984) and the European

Community (1985). These political and social changes occurring during the last years of

the1970’s, required the development of yet another education system. To accomplish the

new objectives, several laws were defined, as we will explain in the following paragraph.

Current education system

The structure of the current education system is regulated by the LOGSE and the LOU.

The Organic Act on the General Organization of the Education System (LOGSE) of 1990

takes a gradual approach towards reform and establishes a calendar for implementing the

new legislation at the same time as the parallel extinction of the older forms of

298

education. The Organic Act on Universities (LOU) of 2001 in turn structures university

level into tree cycles, maintaining the organization established by the LRU. Figure 2

below shows the structure of the education system as proposed by LOGSE:

Figure 2. The current Education System as proposed by LOGSE.

At the basis of this new system (LOGSE) is the compulsory education, which was

extended up to the age of 16, dividing this period into two parts: Primary (6-12) and

Secondary (12-16) Education. At the same time extinguishing the existence of Special

Schools for disabled students and giving them access to the regular education system.

The LOU created higher access to the university for economically disadvantaged students

by raising the funds of university programs.

Another interesting comment may be that the cultural and linguistic connections between

Spain and the Latin American countries made its educational laws a model for the reform

299

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

Age

1st

2nd

3er

4th

5th

6th

1st

2nd

3rd

4th

2nd

1st

Firstcycle

Secondcycle

Firstcycle

Secondcycle

Thirdcycle

Firstcycle

Secondcycle

Educación Primaria

Educación Infantil

Edu

caci

ón

Sec

unda

ria

Edu

caci

ón

Sec

unda

ria

Obl

igat

oria

FPE Grado Medio

FPE Grado Superior

Bachillerato

UniversityEducation

First cycleSecond cycle

Third cycle

Universityentrance exam

of education in that part of the world. Therefore similar characteristics may be observed

in the education system as used in those countries, assembled in MERCOSUR and

sometimes financed by the World Bank. Some common objectives are to extend the

obligatory education and to adapt the professional education to the new economy and the

current needs of business & industry.

Primary education

Primary Education (Educación Primaria) is broken down into three two-year cycles

corresponding to the age groups of 6 – 8 years, 8 - 10 years and 10 to 12 years old. The

principal goal is to provide all children with a basic education enabling them to acquire

some basic skills and capabilities.

Secondary education

The Secondary School (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria, ESO) divides the group of 12

-16 years of age into two cycles of two years each. The objective is to build on the skills

and capabilities acquired during primary education and to create a basis to start working

in any of the EU countries.

In addition to this, the Secondary Education includes some other programs that aren’t

compulsory such as the social guarantee programs. Social guarantee programs are an

alternative available to students aged between 16 and 21 who haven’t successfully

obtained a Secondary School Certificate and who also have no vocational training

qualifications. We will explore these programs in more depth in one of the next sections.

Baccalaureate courses

The Baccalaureate course (Bachillerato) lasts for two years and begins upon completion

of the Compulsory Secondary Education. The objective is for students to mature in both

intellectual and human terms and to equip them with the knowledge and skills needed to

perform well in their social life. On the other hand, this course helps to decide which of

the various routes to follow in order to obtain a vocational qualification or a university

degree. The Baccalaureate is organized into four streams, each of which is linked to a

specific university career.

Middle and higher level of Vocational Education

300

The middle level of Vocational Education (F.P.E. Grado Medio) lasts for one to two

years and is designed to guide the students in their transition from school to the

workforce. In addition, it is a way to provide continuing training for those already

employed in different specialist areas.

The higher level of Vocational Education (F.P.E. Grado Superior) also prepares young

people for the workforce and at the same time provides access to the university courses. It

lasts for one to two years.

Art programs

One of the specialist programs worth mentioning are the art programs, designed to train

and qualify young people who wish to center their professional careers on music, acting,

or art and design.

The University System

The Spanish university system (LOU) covers both public and private universities (run

either by secular or religious bodies). This law gives the university complete autonomy

on which academic courses to offer. Students need to do an entrance exam after

completing the Bachillerato and based on their average grades get access to certain

programs.

Another European development that is worth mentioning is the portability of credentials

and the ongoing international discussion about the professional mobility between the EU.

An interesting website to visit in this context is the website of the European Association

for International Education: http://www.eaie.org.

The Vocational education system

With the approval in 1993 of the national Vocational Education program and the

development of the National Vocational Training Program (NVTP, created in 1986)

during 1998 to 2002, vocational education underwent a drastic change. This revolution

had the intention to develop an integrated vocational training system in order to make

companies more competitive and to deliver highly qualified workers.

The NTVP divides the Vocational Education System into the following three main

subsystems:

301

1.) Initial/regulated vocational training (IVT)

Targeted mainly to young people, although it is also available to adults, the

objective is to provide basic professional education and training. For the purpose

of decentralization LOGSE appointed the responsibility of all vocational

education to the autonomous communities. Programs may vary according to the

local needs of business & industry and to the educational needs, defined by the

specific culture and language of each region.

2) Occupational training (OCT)

OCT is created for unemployed people and it is regulated under the Royal Decree

631 of the 3rd of May 1993. The objective is to help students to become capable

workers and reintegrate into the workforce by providing them with certain

occupational skills and competencies, certifying them at the same time to continue

their education and acquire the appropriate academic titles afterwards.

3) Continuous vocational training (CVT)

The target group of CVT is employed workers. Thus, their training is the

responsibility of the employer and their social partners (being the unions and

branch organizations).

In order to integrate the above mentioned, three subsystems of vocational training, NVTP

established, in collaboration with the autonomous communities, a national system of

vocational qualifications that permits lifelong learning and ensures optimum management

of issues relating to the qualification of vocational education. To do so, it created the

National Qualifications Institute (Instituto Nacional de las Cualificaciones), which is in

charge of developing a common standard for all forms of vocational training. Thus

common benchmarks of competencies, based on the realities of the economy, can be

defined and makes it possible to give the same qualification to occupational skills

acquired by different means and courses. This can’t be done without the definition of

two key elements: a catalogue of training modules linked to the qualification system and

a network of training centers offering courses leading up to those qualifications.

This new national vocational training program sets out five additional objectives:

302

Professionalize the workforce through a closer cooperation between

employers and the education institutes.

Develop an integrated system for job bank services and counseling. The

objective is to assist people while choosing a career or finding a job.

Guarantee the quality, assessment and monitoring of vocational training.

The evaluation of the national vocation training system needs to analyze

the key factors influencing its quality, using the European Foundation for

Quality Management (EFQM) as a model and bringing training in line

with the occupational profiles involved. For more information, see the

European Agreement, reached at the Luxembourg Meeting in 1997 and

confirmed by the Council Resolution of December 15.

Give vocational training a European framework and dimension. The goal

is to promote professional mobility between the European Union countries

providing a framework of a greater transparency of qualifications and

lending impetus to European Vocational Education initiatives.

Provide a program of training for groups with special needs (see Social

guarantee programs in one of the next paragraphs)

Initial vocational training

Before getting into a description of the initial vocational training program, it should be

noted that traditionally in Spain, it was a common belief that students opting for

vocational training instead of a general education, did so because they weren’t smart

enough to study and to obtain an academic degree. Thus, it was essential to reform the

system in order to improve the social acceptance and to provide the students with the

appropriate vocational qualifications needed to guarantee their employability.

As we stated before, initial vocational training (IVT) is ruled by LOGSE and it is

structured in two cycles: first, the Lower Level of Initial Vocational Education (Ciclos

Formativos de Grado Medio, CFGM), accessible after passing the compulsory secondary

education; and second, the Higher Level Vocational Education (Ciclos Formativos de

Grado Superior, CFGS), accessible after passing the Baccalaureate. Beside those two

tracks, students that haven’t passed the compulsory Secondary Education can continue

303

their formation through the Social Guarantee Programs (Programas de Garantía Social,

PGS).

The objective of the IVT is to prepare trainees to further develop their job competencies

into a higher level and to offer training for those occupations in demand by the industry

& business market. Achieving these objectives requires to carry out a detailed

investigation and to identify training needs at any given time or in any social and

economic situation in order to be able to create new qualifications or to update existing

ones.

Continuous vocational training

Continuous vocational training is the part of Vocational Education targeted at employed

workers. To manage this type of vocational training the Foundation for Continuous

Training (Fundación para la Formación Continua, FORCEM) has been formed. There

are also some public sector initiatives with a similar aim but on a much smaller scale.

Continuous Training exists of all the formative actions carried out by companies,

employed workers themselves or other organizations (unions and branch organizations)

whose objectives are both the improvement of competencies and qualifications of the

work force. The main benefit is the advancement of the company’s competitive level but

also the increase of the employee’s chances for social and occupational advancement. In

fact, surveys carried out by FORCEM to evaluate the benefits of continuous training,

confirm this. For example, an analysis provided during 1996 shows that 89.7 % of the

workers surveyed, believe that the training given helped them to improve their work

performance. At the same time, 60 % believed that their prospects of career advancement

had been enhanced or enhanced significantly. There are three initiatives that should be

mentioned related to Continuous Vocational Training:

Training plans

304

Training plans are a means to deliver education and training to workers. Depending on

the scope and the framework of the training plan, it is possible to distinguish different

types of training plans.

Individual training permits

Individual training permits are granted, subject to meeting the following

conditions:

Persons applying must not be included in a company or group training

plan.

They must have been with their firm for at least a year.

Training must be directed to enhancing or adapting a worker’s technical

and occupational skills and/or personal qualifications and must lead to an

officially recognized qualification.

All training must involve personal attendance.

Complementary activities or projects relating to training.

Occupational training

Occupational Training is targeted to unemployed people with greater difficulty of finding

a job and its objective is to facilitate the professional integration and reintegration of

individuals seeking work. This kind of training can be provided by both public and

private institutions.

In Spain occupational training is carried out through the vocational training and

employment plan (Plan de Formación e Inserción Profesional, FIP) together with a whole

range of training courses aimed at the unemployed. Although the main target groups are

divided into people under 25 years of age and people over 25 years of age, there are also

courses for certain groups with specific needs. In addition, there are training courses that

help to assure high quality levels of training. Obviously, to accomplish these objectives it

is necessary to have a set of education centers in place that cooperate in the provision of

all occupational training. All training is offered under a contract program or cooperation

agreement with the corresponding authority.

305

Occupational training courses require personal attendance or can utilize distance learning.

It can be broadbased (to provide young people with more general knowledge and skills),

occupational, transformational or specialized by character.

One important issue related to these courses is the selection of the candidates. This

selecting is carried out in two stages. First; the provincial responsible party of INEM

makes a preliminary selection and, secondly, the definitive selection takes place under the

supervision of the responsible party that will be providing the training course.

The completion of any occupational training leads to a certificate of occupational

competency specifying the occupational profile, the theoretical and practical content of

the training course(s) as completed, the training route, the total duration of the training,

the training objectives and the evaluation criteria.

Social guarantee programs

Social guarantee programs are included within the program of the Initial Vocational

Education; however they are worth explaining separately.

LOGSE excludes the students not having passed Compulsory Secondary Education

(ESO) and these programs offer this group an opportunity to reach the end of Secondary

Education in a different way. Thus overcoming this deficit of initial training and giving

them access to other programs of vocational education, normally reserved for those

students that have passed the compulsory Secondary Education program (ESO).

On completion of this program, the student is awarded an academic certificate issued by

the training center together with a certificate of occupational competency issued by the

provincial authority.

One Vocational Training System

Then the 2002 Organic Act on Qualifications and Vocational Training (LOCPF) came

into place with the purpose of re-organizing the existing Vocational Training (IVT, OCT

and CVT) into one single system. This new Organic Act set up the National System on

Qualifications and Vocational Training with the aim of: preparing to carry out

professional activities, promoting an educational offer of quality, which is updated and

306

fitting the different people to whom it is addressed, taking into account the qualification

needs as required by the labor market. It also aims at providing information and

counseling regarding Vocational Training for those interested in it, as well as

qualifications to find employment; including preparing people to carry out business

activities on their own account with the goal of encouraging business initiatives and an

enterprise spirit. Additional goals are: the official evaluation and validation of

professional qualifications, the promotion of public and private investment in the

qualification of workers, as well as the effective use of Vocational Training resources.

The ‘Catálogo Nacional de Cualificaciones Profesionales’ (National Catalogue on

Vocational Qualifications) became the institutional head of the system. Its aim is to

facilitate integration and adequacy between Vocational Training and the labor market, as

well as lifelong learning, workers’ mobility and labor market unity. This catalogue,

applicable nation-wide, contains the qualifications recognized by the productive system

and the training related to them, which is organized in training ‘módulos’ gathered in a

‘Catálogo Modular de Formación Profesional’ (Modular Catalogue for Vocational

Training).

The schedule for implementing the new arrangements for education stipulated that this

kind of schooling was to be phased in progressively and was fully implemented in the

school year 2002-2003.

Middle and Upper Secondary Education: Vocational Branch

Intermediate Specific Vocational Training may be provided in establishments exclusively

devoted to teaching Specific Vocational Training, or in establishments that teach other

stages. The most frequent case is that this education is offered along with Educación

Secundaria Obligatoria and the Baccalaureate in establishments that in the majority of

Autonomous Communities are known as Institutes of Secondary Education.

Intermediate Specific Vocational Training is taken by student over 16 years old. The

duration varies depending on the ‘ciclo formativo’ (Education cycles from 1300 to 2000

hours, distributed over one and a half or two school years, the one and a half-year cycle

being the most common).

307

Intermediate Specific Vocational Training consists of ‘ciclos formativos’ broken down

into different occupational families. At the moment there are 22 occupational families

and 64 intermediate specific "ciclos formativos". Examples of these families and ‘ciclos

formativos’ are:

Occupational families: Farming, Physical and Sports, Maritime and

Fishery, Administration, Graphic Arts, Commerce and marketing, Sound

and Video Communication, Building, Electricity and Electronics,

Mechanical production, Hotel and Tourist Industry, Personal Image, Food

Industry, Wood and Furniture, Maintenance of Motor Vehicles, Health,

Chemistry and Production, Maintenance & Services etc.

Ciclos Formativos: Extensive Agriculture, Livestock breeding, Outdoor

Physical-Sporting, Medium Depth Diving, Fishing and Sea Transport,

Printing in Graphic Arts, Commerce, Brickworks, Concrete Works,

Cooking, Restaurant and Bar Services, Hairdressing etc.

Challenges

A SWOT analysis of the LOGSE system:

Strengths

It amplifies the mandatory and free education with 3 – 16 years of age.

It favors the integration of students with special needs into the regular

school system.

The Bachillerato or Baccalaureate now exists of 4 streams: Arts, Natural

Science & Health, Humanities & Social Studies, and Technology.

The FP (Vocational Education) created new specialties that are targeting

the business needs & practices as in the workforce.

Weaknesses

There are no exams in the ESO that guarantee that students obtain the

minimum requirements of literacy

In ESO students, without meeting the requirements for progression

continue to the next grade.

The Education in ESO is more generic.

308

The age to choose a profession or the university specialties has been

extended.

Limited options in the Vocational Education System for a very

heterogeneous group of students.

Some of the challenges or problems are directly related to these changes in

the education system as initiated by LOGSE.

In Secondary Education of the previous system, there was an option for students who

were not interested or intellectually challenged to study, to follow a Vocational Training

system, starting at age 14 (the end of mandatory education). These days they have to stay

in the Secondary Education until the age of 16, passing from one grade to the next, not

being challenged or motivated and holding up students who can handle a faster pace.

In the previous system of F.P. or Vocational Education, students were not required to

take an entrance exam to go from a Lower Level of Vocational Education into a Higher

Level of Vocational Education and could easily make the transfer from one level into the

next. With the new and current system in place an entrance exam is required to enter into

the F.P.E. del Segundo Grado and this entrance exam is based on the courses and content

as taught in the Baccalaureate. Therefore very few students coming from a lower level of

vocational education can pass the exam and are forced to enter the labor market at this

point, cutting off their options to continue their professional education and to obtain a

degree.

One of the other challenges that Spain is facing is related to their geographic location and

the stream of immigrants entering the country from the South. In addition to this increase

in immigration, there is a decline in the natural growth of the Spanish population. From

the eighties, Spain has had more immigrants than emigrants, a turnaround in the situation

prevailing until then. In 2003, more than 1,600,000 immigrants were living in Spain, a

24.4% more than in 2002. Nowadays, the number of legal foreigners exceeds 2 million

people, which represents almost 8% of the Spanish population.

The immigrant flow has increased considerably over the last few years, and therefore, the

education system has to pay attention to new foreign students and also to immigrant

children who are already second-generation citizens in the country. This situation calls

309

for new attitudes, policies and actions on the part of all players in the world of education:

policy-makers, researchers, teachers and other professionals. Other European countries

have already experienced or are currently facing similar situations and therefore, have

developed and applied the necessary measures to respond to the new needs and questions

raised by immigration within the field of education.

The graphic below indicates the increasing number of immigrants, participating in the

Social Guarantee Programs in Spain.

Conclusion: A comparison with the Community College System

In the context of this survey, the Community College system of the United States would

include the following Spanish forms of education: the Middle and Higher level of

Vocational Training, the Baccalaureate, and the first two years of some university

programs including all adult and professional training.

But it’s trying to compare apples and oranges to try to make a clear comparison between

the two education systems. And therefore we decided that our conclusion should be that

there is no comparison. For example, part of the Formación Profesional de Manises, a

suburb of Valencia, consists of only two courses (in computer technology), using a few

classrooms in the building of a Secondary Education Institute with a total of no more then

35-40 adult students.

Then there are two colleges in Valencia itself for technology programs: one is the

Instituto Politécnico (Higher Vocational Education) and second the Universidad

310

Politécnica (University level). Both offer similar courses and programs but at a different

level. Both train professionals already in the workforce and have strong connections with

the business & industry of Valencia. The Baccalaureate Courses, that prepare for

university access and / or higher vocational education access can be taught at a Secondary

Education Institute (ESO and comparable to a High School) or in a separate building /

institute where also other vocational training courses are offered. Many of the courses

and professional training as offered in the single US Community College system are

offered in different institutes by tradition or organized by their specific financial

resources & funding, targeting a group with specific educational needs.

Data of some colleges in the city of Valencia and its region:

Universidad Politécnica de Valencia: http://www.upv.es/menuc.html

The university was founded in the late sixties. It consists of 15 faculties

and 43 departments with a total of about 2,500 faculty. Its student

population consists of 33,000 students in degree programs, 1,780 in

doctorate programs (54) and a total of 38,000 students in non-credit

programs.

The following degree programs are being offered:

7 engineer programs

Architecture

Art Programs

Biotechnology

Business Administration

Public Administration

The post-graduate programs are as follows:

34 Masters Programs

39 Doctorate Programs & Specialties

17 Professional Training Courses

837 Non-credit Courses

226 ‘On-demand’ Courses

311

Florida, Centro de Formación Universitaria y Secundaria

http://www.florida-uni.es/web_en/corp_home

This institute of Vocational Training and Secondary Education was

founded in 1977. It has about 3,700 students and 133 faculty members,

and the total staff consists of 210 people. Its turnover is 8,235,148 euros

and it has 6 buildings on a single campus of 26,869 m2.

For more information on the Formación Profesional de Manises, go to:

http://www.educaweb.com/ and look for institutes of Formación

Profesional in the area of Valencia.

312

List of Abbreviations

INEM: Instituto Nacional de Empleo / National Institute of Employment

MEC: Ministerio de Educación y Cultura / Ministry of Education & Culture

LOGSE: Ley de Ordenación General del Sistema Educativo / General Law of the

Education System (4th of October 1990)

LOU: Ley Orgánica de Universidad (2001) / General University Law

LGE: Ley General de la Educación / General Law on Education (1970)

EGB: Educación General Básica / Basic General Education

EU: European Union (former European Community)

BUP: Bachillerato Unificado y Polivante / Unified Baccalaureate

COU: Curso de Orientación Universitaria / Pre-University Course

ESO: Educación Secundaria Obligatoria / Compulsory Secondary Education

LRU: Ley de Reforma Universitaria / The Law on University Reform (1983)

NVTP: Programa Nacional de Formación Profesional / National Vocational Training

Program

IVT: Formación Profesional Initial Reglada / Initial, regulated Vocational Training

OCT: Formación Ocupational / Occupational Training

CVT: Formación Contínua / Continuous Vocational Training

EFQM: European Foundation for Quality Management

PGS: Programas de Garantía Social / Social Guarantee Programs

FORCEM: Fundación para la Formación Continua / Foundation for Continuous Training

FIP: Plan de Formación e Inserción Profesional / Vocational Training and Employment

plan

ESO: Educación Secundaria Obligatoria / Compulsory Secondary Education

References

Béduwé, C.and Germe, JF. (2004). Raising the Levels of Education in France: From

Growth to Stabilisation. European Journal of Education, vol. 39, nr. 1, pp. 119-

132.

Béduwé, C. and Planas, J. (2003). Education expansion and labour market. Luxembourg,

CEDEFOP-Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Online: http://www.trainingvillage.gr/etv/Projects_Networks/ResearchLab/

Björnavold, J. (1998a). Évaluation des acquis non formels: qualité et limites des

méthodologies. Revue Européenne de Formation Professionnelle, nr. 12.

Björnavold, J. (1998b). Une question de foi? Les méthodes et les systèmes d’évaluation

des acquis non formels exigent des bases légitimes. Revue Européenne de

Formation Professionnelle, nr. 12.

Castells, M. (1996). The Information Age: Economy, Society and Culture. Volume I: The

Rise of the Network Society. Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers Inc.

Cambridge.

CGFP (Consejo General de Formación Profesional) (2000). Nuevo programa Nacional de

Formación Profesional. Published by the Consejo General de la Formación

Profesional. Madrid.

Descy, P. and Tessaring, M. (2001). Training and learning for competence. Luxembourg:

CEDEFOP-Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

Esin Consultores (2001). Vocational education and training in Spain. European Centre

for the Development of Vocational Training,

Merino, R. (2005). 16-19. Transiciones de los jóvenes después de la escuela obligatoria.

Avance de resultados. Plan Nacional I+D+I (2003 contest). GRET-UAB.

Köhler, C. (1994): Existe un modelo de producción español? Sistema de trabajo y

estructura social en comparación internacional. Sociología del Trabajo, nr. 20, pp.

3-31.

Parellada, M., Saez, F., Sanromà, E. and Torres, C. (1999). La formación continua en las

empresas españolas y el papel de las universidades. Biblioteca Civitas Economía

y Empresa.

Peraita, C. (2000). Características de la formación en la empresa española. Papeles de

Economía Española. 80, pp. 295-307.

Planas, J. and Rifa, J. (eds.) (2003). Consolidación y desarrollo de la formación continua

en España. Madrid: Fundación Tripartita.

Planas, J., Sala, G. and Vivas, J. (2003). Escenarios de futuro para la educación en

España. Revista de Educación (Madrid), nr. 332 V, pp. 445 - 461.

Planas, J., Sala, G. and Vivas, J. (2004). Nuevas estrategias formativas ante el fin de la

expansión educativa en España" Rev. Educ. (Madrid), nr. 333, v. 1, pp. 237-257.

Bulletin CIDE de temas educativos, Ministerio de Educación y Ciencia

Centro de Investigación y Documentación Educativa, Ministerio de Educación, Cultura y

Deporte

EURYBASE, the EURYDICE Information Database on Education Systems in Europe

315

The Community College System of Thailand

Allen Cissell, Ph.D.

Tanom Inkhamnert, Ph.D.

The community college system of Thailand, authorized in 2001 and begun in

2002, is, by any measure, a huge success. Opening with 10 colleges in that year, and now

expanded to 18, these colleges now enroll over 16,000 regular associate degree students,

over 35,000 part-time students, and, by virtue of the college’s deliberate location in the

rural areas, provide higher education to many who never had access before. The national

budget for these colleges has increased from 50 million baht ($1.25 million) per year to

308 million baht, an increase of 600% in 4 years. Additionally, the colleges are

promoting local control and governance, a true departure from the tradition of central

ministry control.

For these reasons, and more, the community colleges are very popular and a

matter of pride in the communities in which they are located. In four years, they have

made truly impressive gains for the 61 million people of Thailand.

HistoryHistorically, the idea of a community college system in Thailand has been around

for awhile. They seem to have been first considered in the early 1970’s. Thailand’s

Third Economic and Social Development Plan (1972-1977), for example, recommended

such a policy and some preliminary planning took place for the establishment of a

community college in Phuket, in the south of Thailand.135 Unfortunately, nothing was

done beyond the preliminary planning.

The following period, that of the Fourth Economic and Social Development Plan

135 Third Economic and Social Development Plan, 1972-1977. Office of the Prime

Minister, Development Policy and Targets of the Board. Higher Education, Chapter

16. Bangkok, Thailand.

316

(1978-1982) strongly urged a policy that would “lay the groundwork for setting up

community colleges in various regions in accordance with economic and social needs.”136

In fact, one “community college” was created by Prince of Songkla University in Phuket

province in the south of Thailand. However, among the problems with this structure was

the fact that there was no provision for transfer of credits or articulation with the

University at which it was created. Support for this experiment waned and the

community college was phased out.

From 1982-1986 another experiment took place. Thailand concluded that it was

overproducing teachers, so the government proposed converting four teacher’s college to

community colleges – these were Chiang Mai, Ubonrajathai, Nakornrajasima, and

Nakornrithamaraj colleges. Before the conversion began, however, the decision was

reversed by the Parliament and the teacher colleges were allowed to offer curricula other

than just teacher training programs. The community colleges intended to be created from

the teacher colleges were automatically dissolved.

Another experiment followed in the next economic and social development plan.

In this period, specialized colleges such as physical education, drama, art, and agriculture

were named “community colleges.” However, by traditional criteria, they were not

community colleges at all….they were single subject colleges, controlled by the central

government, and had very limited enrollment and few jobs for those who did graduate.

Enrollments were so low in fact, that many eventually closed. Still, the idea of

community colleges, loosely based on a U.S. model, was kept alive during this period

(1972-2000) by foresighted Thai educators, many of whom had been educated in the U.S.

During this period, the U.S. government also promoted the idea of community

colleges in Thailand and in 1994, through the US Agency for International Development,

proposed to build a “community college” in each of Thailand’s four regions.”137 This

136 Fourth Economic and Social Development Plan, 1977-1981. Office of the Prime

Minister, National Economic and Social Development Board. Higher Education.

Bangkok, Thailand.137 Grant to the Royal Thai Government, Department of Technology and Economic

Development, US Aid project number 493-0341, February, 1994.

317

idea, however, never became fully implemented because shortly after announcing the

proposal, the U.S. declared Thailand a fully developed country and withdrew U.S.A.I.D.

funding for this and other developmental activities.

The idea never faded, however, and the economic crash in Southeast Asia in 1997

gave new impetus to the idea and momentum again surfaced for community colleges. The

economic collapse/crash in Southeast Asia in 1997/98 convinced many that Thailand was

falling behind its global competitors in human resource development, that it’s growing

population did not have access to meaningful higher education and that its economy

would continue to falter if it did not make a stronger effort to education its population,

particularly its workforce.

One result of this was the passage of the 1999 National Education Act. This

legislation obligated the government to provide 9 years of compulsory education (it had

been six) and 12 years of free education for those who wanted it. In turn, this drove

projections that the number of high school graduates would, by 2006, rise to 800,000 a

year, an increase of nearly 50% over the year 2,000. And, of the 400,000 high school

graduates in 200,000, only 25% were enrolled as first-year students in public and private

colleges and universities in Thailand. Since this percentage was also projected to

increase, action had to be taken to improve access to higher education. Part of that action

came with the election of the Thai Rak Thai political party in 2000.

In February, 2001, newly elected Prime Minister Thaskin delivered a speech to

the National Assembly in which he promoted community colleges as opportunities to

provided higher education to the rural areas, lifelong learning for all, and education for

those who had previously “missed their chance” for higher education.138 Community

colleges, it was announced, “are to be founded in the provinces where higher education is

not available.”139

138 “Premiere Thaksin Meets People, Radio Show on Radio Thailand,” February 23,

2002. Quoted in Office of Community College Promotion publication, “Community

College Project.” Office of the Permanent Secretary, Ministry of Education,

Thailand, August, 2002.

318

Within a short period, an Office of Community College Administration was

created within the Ministry of Education and the responsibility for creating these new

colleges fell to Professor Dr. Kasem Wattanachai, Minister of Education, Dr. Sirikorn

Maneerin, Deputy Minister of Education, Ms. Sunanta Sangthong, and Dr. Tanom

Inkhamnert (co-author of this article). It is worth noting that all these key administrators

have advanced degrees from US higher education institutions where they had become

familiar with the concept of the comprehensive community college. Dr Kasem, for

example, holds an M.D. degree from the University of Chicago.

It should be noted, as an aside, that during this development period, strong

encouragement for the policy of creating a community college system continued from

three major outside sources---the Institute for International Education, the Kenan

Foundation in Asia, and the US Embassy. These agencies provided advice, some

consultants, and some minor funding in furtherance of a policy already decided by the

Thai Government.

One key meeting, as an example of this kind of encouragement, took place in

March, 2001, between Thai community college leadership and representatives of US

community colleges, IIE, and others. Partially funded by the US Department of

Education and a private donor, with additional financial assistance from the US Embassy

and the community colleges of Hawaii, and significant funding from the Thai Ministry, a

three day conference on community college development was held in Hawaii at the East-

West Center. The meetings focused on community college philosophy, organizational

issues, workforce development activities, governance, management issues, and site visits

to the colleges of Hawaii. At the conclusion of the meetings, the East-West Community

College Partnership was formed, an informal group designed to work co-operatively on

the development of the Thai community colleges. Purveyor

Over the past several years, the Partnership has obtained several grants from the

US Department of State, USAID, and other sources, for its work with system

development, with individual Thai Community College Directors, teacher training and

development, curriculum needs analysis, and trustee training.

The Thai side has more than matched the funds spent on these projects and has

also sent several delegations to the US for site visits, program observations, and training.

319

Additionally, the Kenan Foundation in Asia has provided (and continues to provide)

some funding for related activities.

Start-Up Fifteen months after being charged with creating the colleges, 10 community

colleges opened in rural Thailand: Mae Hong Son, Pijit, Tak, Nong Bualumpu Buriran,

Mukdahaum, Sakaew, Uthai Tani, Raynong, and Narathiwas. Each opened with four

kinds of curricula:

1. Remedial programs, to bring students and adults up to a level sufficient to enter

into other programs.

2. Short-term intensive programs. These included language courses (Cambodian,

for border trade, English for tourism), community health programs, agriculture

(recovery of deforested land), wine making, and so on.

3. Vocational programs for those already in careers, such as photography,

electronics, Thai classical music and dance.

4. Associate degree programs, including early childhood development, auto

mechanics, accounting, tourism, agriculture, electricity technology, community

development, and more.

Tuition costs for these courses were (and still are) extraordinarily low – 5 bhat

(.08 cents) per hour for short courses and 25 bhat (.80 cents) per credit hour for a full

class. They also opened in borrowed facilities and with borrowed faculty – classes were

held in secondary schools, in Wats, in government offices, at vocational schools, and

community centers. Unfortunately, the community colleges continue in those facilities

still today.

Today, the short courses (similar to US continuing education or adult education

courses) include computer use for small business, jewelry, local tourist guide, batik and

silk production and other programs of local interest. New associate degree programs are

being developed in Emergency Medical Services, Pharmacy Technology, Gerontology,

and Teacher Improvement and Development.

320

Each college is allocated 16 tenured positions and four non-tenured faculty who

are on five year contracts, with a review period at the end of each year. Salaries are very

low, rarely exceeding $150 per month for a full-time position.

In the last year, three years after opening, approximately 600 students were

awarded associate degrees. Some students have transferred to universities, but it is too

early to assess how they are doing academically.

Each college has a governing board of nineteen members, none of whom receive

pay for the position, except for minor per-diem on the days of the meetings. Some

members of the Board of Trustees are ex-officio—a representative chosen by the

Chamber of Commerce, another from a university, an administrator from the provincial

government and so on. Others are selected by a “search committee” of the Director and

the ex-officio members. Individuals in the community may apply to serve on the Board

and are approved or rejected by the search committee. So while this is a unique

procedure, it does provide a fair representation of the community at large.

Special ProgramsWhile each of the Thai Community Colleges has unique developmental

characteristics, and space does not allow for a discussion of each, a couple of programs

are worth noting. One such program is the mobile computer lab at Pijit Community

College. At Pijit, the Director ordered the development of a mobile computer lab, so he

could use it to introduce computers and the internet to truly rural areas. His automotive

staff re-built an old school bus, from the frame up, also using a completely re-built

engine. They designed the interior with multiple work stations so that at least 10 people

can work at one time. The bus is then driven to the many small villages and towns in this

region, bringing the internet to rural areas where such access is unavailable. Not only is

this a valuable tool itself, but it is also a significant recruitment mechanism for the other

“off campus” instruction programs of the college.

In Sakow, one other unique program has begun. At this college, emphasis was

placed on meeting the needs of an identified market—organically grown food—and the

food chosen was asparagus. To supply the market, a co-operative was organized between

private growers and the college. This co-operative new sells directly and exclusively to

Japan and represents a good example of a partnership arrangement, rare in the rural areas

321

where the Thai community colleges are located. It provides a good model for others to

follow.

ConclusionLike many of our community colleges during their start-up period, the community

colleges of Thailand began their operations in borrowed facilities. As previously noted,

classes were and still are taught in secondary school facilities, or vocational school

classrooms, religious venues and other available space. What is different from the US

experience is that the national leaders who provide the funds for the colleges are strongly

against providing funds for new construction and/or separate buildings. This has been the

position of the Prime Minister and the high level Ministry appointees. So, to date, the

colleges continue to operate as step-children, relegated to borrowed facilities.

However, given the popularity and growth of the community colleges, it seems

likely that clearly allocated campuses, perhaps from merger with vocational colleges, will

eventually happen. As a matter of local pride and need for identity, specific buildings

and campuses will eventually emerge from this start up effort.

Another start-up difficulty, again as might be expected, has been the significant

turn-over in leadership at the individual colleges. While the leadership for community

college development at the Ministry of Education has remained relatively constant, nearly

every community college has had more than one Director in the past four years and high

turnover in staff. While understandable to a degree, it is nevertheless a significant

distraction from the development of the colleges and the curricula they offer. If, as the

initial developmental charge to the colleges’ states, their goal is “emphasis on manpower

development in support of innovation in local businesses and creation of local

entrepreneurs,”139 then the loss of continuing and consistent and stable leadership is a

minus.

In this same vein, by virtue of their location in rural areas, the colleges do not

have a strong industry or business base from which to work or with whom to partner.

Industry tends to cluster around the larger cities, for obvious reasons, and the community

colleges are semi-isolated and positioned away from the economic growth centers of

Thailand.

322

But perhaps the biggest obstacle to overcome in the development of these colleges

is the long history of centralization and bureaucracy that permeates Thailand. Several

years ago, in a project funded by the Thai government, a Harvard management expert and

his team concluded a study of the Thai government and economy by noting that

“Thailand is world class in only one thing--bureaucracy.”139 That seems to apply to the

development of the community colleges also--resistance within the Ministry at first, then

frequent changes in policy and personnel at high levels. This bureaucracy seems to have

slowed, considerably, the plan to expand the system as rapidly as originally envisioned

and to enhance and expand the curriculum into innovative and creative ways. Still, the

long term goal of the government is to have one community college in each sub-

provincial area (Tambon), a total of 72 in all.

Problems aside, the long term outlook for Thai community colleges is positive.

Plans have been prepared to expand the system to a total of seventeen colleges by the end

of 2006 (although the violence in the South may delay the opening of new colleges there

beyond that date). Again, these colleges will be located in the rural areas (Yasothon in

the Northeast, Trat in the East, Samutsakorn in central Thailand and Satun and Phang in

the South). For three of these colleges, Directors and Boards of Trustees have been

selected.

A community college (with 10 locations) has been planned for Bangkok but some

complex problems have developed which are delaying its operations. It seems that much

remains to be done before it is operational.

At the present time, the Thai legislature and the Ministry of Education are drafting

and debating legislative clarifications for a new law for the community colleges. This, it

is hoped, will settle issues of local control, budget matters, and articulation and

transferability of credit from the community colleges to bachelor degree granting

institutions and universities.

Regardless, the clear successes of the current colleges speak loudly for continuing

progress and development. Already one can see significant progress in curriculum

development related to local and national needs and progress in teacher development.

139 “The Ireland of Asia: It’s Now or Never.” Harvard management study of Thailand

by Professor Michael Porter. Quoted in “The Nation,” May 5, 2003.

323

If the colleges can truly develop an independence from central control (although

budget reliance will continue for a considerable period), creative and innovative

leadership at the individual colleges, and solid agreements other colleges and universities

for transfer of credits, then they will achieve the design originally envisioned for them

and make a huge contribution to Thailand’s continuing development.

324

The Vocational and Technical Schools of Higher Education

in Turkey

Ahmet Aypay, Ph. D.

History of Development

Two-year vocational and technical schools systems are located within university

structures. The Council of Higher Education (YOK) oversees the Turkish Higher

Education System. The names of the institutions vary depending on the programs in the

Meslek Yüksek Okulu, also known as Vocational Schools of Higher Education (VSHE).

The roots of the two-year vocational and technical schools can be traced to the

early 20th Century. The first vocational school was established in 1911 by the Ministry

of Public Works to train civil servants in applied sciences. This institutional model of the

college followed the French “Ecole Conducteur” in Paris. Later, the name of the

institution changed over to Public Works Applied Science School and the duration of

training extended to from two years initially two and a half years and then to three years

in 1926 (Kavak, 1992).

After an engineering department was added into the program, the name of the

vocational school changed over to Technician School. The administration of Technician

School was then tranferred to the Ministry of Education. In order to improve quality, the

graduates of vocational high school-level Craft and Construction programs began to be

admitted to the technical schools through an entrance exam (Kavak, 1992).

In order to meet the country’s industrialization goals, the Technician Schools were

expanded in 1952. These two-year schools were located in the vocational high schools

which had convenient facilities and workshops. In order to serve the needs of individuals

who work full-time and were not in school age, three-year Technician Schools were

established (Baskan, 1997). In 1965, two Higher Technician Schools that provide an

additional year of training to these two-year institutions were established: one located in

Istanbul and one in Ankara. These Higher Technician Schools were intended to help

325

students to transfer to four year institutions. There were 2848 students and 110 faculty in

23 Technician Schools in 1968. Both the Ankara and the Istanbul schools of these

schools were later closed (Karasar, 1981). Among the reasons were: (1) their location in

the buildings of vocational and technical high schools; (2) the lack of opportunity to

transfer to a four year institution directly (Karhan, 1983).

The demand for higher education increased rapidly. In order to meet the increase

in demand, universities began to establish two-year vocational schools in the mid-

seventies. By 1973, these schools could be established either directly to a university. In

a parallel development, Ministry of Education established two-year schools. The goal

was to train the manpower the economy needed. The programs included education, trade

and tourism, technical schools, and distance education. Although initially transfer to four-

year institutions was granted to these two-year schools, it was later discontinued.

(Kavak, 1992).

The goals of the two-year schools was based on the Law no. 1750 (Kaya, 1984):

To improve students academically who were not properly prepared to go

to four-year institutions.

To prepare for a vocation and to provide an opportunity to those students

who were oriented towards vocational programs.

Students enrolled in to a four-year program but whose level of academic

achievement in their freshman year were not satisfactory and were not

likely to complete an undergraduate program.

Students who would like to exit and go into the work force.

To use as a buffer in order to increase the quality in undergraduate

education by making the two-year colleges as a step for mass education.

Thus, the goal of two-year colleges were charged with preparing students for a

vocation, career, or transfer to four-year institution (Ataünal, 1998). As Kaya (1984)

indicated, although not explicitly stated, a third goal was to prepare students to four-year

institutions (Aypay, 2003).

Universities and the Ministry of Education established two-year schools that were quite

different from one another. Two-year schools in the universities were full-time formal

326

education programs. The Ministry of Education had also established 24 two-year post-

secondary vocational schools. However, the first year in these schools was taught

through distance education programs while the second year students were expected to

attend and continue into formal two-year colleges. These programs were directed to train

mid-level manpower and not to transfer in to the four year institutions. The programs of

these two-year post-secondary vocational schools included technical, social and life

sciences. Later, graduates were unable to find employment and so these schools

experienced low enrollment. They usually remained as the extension of high schools.

Finally, they stopped admitting students in 1979 (Nazik, 2003).

Currently, there are 490 two-year vocational and technical school of higher

education in Turkey. Another 135 two-year schools have been planned, but they have not

yet started to admit students.

Figure 1. Quantitative development of VSHEs in Turkey¹.

¹Open Education is not included.

Sources: ÖSYM . İkinci Basamak Sınav Kılavuzu: 1983 ve 1993.

ÖSYM. Yükseköğretim Programları ve Kontenjanları Kılavuzu: 2002.

327

050

100150200250300350400450500

1983-84 1993-94 2005

Number of VSHEs Types of Programs

YÖK. Yükseköğretim Ön Lisans ve Lisans Programlarında Kayıtlı Öğrenci

Sayılarına İlişkin Bazı İstatistikler.

Currently, 490 VSHEs provides training for 384,456 students /higher technicians

in technical, business & economics, and health and marine programs in Turkey. In

addition, 213,130 students are enrolled in Open Education associate degree programs. As

a result, a total of 614,586 students have been enrolled in the two-year VSHEs in Turkey.

An additional 135 VSHE have been planned and expected to accept students in the near

future. There will be a total of 625 VSHE when additional institutions start accepting

students (YÖK, 2005).

The percentage of VSHE students in formal higher education system is 28.4%.

When Open Education System students are taken into account, the ratio goes down to

18.4%. “The percentage of two-year college students is approximately 30% in the

industrialized countries” as stated in the annual The Status of Higher Education issued by

the Council of Higher Education (YÖK, 2005).

Significant Decisions in Higher Education

A state university sued private colleges in arguing that these institutions were a

threat to equality of educational opportunity in 1971. As a result, the Supreme Court

ordered to shut down 41 four-year private higher education institutions. Government,

following the decision of Supreme Court, turned all private higher education institutions

into state institutions and annexed them to existing state universities with Law 1472 in

the 1971-1972 academic year. Although this development was not directly related to two-

year schools of higher education, it had an indirect effect on them by postponing the

establishment of independent private foundation VSHEs until late 1980s.

A university reform introduced in 1973 with Law 1750. A Higher Education

Council was first created. Another reform introduced in 1981 with the Law 2547. The

purpose of this law was to bring into higher education a systems approach for the creation

of new universities. A nationwide student selection and placement office was created in

order to administer merit-based selection exams for the universities’ admissions.

328

Turkish Higher Education System went under another reform in 1981. This

reform cleared the way for the expansion of VSHE system in Turkey. Before 1981, the

majority of VSHEs were under the Ministry Education and the rest were either located in

university systems or in other ministries. All VSHEs became annexed to universities in

1981. Higher Education Law 2547 in 1981 defines the two-year colleges as “A higher

education institution that emphasizes teacher-training of a certain vocation” and “an

institution with four semesters to train mid-level manpower in certain vocations.”

Associate degree programs defined by the same law as “based on secondary education

that lasts at least for four semesters and aims at training mid-level workforce in the first

phase of higher education.” The law defined the director, the two-year college board and

administrative board as the administrative units of two-year colleges (YÖK, 2004).

The last expansion of the Higher Education System was in 1992. Twenty-three

state universities and Institutes of Technology were established and this led to the real

expansion of VSHEs. Following the 1981 reform, VSHEs have gone through major

improvement efforts with the financial support of the World Bank. These projects were

called “First and Second Industrial Training Projects.”

The Stages of Development

Two-year colleges were annexed to universities and became the source of today’s

two-year college system in 1981 (Kavak, 1992). The two-year colleges were relatively

new in the Turkish Higher Education System. They expanded in a large scale after 1982

under increased control from the Council of Higher Education.

The development and expansion of the two-year Post-secondary Vocational

School System in Turkey could be analyzed in four stages. The first stage characterized

the emergence of the two-year Technician Schools between 1911 and 1969. The second

stage lasted from 1970 to 1979. The third stage covered the years between 1982 and

1991. Finally, the fourth stage has continued since 1992.

Currently there is a struggle between the Government of Turkey and the Council

of Higher Education concerning Vocational and Technical High Schools and Vocational

Schools of Higher Education. The Council of Higher Education restricted Vocational and

Technical High School graduates’ entrance into four-year higher education programs.

329

The Council argued that the graduates of these schools should only be able to continue to

four year teacher training programs that could be considered as an extension of their high

school programs but not in such areas such as law, political sciences, and engineering.

The Council of Higher Education’s decision was to prevent religious Vocational

High Schools (İmam-Hatip Lisesi) from entering into the programs mentioned earlier.

Since the Council would not be able to single out the entrance of religious vocational

school graduates into those programs after a nationwide competitive examination because

of the constitutional principle of equality before the law, all the Vocational and Technical

High School graduates’ entry into the four-year higher education institutions were

restricted.

An open door policy to Vocational High School graduates was established.

Vocational High School students can continue their training at two-year Vocational

Schools of Higher Education without going through an examination. They can go to a

VSHE based on their high school GPA if they choose to do so. As a result, there was an

increase in the demand for VSHEs. In order to meet this demand, Council of Higher

Education and the Ministry of Education collaborated with a protocol to share some of

the resources, physical facilities and teachers of vocational high schools. Since these

school have been around for a long time, they have generally better resources, facilities,

equipment, and teaching personnel. Students continued to their two-year post-secondary

education under the umbrella of VSHE. But, this solution had its own problems.

Students were often in the same schools from which they graduated, and in certain

situations trained by their own high school teachers.

Faculty members at two-year Vocational Schools of Higher Education

complained about Council of Higher Education’s decisions because of the low quality of

students. After the Council’s decision to restrict the admission to four-year institutions,

the number of high achieving students who used to choose to go to Vocational High

Schools dropped dramatically. Recently, about 70% of students enrolled in VSHEs

graduated from vocational schools. As a result, according to faculty and administration

of VSHE, since the graduates of these Vocational High Schools continue their education

in the VSHEs, the quality of students has suffered.

330

The Government made a public promise that they would lift the restrictions to

Vocational and Technical High School graduates. Allied with Vocational and Technical

High Schools as well as Vocational Schools of Higher Education, the government have

been trying to go back to the old system which all high school graduates compete equally.

Since forming the government in 2002, the government had attempted unsuccessfully to

change the system a number of times.

Open Education (distance education) has been one of the growing trends in two-

year post-secondary schools of higher education in the past decade. Anadolu University

through its Open Education Faculty offers associate degree programs in a various fields.

The interest in open education has traditionally been for four year institutions. Currently,

there is a growth in associate degree programs as well. 213,130 students enrolled in open

education programs in the 2004-2005 academic year (YÖK, 2005).

The following wide variety of programs are offered through Open Education:

Banking and Insurance, Information Systems (online), Bureau Management and

Secretarial Training, International Trade, Home Economics, Public Relations, Divinity,

Veterinary Services, Accounting, English Language Teaching and Pre-School Teaching

(both associate degree programs prepare students to transfer to four year schools), Sales,

Health Institutions Administration, Social Sciences, Agriculture, Tourism and Hotel

Business, and Local Government. In addition, Open Education Faculty offers special

programs to certain institutions such as the Army and the Police. These programs can be

in the form of in-service training as well as associate degree programs (Anadolu

University, 2006).

Private sector involvement has begun to assist VSHEs. Earlier, foundational

universities were allowed to establish VSHEs within their structures. However, the

Council of Higher Education now considers foundations’ request to open VSHEs. This is

a recent development that will help VSHEs to become more flexible in adapting to

changing environments.

Finally, distance education programs in the form of interned-based VSHEs needs

attention. Although, the number of such institutions are only a few, it is highly likely the

demand for such institutions will be higher in the future. Currently, Mersin University

331

and Sakarya University have internet-based VSHEs in technical programs such as

electronics (YÖK, 2005).

Motivating Factors For Development

As it has been the case around the world, the establishment of two-year vocational

and technical schools in Turkey is closely related to the efforts of industrialization and

training mid-level manpower for the economy. The programmatic functions of these

two-year colleges have been transfer to four-year institutions, vocational and technical

education, adult education, and service to society.

Table 1. Student Enrollment based on Programs (2004-2005).

Programs Number of

Students

Enrolled

Percent (%)

Language and Literature 225 -Mathematics and Sciences 3.197 0.8Health Programs 13.282 3.5Social Sciences 14 -Applied Social Sciences 159.115 41.4Technical Sciences 186.629 48.6Agriculture and Forestry 16.067 4.2Arts 5.716 1.5Other 211 -TOTAL 384.456 100.0

Source: YÖK, 2005.

In order to transfer to four-year institutions, all two-year VSHE graduate takes a

student selection examination administered by Student Selection and Placement Center.

Furthermore, not all universities offer VSHE graduates 10% of their enrollments. There

is no specific requirement, and in many cases, the ratio is less than 10%.

A second problem related to the transfer of VSHE students into four year

programs is the additional coursework required by universities. Although VSHE students

continue their education within university structures, universities require VSHE graduates

332

take an additional year of coursework. Moreover, as VSHE graduates claim, they have

not been warmly welcomed at some universities.

The expansion of the types of programs offered in two-year post-secondary higher

education institutions has been enormous after 1992. There have been a 200% increase

in technical programs between 1992 and 2002. The overall increase in all two-year

college programs during this decade is approximately 600% (Aypay, 2003).

Adult, Continuing Education, and the Economy’s Need for Workforce Training

The adult education function is one of the emerging aspects of the two-year post-

secondary vocational and technical schools in Turkey. In the past, the admission to these

schools was solely based on student selection examination administered by Student

Selection and Placement Center (ÖSYM) by nationwide examinations. However, as a

result of the new system that gives priority to the vocational and technical secondary

school graduates since 2001, there has been an increase in the enrollment of adults in the

two-year colleges.

Two-year vocational and technical schools can be classified in three groups based

on their functions: Multi-purpose colleges, specialized colleges and binary program

colleges. While multi-purpose colleges can be observed in US, Japan, Canada, and

former Yugoslavia, the second group of schools are usually specialized in one program.

The third group of institutions implements binary programs. The two-year post-

secondary schools are usually considered in the second or third group in Turkey. The

purpose of these two-year vocational and technical schools is to train students who do not

have a strong academic background and graduates of vocational high schools. Although

they are located within the university structures, they have been loosely related to four

year institutions. They offer associate degree programs in technical fields, business and

economics, health sciences, social services, and marine sciences (Kavak, 1992).

As Cohen and Brawer (1996) stated, various economic, social and political factors

were influential in the establishment of two-year vocational schools around the world.

The expansion of the two-year vocational school system was driven by mainly economic

reasons. Turkey followed an export oriented economic growth model after 1980. As a

result of this model, the need for mid-level skilled technicians increased. The most

333

important reason for the expansion of two-year post-secondary vocational system in

Turkey was the demand for the skilled mid-level manpower. Other contributing factors

were as follows: demand for higher education, equality of educational opportunity, mass

education and the change in society’s view that longer periods of education is necessary

(Baskan, 1996; Kavak, 1992).

Access was one of the motivating factors but it was not emphasized. The Higher

Education Law 1750 in 1973 allowed greater opportunities to transfer to four year

institutions. However, Higher Education Law 2547 which has been in effect since 1982

restricted the transfer function to four-year institutions. This law increased the authority

and control of the Council of Higher Education to manage effectively the planning

function and coordination of the higher education system. The Council has played a

dominant role in higher education and the Council’s approach to universities have drawn

criticism from some academics (Aypay, 2003).

The Future of VSHEs

Key policy documents on higher education state that “the natural growth in the

Turkish Higher Education System will be in two-year vocational and technical schools.”

The Council of Higher Education would like to increase the percentage student

enrollment to VSHE to 30% (currently 18%) which is the average in the industrialized

world (YÖK, 2005).

Development plans in Turkey also state that in order to increase the

competitiveness and the use of technology, vocational schools in higher education should

be improved. Development plans have expressed that “In order to train the necessary

manpower the economy needs, VSHEs will be emphasized” (DPT, 1999). Many key

policy documents clearly state the goal of expansion of higher education system through

VSHEs.

Challenges for VSHEs

Three groups of Vocational and Technical Schools of Higher Education

institutions exist in Turkey. The first group of institutions, top-tier VSHEs, have their

own physical facilities. They are very well equipped and they have adequate number and

334

high quality of faculty members. These institutions have been supported through World

Bank Projects in the past. A total of 31 VSHEs were included in the two World Bank

supported Industrial Education Projects. Out of 31 VSHEs, 969 faculty was sent abroad

for training.

A second group of institutions (approximately 60 VSHEs) are similar to the first

group of institutions. With a little assistance they could be in the same category of high

quality top tier VSHEs.

The third group of institutions require massive development and new funding.

These institutions are usually located in small and more remote areas and have very low

enrollment numbers. These institutions also have poor physical facilities that are not

usually designed to be VSHE (Aypay, 2003). Poor physical facilities, the quantity and

quality of faculty members and programs have been the main problems for this group.

The main issues in VSHEs in Turkey are inadequate facilities, the low number and

quality of the faculty, and program issues. There is a need to revise and improve

curriculum of certain programs. In addition, financing, administrative issues, the

articulation between vocational and technical high schools, VSHEs as well as universities

have been some of the persistent issues.

Aypay (2003) found that 72% of VSHEs did not have their own physical facilities

out of surveyed 40 VSHEs. Only 10% of the institutions claimed that they have

sufficient tools and equipments, while 45% indicated partly sufficient and 20% said

insufficient tools and equipments. Only 15% of VSHEs claimed they have enough

number of faculty, 38% had partly sufficient while 23% said the number of faculty was

insufficient.

Traditionally, students in VSHEs were selected both from general high schools

(academic) and vocational high schools based on their scholastic aptitude in a centralized

student selection exam. However, the priority was given to vocational high school

graduates over general high school graduates since 2002. Vocational high school

graduates gained open access to the VSHEs. They do not have to take the nationwide

student selection examination to get into the two-year vocational schools. The only

requirement is student high school GPA. Students in the region listed based on their

335

GPA and admitted until the capacities of VSHEs in that region is filled. The higher the

grades of students, the better VSHEs they get in the admission process (Aypay, 2003).

Problem Associated with Open Access

The reasons for the increase in the number of students in two-year schools are:

overall increase in the demand for education based on the increase in the population, an

increase in the compulsory basic education, and the demand from local authorities and

political parties for the establishment of two-year colleges in their home towns.

The percent of students enrolled in two-year vocational and technical schools is

higher in the world than it has been in Turkey. Turkey’s goal is at least to have a closer

number of students enrolled in the VSHEs to the industrialized world average. When

comparisons are made, the industrialized and European countries have been taken as a

reference. Approximately 6,483 faculty members have been training students in the two-

year colleges. This number only includes full-time faculty members. The faculty/student

ratio is 1/12 in the world based on UNESCO statistics. However, the ratio is close to 59

in Turkey which exceeds the world average (part-time faculty is excluded).

Previously, almost half of the students were the graduates of vocational and

technical high schools while the other half was the graduates of general high schools.

However, since the implementation of the law of 4702, this ratio has been changed

dramatically. Almost all the students enrolled in VSHEs come from the vocational and

technical two-year schools (MEB-YÖK, 2002).

The profile of the socio-economic status of students enrolled in the two-year

colleges is as follows: Over 90% of the students have mothers with high school level

education or less. Only 4% of the fathers’ educational level university degrees. Almost

80% of students reported their mean income was lower than 400 USD. The profile was

based on 286,000 student responses (ÖSYM, 2002). These statistics clearly indicate that

VSHEs serve the lower SES students in Turkey.

The reasons why students enrolled in the two-year colleges in Turkey are similar

to the expectation from these institutions. A total of 80% of the students reported that

they have enrolled to develop their skills in their vocation. Almost 30% of students

reported that they have been enrolled to have a vocation, 20% said they wanted to

336

increase their knowledge in their vocation, 20% enrolled to earn a stable income, and

another 8% enrolled to earn a diploma and get respect from the society.

The quality of students

The rapid growth of the two-year vocational and technical schools in Turkey have

brought the issues associated with the rapid growth. As indicated earlier, the three main

problems of VSHEs in Turkey: Faculty, programs and physical facilities. The number

and the quality of faculty members have been a persistent problem of these schools. The

need for revision of the programs offered in VSHEs have also been an issue. In addition

to these main issues, the following issues have been remained unsolved: Financial

flexibility, administrative and governance issues, lack of staff, the articulation issues with

the secondary vocational and technical schools as well as universities, and the mismatch

in skills between VSHE programs and the needs of industry.

In addition to the high number of faculty/student ratio, the quality of faculty

members has also been an issue in the two-year college system in Turkey. When part-

time faculty is excluded, Faculty/student ratio goes up to 59. This number highly exceed

the world average.

Source, YÖK, 2003.

337

Cost

Literature on economies of scale and scope in vocational education is extremely

limited. Economies of scale and scope in VSHEs has been a problem in Turkey. Only

study of economies of scale in VSHEs in Turkey carried out by Dundar and Lewis (1995,

p.370) of post-secondary vocational schools in Turkey. They found that “even within the

same institution average instructional costs for vocational training in some cases exceed

those found in four-year (university) programs”. The average student enrollments in

Turkey has been found to be quite low.

Dundar & Lewis (1995: pp.382-385) reached a number of conclusions about costs

in VSHEs. They found that “as institutions get larger, both average and marginal costs

decline up to a point, and then as institutions get even larger both types of costs increase

but marginal costs increase at much higher rates”. Average costs were found to increase

significantly as a result of: falling student/teacher ratios; and increased student

participation in programs requiring use of large and/or additional instructional equipment.

However, rather than proposing that existing schools should be merged, Dundar and

338

Profe

ssor

Asso

c. Pr

of.

Assis

t. Pro

f.

Lectu

rer

Resea

rch

Assis

tant

Expe

rt

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

Figure 2. Number of Faculty in VSHEs.

Num

ber o

f Fac

ulty

Lewis recommended that Turkish public policy makers should concentrate more on

expanding and changing the enrollments of existing schools; and establish enrollment

boundaries that reflect student demand. According to them, “the mission and rationale for

vocational training should be market driven and the system should work towards

facilitating this mission both in its expansion and in its contraction for most efficient

public policy.”

VSHEs in small towns with a population under 5,000, number of students less

than 500 and with a small number of programs has been inefficient. Balcı & Kavak

(1996) suggested that VSHEs should be established at the provincial level and these

schools should offer programs at the sub-provincial levels. In contrast to Dundar &

Lewis, Balcı & Kavak (1996) suggested small VSHEs should be amalgamated based on

population of the location as well as student number. These VSHEs usually located in

sub-provinces.

Organization and Administration in VSHEs

The two-year college system is located within university structures. Usually,

typical two-year colleges are located in a sub-provinces where a university is located in

provinces. The organizational structure of two-year vocational and technical schools

have been based on universities. However, there are structural differences between

universities and two-year vocational schools.

VSHE directors are appointed by university rectors and the director chooses

his/her assistant directors. There is no criteria set by law to be appointed for VSHE

director and assistant director positions. Lack of explicit criteria for the appointment of

VSHE directors leads different practices and creates complexity. For example, rectors

usually appoint an academic whose primary appointment is at a school other than VSHE.

For example, Aypay (2003) found that 75% of directors’ primary appointment was at

another college/school of universities other than VSHE. This practice sometimes leads to

issues of commitment because the director usually do not commit full-time to VSHE

since he/she spends sometime at his/her own institution. If the director is pursuing an

academic career, it is better for her/him to be at a four year institutions because it is more

339

prestigious. As a result, faculty members also transfer from VSHEs to four year

institutions since it is easier when VSHEs within universities and more prestigious.

Lower levels of commitment from the directors create resource and staff issues.

Resource and staff issues arise when four year institutions and two-year institutions

compete for resources and staff positions. It is clear that four-year institutions dominate

university academic and administrative structures at universities. VSHEs do not always

receive their fair share from resources. Council of Higher Education attempted to

balance some of these but the issue is a difficult one.

An additional problem arises, when there are faculty members with doctoral

degrees in VSHEs but directors without having doctorates. Academic career is more

valued than experience in universities. Moreover, department chairs have to be appointed

among the faculty members who have doctoral degrees by law. If there is no faculty

with doctorate, then department chairs have to be appointed temporarily.

Organizational adaptation to environment is more difficult when VSHEs are

located in university structures. Universities usually resist changes to protect the

academic tradition which took centuries to form. However, one of the powerful aspect of

VSHEs is their skills in adapting to their environment and changes in society and

technology.

The decision to establish VSHEs based on pre-determined criteria belongs to the

Council of Higher Education. Previously, these schools have existed within the Ministry

of Education as well as within university structures. For over a quarter of a century, the

two-year colleges have been continued to be a part of universities.

Organizational size is the most important factor regardless of organizational form.

Students, programs, libraries, and other unit costs have not been important to differentiate

the VSHEs from other institutions. However, certain public VSHEs can be differentiated

from other institutions based on organizational size in Turkey. This finding is similar to

the existing community college structures in the world (Balcı & Kavak, 1996; Demir &

Işıksoylu, 1996).

Centralized administrative structure within universities provides standardization

in purchasing, information processing, planning of physical facilities, staffing, financing,

equal resource distribution, and promotions. Competition among the institutions and

340

provides standardization in coordination, service to society, human resources

development for all two-year colleges. The centralized structure is useful if the

competing institutions are similar.

The authority to establish programs had been in the universities in the past.

However, recently, the Council of Higher Education has been the final decision maker on

this issue. Universities offer opening of new programs, closing and merging the existing

ones. But the final decisions made at the Council of Higher Education. VSHEs have not

been efficient when they are established in towns where the population is less than 5000,

the number of students is lower than 500, and fewer programs (Balcı & Kavak, 1996).

Some of the two-year schools related to faculties at universities. The law no 2547

defines VSHE as “a four-semester education & training higher education institution to

train middle-level manpower in certain fields.” Although very limited in numbers, a few

VSHEs are connected to universities through faculties of a universities.

Programs based on academic disciplines exist in a few VSHE programs. The rest

are based on interdisciplinary studies and general education (behavioral sciences, human

sciences, social and natural sciences). In addition, some VSHEs are directed towards

specific purposes. These VSHEs provides training in certain areas such as: Health

VSHE, Technical Sciences VSHE, Social Sciences VSHE, Divinity VSHE, and Judicial

Services VSHE.

Overview of Programmatic Emphasis of National Priorities

Economic development was the most important motivating factor on the

expansion of the system, the programmatic emphasis has been consistent with this goal.

Another motivating factor is Turkey’s priority to be a full member of the European

Union. Turkey started negotiations on November 3, 2005 which this accession process is

expected to take a decade or a little longer. Even before the EU’s declaration of Turkey’s

candidacy to be a member of the European Union, Turkey has taken economic measures

towards the integration to the European Union. Turkey signed the customs union with

the European Union in 1996. While other candidates had taken financial aid, Turkey did

not receive any financial incentives. This has been a strong motivating factor since took

economic measures such as customs union before political integration into the EU.

341

Technical programs has been the most common programs in the Turkish VSHEs.

The emphasis in technical programs common around the world (Cohen & Brawer, 1996)

Over 200 percent increase took place in the number of technical between 1992 and 2002.

This development shows that the emphasis is in technical programs.

Figure 3. VSHE Programs.

Currently, training is offered in a total of 258 programs in VSHEs. Technical

programs consisted of 60% of all programs while administrative programs 23%. Open

Education programs only 10% while health programs make up 7%. There is a 10%

increase in technical programs in the last decade. There is a 14% decrease in the number

of Business and Economics programs (Aypay, 2003).

The dramatic increase in technical program emphasis accompanied by an even

greater increase in the types of programs offered in two-year schools. There is a 600

percent increase in the number of programs offered in VSHEs since 1981. Courses

revised to include 60-65 % theoretical knowledge and 30-35% applied skills (Aypay,

2003).

A component of Second Industrial Training Project included a revision of 15

programs. 70% of all students are enrolled in these programs. The following principles

are taken into account while revising the VSHE curriculum: Proficiency, validity,

consistency, variety, flexibility, accreditation, use of ICT, compatibility to modular

programs, and training in real settings (MEB-YÖK, 2002).

342

60%23%

10%7%

Technical Programs Business & Economics ProgramsHealth Programs Open Education Programs

Description of a VSHE: Çanakkale VSHE²

A brief description of a VSHE included in this section. This institution is

considered in the second group of VSHEs in Turkey. This institution can easily be turned

into a top-tier VSHE with a little support. Çanakkale VSHE is located at the Aegean

coastal city of Çanakkale in the western Turkey. The city is historically known as Troy

and located on the straits of Çanakkale (Dardanelles). The city has a population of

75,000. Çanakkale VSHE is a part of VSHE system at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart

University and only VSHE in the city center of Çanakkale. It is one of the 15 VSHE

located in throughout the provincial towns of Çanakkale.

VSHE is established in 1976 under the formal education department of Ministry

of Education in Food Technology program. VSHE later became a part of Trakya

University which was a state university established in 1982 located 2.5 hours driving

distance to Çanakkale. With the establishment of Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University in

1992, it naturally became a part of this new university.

Vocational and Technical Education Project (METEP) was a turning point for

VSHE for the worse as faculty and administrators of VSHE claimed (YÖK, 2004). Law

no. 4702, which brought open access (admission without examination) to vocational and

technical high school graduates in 2002, solved the articulation issues between the

programs of vocational high schools and VSHEs. When this project’s implementation

was begun, two programs of the VSHE started delivering programs in Industrial High

School and Vocational School for Girls as a part of resource sharing initiative.

The vision of Çanakkale VSHE is to train qualified skilled higher technicians.

The mission of the Çanakkale VSHE is as is to serve the region by producing goods,

service, and project. The goal of Çanakkale VSHE is to train individuals who value

knowledge, establish the connections between knowledge and life, and follow

innovations closely. Çanakkale VSHE programs emphasize vocational investigation,

problem-solving skills, evaluation and decision-making skills.

Table 2. The Programs of Çanakkale VSHE.

343

Technical Programs

Number of

StudentsEconomics and Administrative

Programs

Number

of

Students

 Graphic 46  Accounting 155

 Photograph 75  Business 178

Computer

Technology and

Programming

108 Bureau Management and

Secretarial Training

103

 Construction 301  Accounting (Evening) 108

 Computer

Technology and

Programming

(Evening)

105

 Business (Evening)

102

 Construction

(Evening)

83  Bureau Management and

Secretary (Evening)

94

 Mechanics

(Evening)

215 

 Electrical (Evening) 325  

 Furniture-Decoration

(Evening)

86 

 Textile (Evening) 94  

 Child Development

(Evening)

92 

Total number of students:   2,284

Çanakkale VSHE has the following facilities: Two computer labs, one technical

drawing studio, photograph studio, concrete and tool lab, dark room, film recording

studio, geological laboratory, asphalt laboratory, secretarial office, and two professional

workshops at the two vocational high schools.

344

The curriculum revised recently with a collaboration, “The Ministry of

Education-Higher Education Council VSHE Curriculum Development Initiative.”

Curriculum was mainly determined centrally with the participation of a large group of

experts as well as faculty members from VSHEs. In addition, elective courses

determined by the Çanakkale VSHE, based on the regional, technological developments

and economic utility for the region.

Compared to other VSHEs in Turkey, Çanakkale may be considered as one of the

attractive cities regionally. Çanakkale MYO placed itself among the VSHEs that provide

quality education. Since 1992, the programs of the VSHEs attracted students and had not

experienced a decline in student enrollments.

Although many of VSHEs in Turkey constrained by limitations in terms of

laboratories, qualified faculty members, Çanakkale VSHE has recently started experience

physical limitations because of the surge in student enrollments as a result of “open

access” policy nationwide. However, Çanakkale VSHE still have not experienced

problems related to laboratories. Some of its programs create value added through the

revolving funds.

The three challenges Çanakkale VSHE is currently experiencing is the quality of

students, issues related to newly established programs, and physical limitations such as

classroom, imposed by the recent surge in enrollment, again as a result of open access

policy.

Since open access policy enforced by law, students do not have to go through

admission exams. The majority of students of VSHEs come from Vocational and

Technical High Schools. Therefore, the quality of students who have been enrolled to

vocational and technical high schools are quite low. Çanakkale VSHE and other VSHEs

claim that this has had an adverse effects upon them. These students usually are not

ready to receive university level training. In addition to lack of knowledge, these

students demonstrate behavioral problems as well.

This issue points out to a problems the Turkish VSHEs are likely to face in the

near future. They do not provide preparatory courses. VSHEs hope that the law will

change and more qualified students will come soon. This may not be the case and

VSHEs may need to provide preparatory courses to these students.

345

Some of the programs opened by the pressure from the Council of Higher

Education. Council of Higher Education’s goal was to create certain programs which

existed in the vocational and technical high schools in Çanakkale VSHE. Therefore,

vertical connections articulated between programs of Vocational High Schools in

Çanakkale and Çanakkale VSHE. These programs were opened without being able to

follow through the necessary preparations. The main goal was to utilize the existing

capacity after work hours (evenings). Students went to the vocational high schools where

they graduated from and in certain instances with the same faculty. Initially, this created

some problems. Organizational problems emerged between vocational high schools and

Çanakkale VSHE. Students were demoralized by going to the same schools where they

had graduated. A positive aspect of this project has been the utilization of VSHEs and

Vocational and Technical High Schools during the evenings. This was not the case in the

past. As a result, students may both work and continue their training in the evening. Lack

of faculty has been a limitation initially. However, open faculty positions filled over time.

The strengths of Çanakkale VSHE is its long 30 year history, limited number of

problems in terms of training and teaching, and sufficient number of faculty in terms of

both quality and quantity. These strengths of Çanakkale VSHE are usually the

weaknesses of the majority of VSHEs in Turkey. Only 1/5 of all VSHEs have not been

constrained by these problems. The rest have been struggling with these issues.

Growth related issues have been expected in Çanakkale VSHE. The number of

programs are greater than the administration planned to have. The administration is

willing to create two institutions: One for Social and Administrative Programs and one

for Technical Programs. This is a common approach in Turkey. However, this leads to

inefficient use of resources. There are certain programs both in business & economics

programs and technical programs.

In order to increase the effectiveness of Çanakkale VSHE, the administration and

faculty would like to discontinue open access policy for vocational high school graduates.

Since the demand for higher education is quite high and the spaces in higher education

are limited, VSHEs can easily find more qualified students. This was the case a few

years earlier. Faculty and administrators are likely to remember the past when it was

easier to teach and there were fewer behavioral problems. There are studies conducted to

346

support this claim shared by many VSHEs in Turkey. However, the mission of two-year

colleges has also been to provide access to disadvantaged groups around the world.

For a better integration of Çanakkale VSHE with the market, student work-study

needs to be more effective. Currently, work-study is mandatory, but it is far from

providing an opportunity to find jobs. Since Çanakkale is not an industrial city, students

experience serious problems in finding jobs. The provincial areas depend upon

agriculture as their economic mainstay.

The relationship between VSHE and the parent university is as follows: Since

Çanakkale VSHE is one of the oldest institutions when Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart

University was established, it has a good reputation when compared to other VSHEs.

VSHEs do not usually receive necessary attention and respect from universities with

which they are connected. Even though, these institutions provide income for

universities (especially for the newer ones), VSHEs still do not get enough attention.

When considered from this perspective, Çanakkale VSHE has a good relationship with

the university. However, this is not the case with other 15 VSHEs attached to Çanakkale

Onsekiz Mart University.

The contribution of Çanakkale VSHE to its immediate environment is limited

since the city does not have a large industrial base. Construction laboratory courses serve

to the city of Çanakkale for concrete and asphalt testing. Other programs provide

seminars and training programs when there is a demand from the public.

The Future Vision for the VSHE System

Turkey wants to enlarge its VSHEs in the future. This is reflected in Council of

Higher Education’s key policy documents as “ the Turkish Higher Education System’s

natural growth area is the expansion of the Vocational Schools.” Turkey has a large

young population. Therefore, the demand for higher education is quite high. Each year,

almost 2 million students compete for places in the universities. Almost, 20 % of these

students have been accepted to four year institutions. In addition, school age population

continues to increase. As a result, the current situation cannot be sustainable.

Although there has been a sharp increase in enrollments, the number of students

in private universities are quite low in Turkey. 25 Private foundation universities train

347

only 2 % of all students in higher education. Recent developments in private foundation

higher education institutions are likely to continue and therefore the number of students

in private universities are likely to increase. Turkish student population in USA ranks 8th

place in the world. Many Turkish students also seek cheaper alternative higher education

opportunities in Balkan, Baltic and former Soviet Union countries, which probably means

high demand for higher education will continue.

As mentioned earlier, while only foundational universities were allowed to

establish universities in the past, other foundations are allowed to establish VSHEs. This

recent development is likely to have two important consequences for VSHEs. First, if

foundations wanted to establish a VSHE in the past, they had to establish a university and

then they were allowed to open VSHEs within their universities. It is clear that

establishing a university costs more than a VSHE. However, now foundations are

allowed to establish VSHEs without having established a university. This development

creates an incentive to start with VSHEs.

Finally, Turkey leads in its development of vocational education, technical

education, and two year technical schools and colleges. It has a strong history of trying to

solve the match between its post-secondary training and the new emerging and an even

more technical global economy. With great effort and dedication, Turkey will find its

place in the world of high tier technical and post-secondary preparation of its citizens.

348

References

Anadolu University. Open Education Faculty. www.anadolu.edu.tr. Retrieved on

February 10, 2006.

Ataünal, A. (1998). Cumhuriyetin 75. Yılıda Yükseköğretim. [Higher Education in the

Republic’s 75th Anniversary.] Ankara: Ministry of Education.

Aypay, A. (2003). Türkiye’de Meslek Yüksek Okulları. [Vocational Schools of Higher

Education in Turkey.] Unpublished Research Report. Çanakkale: Çanakkale

Onsekiz Mart University.

Balcı, S. & Kavak, Ş. (1996, Mayıs) Meslek Yüksekokullarının Mevcut Durumu ve

Yeniden Yapılanması Üzerine Bir Model Önerisi. 21. Yüzyıla Doğru Meslek

Yüksekokullarının Yeniden Yapılanması konulu sempozyumda sunulmuş bildiri,

Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi Basımevi.

Baskan, G. A. (1999). YÖK/Dünya Bankası Endüstriyel Eğitim Projesi uygulamalarının

değerlendirilmesi. Dumlupınar Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi, (1), 65- 110.

Cohen, A. M. & Brawer, F. B. (1996). The American community college (3rd Ed.). San

Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Demir, M. & Işıksoylu, M. A. (1996, Mayıs) Meslek Yüksekokullarının Yükseköğretim

Yasasından Kaynaklanan Sorunları. 21. Yüzyıla Doğru Meslek Yüksekokullarının

Yeniden Yapılanması konulu sempozyumda sunulmuş bildiri, Ankara: Ankara

Üniversitesi Basımevi.

DPT. (2000). Kalkınma Planı: Sekizinci Beş Yıl (2001-2005). Ankara: DPT Yayınları.

Dundar, H. and Lewis, D.R. (1995) Costs and economies of scale in Turkey’s post-

secondary vocational schools, Higher Education, 30, pp.369-387.

Erdönmez, C. ( 2006). Electronic Communication. Çanakkale MYO: Çanakkale.

Karasar, N. (1981). Ön lisans eğitimi ve teknik eğitimde uygulanabilirliği. Ankara:

Ankara

Üniversitesi Eğitim Bilimleri Fakültesi Yayınları.

Karhan, K. (1983). Ara insan gücü. Yayınlanmamış ders notu.

Kavak, Y. (1992). Meslek yüksekokulları: Değişim ve iş hayatıyla ilişkileri. Ankara:

Everen Ofset.

349

Kaya, Y. K. (1984). İnsan yetiştirme düzenimiz: Politika, eğitim, kalkınma (4. Baskı).

Ankara.

MEB & YÖK. (2002). MYO program geliştirme projesi. Ankara.

Nazik, A. (2003). MYO’ların Türkiye’de ve Yükseköğretim İçindeki Durumu,

Gereklilikleri ve Temel Görevleri. Çukurova Üniversitesinde sunulmuş bildiri,

Adana.

ÖSYM. (2003). Meslek yüksekokulları ile açıköğretim önlisans programları mezunlarının

lisans öğrenimine dikey geçiş sınavı sonuçları. Ankara: ÖSYM Yayınları.

ÖSYM. (2002a). (2002-2003) ÖSS kılavuzu. Ankara: ÖSYM Yayınları.

ÖSYM. (2002b). ÖSYS yükseköğretim programları ve kontenjanları kılavuzu. Ankara:

ÖSYM Yayınları.

Üniversiteler Kanunu: 1750 sayılı. Resmi Gazete, 7 temmuz 1973/14587.

YÖK. (2003). Türk yükseköğretiminin bugünkü durumu. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi

Basımevi.

YÖK. (2004). I. Ulusal Meslek Yüksek Okulları Müdürler Toplantısı. 26-28 Kasım 2004

Nevşehir. Ankara: Detay Yayıncılık.

YÖK. (2005). Türk yükseköğretiminin bugünkü durumu. Ankara: Ankara Üniversitesi

Basımevi.

YÖK-MEB. (2002). Mesleki ve teknik eğitimde orta ve yükseköğretim kurumları

arasında program bütünlüğünün sağlanması (sınavsız geçiş) bilgi kılavuzu.

Ankara.

YÖK Kanunu: 2547 sayılı. Resmi Gazete, 6 Kasım 1981/17506.

YÖK Kanunu: 3843 sayılı. Resmi Gazete, 27 Kasım 1992/21418.

350

The United Arab Emirates

Paul A. Elsner, Ed. D.

James Horton, Ph. D.

Dr. Paul Elsner visited the Higher Colleges of Technology in the United Arab Emirates

on several occasions and has written a definitive organizational study of the highly

regarded HCT system. He serves as Chancellor Emeritus of the Maricopa County

Community College District, one of the largest community college systems in the United

States.

Dr. James Horton presided over the Higher Colleges of Technology system as its chief

operational officer and vice chancellor from 2003 through 2005. Prior to his service in

the United Arab Emirates, he held distinguished positions as chancellor and president of

major multi-college systems. He is currently President of Yavapai College, a system of

multiple campuses covering one of the largest counties in the state of Arizona.

351

Background

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) flourishes among the Middle Eastern nations as

a premier, modern, technologically advanced alliance of seven emirates governed by a

federation, with specific powers stipulated to a central federal government, as well as

some authority ordained for member emirates.

           The seven states merged to become the UAE, independent from United Kingdom

colonization, in 1971. The 2006 World Fact Book of the U.S. Central Intelligence

Agency highlights the nation’s remarkable success as a Western-modeled economy:

The UAE has an open economy with a high per cent capita income and a

sizable annual trade surplus. Its wealth is based on oil and gas output

(about 30% of GDP), and the fortunes of the economy fluctuate with the

prices of those commodities. Since the discovery of oil in the UAE more

than 30 years ago, the UAE has undergone a profound transformation

from an impoverished region of small desert principalities to a modern

state with a high standard of living. At present levels of production, oil

and gas reserves should last for more than 100 years. The government has

increased spending on job creation and infrastructure expansion and is

opening up its utilities to greater private sector involvement. Higher oil

revenue, strong liquidity, and cheap credit in 2005 led to a surge in asset

prices (shares and real estate) and consumer inflation. 1

          

 James Doyle, former executive director of the Association of Polytechnics in New

Zealand and a member of several oversight ministerial steering committees, wrote the

following in a report issued by Paul Elsner Associates and other consultants:

The Country

The astonishing transformation of the United Arab Emirates since the

establishment of the state approximately 30 years ago is a testament to

inspired and visionary leadership. This is a country with a clearly defined

352

vision of its future: UAE will embrace an open, sophisticated, cutting-edge

economy, driven by Western values but, at the same time, consistent with

and faithful to traditional Gulf and Islamic values. The UAE is determined

to prove that the two cultural prerogatives can be reconciled.

As part of that vision, the UAE government upholds the policy of

increasing “Emeritization” of the economy, i.e., an increasing

participation of nationals in the workforce and an increase in the number

of nationals holding positions of authority and leadership. The

implications of this policy are profound and far-reaching, resulting in a

significant increase of women in the workforce and a greater participation

by both genders in the private sector.  

Cultural, Socioeconomic and Higher-Education Context

It is important to recognize the unique cultural, socioeconomic and higher

education situation in which HCT is operating a program of higher

education in the United Arab Emirates.

The UAE is a federation with seven rulers, each presiding over

geographies that vary immensely from one another in population,

economic resources, size and economic development goals and potential.

The UAE is governmentally a Muslim nation, but it permits other religions

to operate in the country.

Only 20 percent of the 2.8 million population is comprised of nationals,

who represent modern-day descendants of the original Bedouin tribes.

These nationals are mostly employed in government service, which offers

initially higher salaries, fewer and more predictable hours and greater job

security. However, government employment opportunities are becoming

saturated.

353

Nationals constitute only 2 percent of employees in private business and

industry, even though firms entering the UAE to do business must be at

least 51-percent locally owned. In order to generate greater employment

of nationals in private industry, a program of “emeritization” has begun

by requiring the banking industry to employ nationals as 20 percent of its

workforce, with that number rising to 40 percent by 2010. The insurance

industry has also recently come under this government mandate.

Other industry development targets include finance, business, tourism,

aviation, information technology, media, services, trade and industry. The

focus centers on attracting multinational corporations and the best-

qualified professionals in those fields. Essentially, nationals are not yet

competitive for these positions.

The long-range implications of minuscule participation by nationals in the

economy of the country while outside investment and ownership is courted

could result in this sector having a decreasing influence in both the

direction of the country and the opportunity to own and participate in the

development of wealth.

Within this scenario, the HCT system of public colleges in the UAE has the

primary mission to prepare nationals for gainful employment. While the

enrollments have grown from a few hundred 15 years ago to more than

22,000, HCT’s financial structure and other considerations force the

colleges to turn away qualified students.

While HCT is also complicated by a desire to provide an

American/Western-style education that somewhat resembles community

colleges, it is also constrained by a more European model that bases

admission on past educational performance and the results of national

354

examinations. This situation occurs in a setting where indicators of past

performance are also unreliable. 2

The wisdom of the HCT system reflects the balance and vision of His Excellency Sheikh

Nahayan Mabarak Al Nahayan, an expansive thinker and decisive ruler who oversees the

HCT as the UAE’s Minister of Higher Education. In addition, he serves as President of

the newer Zayed University and de facto as a principal emissary for cultural and scientific

affairs, as well as the nation’s broader educational policy.

Tayeb Kamali, Ph.D., a native Arab who operationally oversees the entire HCT system,

serves as his able vice-chancellor. Dr. Kamali’s background includes doctoral credentials

from Western universities, as well as an astute perception of Emirate culture and public

nuances, timing and perception. Dr. Kamali’s tenure follows a succession of expatriate,

Western-directed vice-chancellors.

In a major report filed by Paul Elsner Associates in late 2003, several topics surfaced.

One of the central issues focused on “emeritization.” 3

           

           Thomas Bailey, Ph.D., director of the Community College Research Center at

Columbia University, made the following direct comments published in that report:

           

           HCT activities must be understood in the context of ongoing

development plans for the UAE, particularly in its efforts to wean itself of

an oil-dominated economy. The policy of “emeritization” is a crucial

component of this strategy. Nationals are already well-represented in the

public sector, but the next important step of the policy is to bring them into

the international sectors of the economy in greater numbers. These are the

fastest growing and most dynamic economic sectors, which are now

almost completely dominated by an expatriate labor force. While reliance

on expatriates appears to be working now, over the long term, it will

result in a distorted, unbalanced economy. In effect, the national

355

population will be confined to the public sector and less able to benefit

directly from the modern growth of the economy. This will place greater

burdens on the public sector to provide resources to the population either

through oil revenues or through other business-related government

revenue streams. A much healthier, sustainable strategy would be to have

the national population benefit directly from employment and

entrepreneurship in international sectors rather than indirectly through

government resources. One goal of our work is to help determine how

HCT can contribute to that crucial objective. 4

HCT HISTORY

In 1988 the first four HCT campuses opened in Abu Dhabi and Dubai with 239 students.

Today there are 14 campuses, located in Abu Dhabi, Dubai, Al Ain, Fujairah, Ras al

Khaimah, Sharja and Madinet Zayed, with an enrollment of more than 22,000

students. Each city location has a separate campus for men and women. Madinet Zayed,

the newest location in the remote western area of the Emirates, serves a small disparate

population and utilizes one facility with common library and dining facilities scheduled

separately for men and women. 

The Center for Research and Training (CERT, is now a separately incorporated entity

that specializes in customized programs for industry and government.  CERT has

acquired significant private funding and, for all practical purposes, serves as a separate

business.  It now has the capability to provide venture capital funding for business

development and expansion.   The location of the IBM’s Blue Gene at CERT is a

significant addition that positions the Emirates as a major provider of supercomputing

services throughout the Middle East and North African nations. 5

Only Emirate nationals can attend the Higher Colleges of Technology.   Currently, 60

percent of the students are women and all students are high school graduates who achieve

356

a combination of a national test score and class placement to be eligible to attend an HCT

college. English is the primary language of instruction and its proficiency is required.

While the colleges remain separate, there are no restrictions for male faculty teaching

within women’s colleges.  Young men coming out of high school have many

opportunities for lucrative careers within the police or the military.  Young women do not

have these opportunities and are therefore very eager and dedicated students.  Students

are challenged by faculty members from more than 40 countries who speak English in

every conceivable dialect.

STRUCTURE AND MANAGEMENT

The following organizational chart outlines the basic management structure of the Higher

Colleges of Technology: 6

Management Organization

357

Chancellor of the Higher Colleges of Technology

H.E. Sheikh Nahayan Mabarak Al Nahayan

Governing Council

Vice Chancellor of the Higher Colleges of Technology Policy

Council

Committees Academic Pathways Budget IT Steering Personnel Purchasing Program

Quality Assurance

Academic & Central Services Directors

Academic Services Academic Projects & Institutional Quality CERT CRMD Finance & Administration Planning & Human Resources

College Directors

AAMC FWC AAWC RKMC ADMC RKWC ADWC SMC DMC SWC DWC

It is interesting to note that the Governing Council has a lateral relationship with His

Excellency, Sheikh Nahayan Mabarak al Nahayan, and Chancellor of HCT. The council,

comprised of government and business leaders, is required by statute to approve HCT

policies. The council meets once a year to consider policy revisions, review the college

system’s performance, past year expenditures and budget request for the subsequent year.

However, the council cannot approve the budget since this remains the sole responsibility

of the federal government. His Excellency will forward requests for funding beyond the

level recommended for the federal budget office to the Federal National Council for

consideration.

While, the vice chancellor is given a great deal of latitude by His Excellency, it remains

imperative that he be continually involved in the decision-making process. However, the

conduct of business poses a very different situation for Western administrators.

As mentioned earlier, Sheikh Nahayan is not only the Minister of Higher Education and

President of the University of the United Arab Emirates and Zayed University, but he

also manages a number of major business interests that require a great deal of his time.

The primary method for meeting with the chancellor involves attendance at an evening or

weekend majlis. The word majlis literally means “a reception room” where guest are

received. The word is now generally used as a term for a time when a sheikh or ruler

receives guests and business associates.

Sheikh Nahayan holds a majlis reception virtually every day of the week, which is open

to anyone who would like to show his respect for His Excellency or seek his assistance in

business or personal matters. The normal course of business for the vice chancellor is to

attend majlis in the evening, participate in the formalities and wait to have a private

meeting with His Excellency. Since an enormously full schedule warrants little time for

extensive background briefings, decisions are often made very quickly. Therefore, the

vice chancellor must be well-prepared to present issues relevant to a decision in a very

succinct manner.

358

Each college or major Central Office functional area is headed by a director, a position

very similar to campus deans or presidents in Western multi-campus systems. The Policy

Council meets once-a-month to work through operational issues and create policy

recommendations for ultimate approval by the chancellor and the policy council.

 In the early years, Chancellor Nahayan maintained very strong central control of all HCT

programs and activities, believing this would ensure optimal quality development as new

colleges were established. All budget decisions hinged on Central Office determination of

program, staffing and facilities needs. Curriculum was created and tightly controlled from

the Central Office, which also shouldered responsibility for central quality control

through a variety of mechanisms including centralized testing and site visits.

Anyone familiar with multi-campus systems can predict the pressure for change as HCT

campuses matured and developed their own individual character. Directors increasingly

identified with their individual campuses and developed strong ties with the rulers and

governments of the individual Emirates.  Campuses demanded more autonomy and began

independent experimentation with curriculum and delivery methodologies. 

FUNDING

HCT funding is technically the sole responsibility of the federal government. How

revenue flows into the federal budget from the United Arab Emirate’s resources remains

unclear. Only a portion of this total income is designated for federal government

expenditures.

The Emirate of Abu Dhabi contains virtually all of the country’s oil and provides the

majority of revenue for the federal budget.  Dubai, on the other hand, wins all of the

international attention, yet it yields virtually no oil. Consequently, it has positioned itself

as the business and trading capital of the entire region.  The fact that individual Emirates

359

may decide to provide separate support for the campus located within their own

jurisdiction further complicates the challenge of creating an equitable budgeting system.

For example, the municipality of Dubai provided all of the capital funding for Dubai

Women’s and Men’s colleges.  Consequently, these colleges have splendid facilities that

would rival anything in the U.S.  An individual Emirate ruler or government may also

provide specialized scholarship or equipment funding.  A combination of His

Excellency’s influence and the ability of individual campus directors to develop

relationships with influential members of their respective Emirates results in access to

these funds.   Colleges located in the more rural and less affluent Emirates have reduced

potential for this additional assistance and must depend almost exclusively on funds

allocated from the federal system. 

HCT has traditionally been well-funded.  In recent years, operational resources ranged

around AED 37,000, or about $10,000 dollars per student.  Generally, the colleges offer

favorable student-to-faculty ratios (16:1) and leading-edge instructional technologies.  A

laptop computer purchase represents the only expense requirement for students who

enjoy a tuition-free education.

Operational costs of the HCT colleges run inherently high due to the separate campuses

for men and women.  Despite some attempt to combine the management structure, many

duplicated expenses still exist.  Complicating this fact is the increasing pressure to admit

all qualified secondary school graduates.

Since His Excellency remains adamant about ensuring its ongoing academic quality, he

therefore supports a policy of limiting enrollment to preserve ideal faculty-student ratios

and leading-edge instructional technology.  In recent years as many as 1,500 students

have been unable to enroll because of this matriculation cap.  In September 2006, His

Highness Sheikh Mohammad bin Rashid al Maktoum announced that Dubai would

supplement the federal budget by AED 70,000,000, or approximately $19,000,000, to

fund additional student enrollments. 7

360

THE EVOLUTION OF CHANGE

Like other multi-campus systems worldwide, HCT struggles to find the balance between

centralized control and campus autonomy.  A rational, formula-driven process, based on

enrollment and program cost increasingly determines budgets.  Campuses continue to

follow a centralized learning-outcomes model but have more latitude to develop creative

approaches to the academic process. 

Dubai Women’s College has initiated a creative instructional methodology that requires

students to be involved in the development of their own learning activities and record

specific examples as to how these activities are helping the student achieve the college’s

learning outcomes.

As colleges become more responsive to the educational needs of their communities, the

need to control costs and ensure high quality education throughout the country will

require continual refinement of the balance between central control and the freedom for

innovation at the campus level.

THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

            It is important to understand His Excellency Sheikh Nahayan’s tremendous

influence on the learning environment.  A truly visionary leader, he remains highly

respected throughout the country and region.  From the beginning he envisioned a college

system that would rank among the best in the world.  His requirement for any benchmark

consisted of identifying educational programs with an outstanding international

reputation. 

For example, the University of Melbourne served as the benchmark chosen for the HCT

educational program.  The relationship progressed to the point where Melbourne faculty

would travel to the UAE to evaluate the program and independently grade student work. 

His Excellency quickly adopted learning outcomes appropriate for each awarded

361

qualification.  Every student was therefore expected to demonstrate qualification-

appropriate competence in the following: 8

1. Communications and Information Literacy

2. Critical Thinking, Problem-solving and Interdisciplinary Exploration

3. Global Awareness

4. Information Technology

5. Self-management

6. Commitment to Lifelong Learning, Teamwork and Leadership

7. Vocational Competence 

In addition, his desire to achieve American Regional Accreditation resulted from an

extension of this adoption of learning outcomes and the concept of institutional

effectiveness.  HCT is currently pursuing accreditation through the Southern Association

of Colleges and Universities.

Western faculty and staff often struggle with the implementation of the sanctions His

Excellency imposed for academic dishonesty. Just one offense denies the student

admission to any federally funded institution of higher education for life.

Influential families often appeal directly to Sheikh Nahayan to overturn staff decisions,

but he does not waver.  Instead, he offers the rationale that academic dishonesty, while

common in the secondary schools, has no place in higher education. He also emphasizes

that students must embrace the importance of the legitimacy of HCT student credentials

along with honesty and integrity in the world of international business.

His Excellency’s expectation for women is particularly interesting.  He encourages them

to be successful and able to assume their position within the professional ranks of

business and government.  For example, when meeting female students, he would often

use the opportunity to challenge the accepted practice of avoiding shaking hands with a

woman unless she offered.  Instead, he would always initiate the handshake as a way of

362

letting the women know it represents standard etiquette within the international business

community, irregardless of gender. 

HCT offers diplomas, higher diplomas and bachelor’s degrees in engineering,

information technology, business, health care, media/communication technology and

education, with a number of options under each of these major categories.  Each program

area must include advisory groups that represent employers who will ultimately hire the

graduates. 

While constantly adjusted to meet the demands of specific occupations or the needs of

business and government, the curriculum is also designed to be sensitive to Arab customs

and Islamic beliefs – one reason HCT publishes much of its own text.  The need to

present high-standard technical information at a level appropriate for non-native English-

speaking learners poses yet another good reason. Many of these text have been adopted

by institutions of higher education in other Arab countries.

HCT offered certificates for several years but dropped them in 2004 because employers

did not distinguish between graduates with certificates and those with diplomas or higher

diplomas.  Since HCT has developed an excellent reputation for preparing competent,

ready-to-work graduates, certificate students lacked the preparation to meet this

expectation. 

Nearly all students must complete the Foundation Year, which is similar to remedial

programs in other countries, before proceeding into any of the diploma, higher diploma

or baccalaureate programs. English represents the biggest hurdle for most of these

students.  While they study English in high school, their proficiency typically falls short

of the college level even though they have met the minimal entry requirements. Students

achieve greater success when the Foundation Year courses, particularly in mathematics,

bear some relevancy to their choice of discipline. For example, an applied medical math

course taught to students entering the health-care field met with the greatest success. 

363

EMPLOYABILITY AND “EMERITIZATION”

Students must integrate a work experience as part of their curriculum at HCT to gain

practical experience and an acquaintance with potential employers. The experience is

complicated in many organizations, particularly those under government pressure to hire

nationals, because the mentors assigned to the students often feel threatened by the

prospect of losing their job to an HCT graduate. Companies are also threatened by the

economic reality that they can hire highly educated and experienced workers from the

sub continent at wages far below what is expected by westerners or Emirate nationals.

The companies with the best record or mentoring and hiring HCT students are those that

offer a combination of government and private ownership. Examples include Etisilatt, a

giant telecommunications company, and Abu Dhabi National Oil company. There are

other examples of foreign-based, private-sector firms that are committed to the national

goals of “emeritization” and very supportive of HCT.

Obtaining and tracking accurate employment data poses a challenge. Many graduates

continue to have their names appear on the unemployment register in hopes of gaining

better positions even though they are currently employed. Women often do not take their

names off of the unemployment register because they are actually hoping for a

government position that offers a culture and time commitment that is much more in sync

with the demands and customs of family life.

Many HCT graduates have achieved distinguished positions in all types of businesses

throughout the country.  Undoubtedly, these business leaders will influence their

companies to hire more HCT graduates.  HCT’s marketing and public relations personnel

face the challenge of making these success stories more public. The system publishes Al

Rawi (The Storyteller in Arabic), a quality magazine that primarily highlights the success

of graduates and HCT’s strong ties with the corporate sector.  9

364

Both the English and Arabic press have also been responsive to news releases.  Again,

major news organizations now employ a number of HCT graduates and have therefore

become more receptive.  Despite this very positive trend, however, the employment of

graduates will not progress to level needed in the UAE unless the government continues

to place pressure on private-sector companies to meet government quotas for the

employment of nationals.

Perhaps the greatest potential for graduates lies in starting their own business.  The ruler

of Dubai has dedicated a significant sum ($150,000,000) to fund start-up entrepreneurial

efforts.  The colleges now place an increasing emphasis on entrepreneurial pursuits and

often host student-run businesses on campus.  Many of these new ventures have become

successful enterprises after the students graduate.

STAFFING

HCT currently employs approximately 950 faculty and more than 800 staff members

representing 40 countries.  Obviously the Human Resources staff operates in a constant

mode of recruiting and hiring – an enormous and very expensive process.  The HR

managers have developed a system for tracking this process that would be of interest to

other international institutions of higher education.

The process involves ongoing screening by relevant faculty and staff across the

system. Discipline specific teams continually review and rate candidate applications and

curriculum vitas through an internet system. The result is a very efficient process for

reviewing the thousands of applications received each year.

The English fluency requirement draws a concentration of Westerners from the U.S.,

Canada, U.K., Australia and New Zealand.  Only potential campus or Central Office

directors are invited to visit the UAE. 

365

Most faculty and staff base their decision on discussions with recruiters, as well as their

own research about working and living in the UAE.  The living accommodations and

travel allowances also appeal to a large group of individuals willing to experience an

expatriate lifestyle and motivated to join an institution helping to build a nation. 

Candidates often have acquaintances already employed in the UAE, so they are

comfortable with the prospects of living in this country and experiencing its unique

culture.  Western women quickly discover that there are no restrictions on their dress,

driving or typical activities.  Naturally, everyone is expected to honor the local customs,

especially during Ramadan and other holy days. 

The cities offer excellent shopping, and Westerners can find almost anything they want. 

Staff members who work in the rural areas do not have as much accessibility, but it

doesn’t take long to reach Dubai or Abu Dhabi due to the country’s small size. 

Undeniably, HCT’s diverse expatriate community members are interesting, dedicated to

their students and generally enjoy living in the UAE as well as working for an

exceptional academic institution.  HCT issues three-year contracts, and the average

tenure spans at least two contracts. 

STUDENTS AND ACADEMIC LIFE

Any experienced college-level instructor will recognize the students: They possess a

similar diversity of ability and commitment to their studies as well as many of the same

challenges of balancing their family, social, work and school life. 

The female students, in particular, take the program very seriously. Attending HCT offers

a stimulating and welcome change from the typical confinement and restrictions of the

home.  Their eagerness to learn and excel always impresses new faculty who teach at the

women’s colleges. 

366

One mistaken assumption is that all students are affluent.  While some certainly hail from

prosperous families – a fact substantiated by the cars parked at the men’s colleges – many

students, much like their counterparts in any country, stem from modest means.  Others

live in very isolated rural areas that require a two-or-more-hour ride on the bus to reach a

campus.    

In loco parentis is alive and well, especially at the women’s colleges.  Female students

are either bused to the campus or transported by an approved relative.  Women cannot

leave the campus without specific permission and approval by an authorized relative. 

More than one women’s college student council has petitioned for more lenient

regulations.  Things are slowly changing, particularly in the urban areas, but such

progress comes slowly. 

Directors and faculty at the women’s colleges have become very creative in providing

interesting activities for their students, ranging from art to campus-based businesses. 

While both the men’s and women’s campuses enjoy intramural athletics, men are not

welcome to participate in women’s sports for reasons of modesty. Furthermore, local

custom prohibits them from touching an Arab woman, even if she faints or is injured. 

FUTURE OF HCT

HCT’s success plays a vital role in the ongoing development of the UAE.  Since the

country remains tax-free, the continued funding of HCT at a level necessary to maintain

its high standards still poses a challenge. 

Every week at least two private institutions apply for accreditation within the country. 

His Excellency has established a Ministry of Higher Education with a number of

responsibilities, including decisions regarding the recognition of colleges and universities

that can operate within the country. 

367

Perhaps one unique irony of the UAE is that many government officials also have a

personal or financial interest in these private institutions. The percentage of HCT

graduates employed by the private sector must increase.  Hopefully, this will happen as

more nationals attain high-level managerial and leadership positions and as government

pressure intensifies. 

However, government pressure can also become a negative incentive to companies

considering a location in the UAE. Dubai’s success as a business center has been the

result of no taxes and a very friendly business climate without many of the regulatory

controls found in many countries.

Anyone who visits the Higher Colleges of Technology is impressed by the students,

faculty, facilities and technology of this young college system. Anyone who has worked

for The Higher Colleges of Technology leaves with a sense of pride in having the

opportunity to be a part of an organization that is making a significant difference in the

development of this amazing country.

368

NOTES

1. 2006 World Fact Book, Washington, D.C., U.S. Central Intelligence Agency

2. James Doyle Unpublished report of an Organzational Study: The United Arab Emirates. The Higher Colleges of Technology, 2003.

3. Shouly 1995 (“Factors Influencing Teacher Attrition in the UAE,” Ali Saeed Al Kaabi, Ph.D., University of Pittsburgh, 2005)

4. Thomas Bailey, Ph.D. Unpublished report to the Higher Colleges of Technology. The United Arab Emirates.2003.

5. Higher Colleges of Technology, “The HCT Learning Model,” Abu Dhabi,2003

6. Higher Colleges of Technology, “The HCT Learning Model,” Abu Dhabi,2003

7. Higher Colleges of Technology, The HCT Web Home Page Story, Abu Dhabi,2006

8. Higher Colleges of Technology, The HCT Learning Model, Abu Dhabi, 2003

9. Sulaiman Al Jassim Ed. Al Rawi, Volume II, Issue 3, Summer, Abu Dhabi, 2003

Community Colleges in the United States of America

George Boggs

The United States (also referred to as America or the US) is a complex country

because of its size and diversity, both in geography and in people. It is one of the largest

countries in the world in terms of land mass. At roughly 9.6 million square kilometers, it

is about the same size as China, although with nearly 300 million people, it is far behind

China in population. The continental United States, encompassing 48 of the 50 states,

borders Canada to the north and Mexico to the south. It is bound by the Pacific Ocean on

the west and the Atlantic Ocean on the east, with much of the population living near these

two coasts. The remaining states are Hawaii, encompassing a group on islands in the

Pacific Ocean, and Alaska, located in the Arctic Circle in northwestern North America

and separated from the contiguous states by Canada.

Geographically, America is a country of contrasts. Within its borders, one can

find beaches, deserts, mountains, and plains. Its national and state parks are stunning in

their beauty. Its lakes and rivers have historically served as important transportation

arteries in addition to their recreational use. The country is a mixture of densely

populated urban areas and wide areas of low population.

Politically, the US is divided into independent entities called states, each with its

own capitol and elected policy makers. There is a division of powers between the state

governments and the national or federal government, with the nation’s capitol located in

Washington, DC. Political subdivisions of the states include counties, boroughs,

townships, cities, villages, and towns. There are over 10,000 cities, towns, and villages

in the US. The government is a representative democracy or federal republic.

To a great degree, the history of the United States was shaped by immigration.

The US was seen as the country of “the American Dream,” where one’s success was not

370

bound by class distinctions. The country became a “melting pot” of cultures. Today,

75.1% of the US population is White, 12.3% is Black, 3,6% is Asian, 12.5% is Hispanic,

and 1% is Native American. Hispanics and Asians are the most rapidly growing

populations in the US today.

The US has no official language, but American English is almost universal.

Because of the concentration of immigrants in some locations, Spanish or an Asian

language may be spoken, especially by first generation immigrants.

Public schools (elementary and secondary) in the US are funded at the county or

city level, with income derived generally from a tax on property. States have recently

begun to exert more control over funding, and the federal government, which historically

has not been involved in education, passed legislation in 2001 intended to improve the

quality of primary education throughout the country, the “No Child Left Behind Act.”

There are also numerous private elementary and secondary schools, most often

religiously affiliated and funded through tuition and private donations.

Structure of U.S. Higher Education

The higher education system in the US, ranked among the very best in the world,

offers a great variety of options. Institution types range from community colleges, to

small liberal arts colleges, to state universities, to major research universities, to

proprietary (for-profit) institutions. While the earliest colleges in America were greatly

influenced by European higher education, the US has evolved its own very diverse

system of postsecondary and higher education.

Postsecondary education institutions in the U.S. generally are of three broad types, each

of which includes both public and private institutions:

Two-year colleges, usually referred to as community, junior, or technical

colleges.

Four-year colleges, which offer either four years of general undergraduate

education (liberal arts) or a combination of general and pre-professional

education.

371

Comprehensive universities, which offer both undergraduate and graduate

education as well as professional degrees.

The U.S. federal government does not exercise control or serve as the primary

funder of higher education institutions. Each state is responsible for most aspects of

education within its borders. The states have limited authority over private college and

universities. Most postsecondary institutions are either established by the state (public

colleges and universities) or receive their charters from them (private colleges and

universities). State governments have the legal authority to regulate and approve their

continued operations, even though independent non-governmental bodies carry out the

accreditation.

Origins and Development of the Community College Movement

From relatively modest nineteenth century beginnings, community colleges in the

US have grown to the point that nearly half of all students in US higher education attend

them. These institutions were established to provide every American with an opportunity

to obtain up to two years of post-secondary education. Community colleges are

regionally accredited institutions of higher education that offer the associate degree as its

highest degree. The community college mission is to provide access, serve all segments

of society, provide a comprehensive educational program, serve the community, focus on

teaching and learning, and to foster lifelong learning. The community college egalitarian

and open-access mission and its community-responsive curricula are reflective of

America’s democratic ideals and values (Boggs and Cater, 1994). Policy makers refer to

these institutions as the economic engines of America because of the positive effect of

their workforce education and training programs. In about 1835, private academies, the

forerunners of American community colleges, began to appear in the US (Palinchak,

1973). These academies, with elements of both secondary and postsecondary curricula,

offered a variety of courses that could transfer into a university curriculum, as well as

and vocational courses. Such institutions included two-year normal schools or teachers’

colleges, as well as institutions for women and African Americans. While these

372

institutions have either disappeared or changed to four-year status, they proved the value

of higher education below the baccalaureate degree level.

By the latter part of the 19th century, some higher education leaders, influenced

by the German system, argued that the first two years of collegiate education should be

left to the secondary schools. This model would free universities from undergraduate

education and would allow them to concentrate on upper division, graduate, and

professional curricula. In the view of these educators, some students from the “junior

colleges,” as they were beginning to be called, would transfer to the university for

additional study, while others would end their education at grade 14 (Boggs and Cater,

1994). While this idea did not influence the structure of universities in the US beyond

the University of Chicago, which created Junior College and Senior College divisions, it

did stimulate the creation of the first community colleges.

In 1901, under the guidance of William Rainey Harper, the President of the

University of Chicago, and J. Stanley Brown, the Principal of Joliet High School, Joliet

Junior College was established near Chicago, Illinois. Most community college

historians point to the founding of Joliet Junior College as the beginning of the

Community College Movement in America a social movement that would open access to

higher education and training opportunities to students who would not otherwise have

had a chance due to economic, mobility, and social barriers . Joliet is the oldest

community college that is still in operation. Other areas of the US soon followed this

model. In 1907, legislation approved in California allowed local school districts to offer

the first two years of college work.

In 1917, the North Central Association of Schools and Colleges established

specific standards for the accreditation of public and private junior colleges. These

standards, governing such areas as admissions policies, faculty qualifications, and

minimum funding levels, not only brought a degree of uniformity to these new

institutions, but also invited them to participate in America’s unique system of

institutional self regulation and quality assurance (Vaughan, 2000). Today, all of the

community colleges in the US are accredited by one of the same five regional agencies

that accredit four-year colleges and universities. Most community colleges offer

associate degrees (after completion of the first two years of a university education) and a

373

variety of certificates of completion. Selected community colleges in some states can

now offer baccalaureate degrees.

The coming of the Great Depression in the 1930s brought an unexpected boost to

the Community College Movement (Brint and Karabel, 1989). The pressures of

economic hard times and the resulting high unemployment among all ages combined with

the number of college-age youth led the states to establish sixty-five public junior

colleges between 1933 and 1939. These institutions opened the doors for thousands of

students at a cost they could afford and offered employment opportunities once they

completed their studies.

A second significant growth period for community colleges began at the

conclusion of World War II. Millions of returning veterans were eager to move back into

the work force but they needed affordable education and training opportunities The

Servicemen’s Readjustment Act of 1944, commonly called the G. I. Bill of Rights,

provided the financial aid that allowed hundreds of thousands of returning veterans to

consider the possibility of higher education.

Out of concern for the capacity of the higher education sector to accommodate the

enrollment demand caused by the G. I. Bill, President Harry Truman established a

Commission on Higher Education in 1946. The Truman Commission report, issued in

1947, changed the course of higher education in the US from “merely being an

instrument for producing an intellectual elite” to becoming “the means by which every

citizen, youth, and adult, is enabled and encouraged” to pursue higher learning. The

Commission’s report marked the first general use of the term “community college” and

recommended that they expand nationally to provide universal access to postsecondary

education.

The greatest expansion of community colleges in the US took place between 1960

and 1970. During that decade, more than 450 new community colleges opened their

doors to accommodate the education and training needs of the “Baby boom” generation

(the children of the returning World War II soldiers). As a result, about 45% of all 18-

year-olds, enrolled in a community college (Phillippe and Gonzalez-Sullivan, 2005). .

With the approval of the Higher Education Facilities Act of 1963 and the Higher

Education Act of 1965, the US federal government dramatically expanded its direct aid to

374

community colleges and their students. Through the Facilities Act, communities were

given the means to construct new campuses and enlarge existing facilities. Through the

Higher Education Act and its subsequent reauthorizations, the federal government

provided a range of direct grants and loans to students based on financial need as a means

of lessening the barrier of cost to higher education access (Vaughan, 2000).

Beginning with the Navajo Community College in 1971 the federal government

began to support the development of tribally controlled community colleges. These

efforts culminated in 1978 with the adoption of the Tribally Controlled Community

College Assistance Act and the resulting expansion of community colleges to previously

underserved communities throughout the western US (Vaughan, 2000). The 31 Tribal

Colleges operating in the US today are relatively small, receiving funds primarily from

the US Bureau of Indian Affairs. A few offer baccalaureate degree, but most offer the

associate degree as their highest credential (Phillippe and Gonzalez-Sullivan, 2005).

While the early junior colleges focused on the transfer mission, that of providing

students with the first two years of a baccalaureate education before moving to university,

states in other parts of the US, developed technical colleges to prepare students to enter

the workforce. Over the years, these two types of institutions began to evolve into

today’s comprehensive community colleges. The technical colleges gradually began to

offer transfer courses, and the junior colleges began to offer vocational courses. The

colleges also began to offer a variety of remedial or developmental education courses to

prepare students for college level work, community service courses to meet the needs of

community members, and contract education courses to serve local industry. Depending

upon their location, these institutions may today be called community colleges, technical

colleges, technical community colleges, or even junior colleges. However, no matter

what they are named, these institutions are commonly referred to in the US as community

colleges. They are considered a part of the higher education system, generally affected

by the same laws and regulations that affect four-year colleges and universities.

As of fall 2005, there are 1,158 regionally accredited community colleges in the

US, including 979 public institutions, 148 independent institutions, and 31 Tribal

colleges. Approximately 6.6 million students take courses leading to the associate degree

while an additional 5 million students take non-credit courses.

375

Essentially, the community colleges’ purpose is, for the most part, three fold. The

first is to provide the first two years of a four-year college education. The goal for these

students is to achieve their associate’s degree and transfer to a four-year university to

obtain a baccalaureate degree.

The second purpose is to provide certificates and degrees for students so they can

immediately enter the workforce upon graduation. There are many programs that provide

students with a combination of liberal arts and a more focused set of courses that give

students technical or occupational skills. Examples of these kinds of programs are

degrees in allied health and public service where students will be nurses, paramedics,

physical therapists, or emergency medical technicians, firefighters, and police officers.

Other examples are in the computer field, where students become web-site managers or

computer network managers. These degrees are not designed so that students can transfer

to other four year colleges; however, students who wish to continue on to obtain a 4-year

university degree often are able to transfer their credits from these programs.

Currently, the five most popular community college programs in the United States

are registered nursing, law enforcement, licensed practical nursing, radiology, and

computer technologies. The average lifetime earnings for a graduate of a community

college with an associate degree are $1.6 million or about $.4 million more that a high

school graduate earns.

The third purpose of a community college is to focus on a wide variety of

community-based educational needs that are not at the level of higher education. This is

done in collaboration with employers in the community who need specific skills for their

workers. Community colleges typically see this as part of their role and responsibility in

the economic development of their community. This is considered “non-credit” work

since the education does not lead to a formal college degree. Non-credit courses are also

generally offered in such subjects as remedial education, English as a second language,

community service, professional development and personal growth.

American Community College Values

There are four enduring values that separate community colleges from other

institutions of higher education:

376

Access. US community colleges provide access to the most diverse student body

in American higher education. Forty-two percent of community college students are age

21 or younger; 41% are between ages 22 and 39; and 16% are 40 or over. Thirty three

percent of US community college students are minorities; 45% are first generation

college students; and 16% are single parents. Fifty-eight percent of American

community college students are female.

Community colleges provide access to higher education for people who would not

otherwise have a chance. They are considered more affordable than universities and

students no longer have to “go away” to college as campuses are located within

commuting distance of over 90% of the population of the United States. And a growing

number of community colleges are making learning even more accessible by delivering

courses through distance education.

Community responsiveness. American community colleges often develop unique

education and training programs to meet the needs of local business and industry These

institutions have traditionally responded to the educational needs of their communities,

developing important vocational programs, partnering with local institutions and

agencies, providing contract education and offering both credit and noncredit community

service programs. Some colleges provide facilities and support services to incubate new

entrepreneurial businesses; others are seen as cultural centers for their communities. U.S

community colleges also develop unique training programs to meet the needs of the local

business and industry. For example, the Community College of Southern Alabama has a

paper technology program to meet the needs of the pulp industry in that region. Napa

Valley College in California has a viticulture program to support the local wine industry.

The Maricopa County Community Colleges in Phoenix, Arizona, have computer chip

manufacturing programs to support the needs of the technology industry in that area of

the country.

When new immigrants enter a community, it is the community college that

provides courses in English language and citizenship. When a factory closes down in a

community, it is the community college that retrains the workers who are displaced.

When community leaders want to attract new businesses, the ability of the local

community college to provide the needed training for new workers is an important

377

service to the community. Ninety-five percent of businesses and organizations that

employ community colleges graduates are satisfied and recommend community college

workforce and education programs

A Clear Focus on Student Learning. Community college faculty staff and

administrators care about the success of their students. Class sizes are generally much

smaller that those found in the lower division classes in four-year colleges and

universities which leads to more one-on-one relationships between students and

professors. The faculty, unlike those in universities, is not expected to do discipline-area

research or to publish (although some do). Instead, the focus is on teaching and learning.

Faculty members have at least a master’s degree in the field in which they will teach,

although an increasing number have a doctorate degree. They are typically involved in

setting up the courses and the standards for academic achievement. These decisions are

often made within the framework of the specific academic disciplines. With some

disciplines, such as nursing or paralegal studies, national certification examinations set

standards and accredit each program.

Students who transfer from community colleges to four-year colleges and

universities to earn baccalaureate degrees generally do at least as well as the students who

start at the universities in terms of grade-point average and degree completion.

Distinguished graduates include Richard Carmona, the Surgeon General of the United

States; Craig Venter, the scientist who mapped the Human Genome; Gaddi Vasquez, the

Director of the US Peace Corps; and Eileen Collins, US Space Shuttle Commander.

Many community college graduates say that their best teachers were at the community

college, and that they would not have been able to pursue a higher education without

community colleges.

Resourcefulness/Entrepreneurial Sprit/Creativeness/Innovativeness. Community

college leaders often form partnerships with other educational institutions, local business

and industry, or local government agencies to provide facilities and educational programs

for students and community members. This innovative spirit extends into the classroom

where community college faculty and staff are not afraid to try to methods to help

students to be successful. For example, community college faculties were among the first

378

to experiment with distance learning technologies, group learning, learning communities,

service learning, and simulations.

Community College Funding, Governance, and Accountability

American community colleges receive most of their funding from federal, state,

and local taxes, with most of the support coming from local and state sources (Vaughan,

2000). While the funding policies vary widely from one state to another and even from

one community college to another, public community colleges are the segment of higher

education most reliant on taxpayer funding. t Nationally, community colleges receive

45% of their funds from state taxes, 20% from local taxes, 20% from student tuition and

fees, 5% from federal funds, and 10% from other sources. Community college leaders

have become more entrepreneurial in response to recent state budget cuts. Contract

education provided to local businesses is often a revenue generator for community

colleges. Community college leaders are also supplementing revenues by strengthening

local fundraising efforts through college foundations.

The chief executive officer (CEO) at American community colleges generally has

the title of president, chancellor or superintendent/president. The CEO of public

community colleges most commonly reports to an appointed or elected board of trustees,

depending upon the policies of the state. Some states have a state board that oversees

community colleges, sometimes in combination with local boards. The boards have the

responsibility to approve policies, to secure adequate funding for the institution, and to

see to it that the institution is administered properly. Boards also have the obligation to

protect the interests of the community and to plan to accommodate the needs of future

generations of students.

Boards of trustees also serve an important accountability function, helping to

assure that resources are wisely spent in alignment with the institution’s mission. Public

community colleges in the US are held accountable at several other levels as well. The

colleges submit data to state agencies, accreditation agencies, and to the federal

government. Information most commonly submitted to the states includes graduation

rates, transfer rates, passing scores on licensure examinations, student satisfaction, and

job placement rates.

379

Community colleges are accredited by regional accreditation agencies which ask

the colleges to perform an extensive self-study every seven to ten years, at which point a

team of visiting professionals evaluates the campus, with interim reports made to ensure

accreditation status is maintained. Regional accreditation is necessary for colleges to be

able to provide their students with access to national sources of financial aid, which helps

students pay for their classes.

Current Challenges to American Community Colleges

Despite their widely recognized value, America’s community colleges are facing

unprecedented challenges. In the early years of the new millennium, student enrollment

pressure has escalated, and college leaders have struggled to meet demand in the face of

steep state budget cuts, limited facilities, faculty turnover, escalating technology costs,

and increasing numbers of students who need remedial work before they can take

college-level classes. Community colleges in areas with factory closures, such as North

Carolina, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Mississippi, Colorado, Maryland, Ohio, New

Jersey, Washington, and Kansas, reported significant enrollment increases as workers

who are laid off seek retraining at their local community colleges. While several states

and individual community colleges have been successful in winning voter approval of

bond issues to renovate or build new facilities, operational budgets, as a result of

deteriorating state economies, have experienced several years of decline.

Community colleges’ enrollment pressures are driven by multiple factors.

Historically, their enrollments have increased during economic downturns as the

unemployed and under-employed turned to the colleges as the path to a better future.

Now, higher education in the US is beginning to experience the leading edge of a bulge

in the population of traditional-aged college students (18-to-24-year-olds)—the children

of Baby Boomers and new immigrants. What’s more, the percentage of high school

graduates who attend college has increased from 50% in 1980 to over 66% today. The US

Department of Education projects that by 2010, nearly 75% of high school seniors will

likely attend college. Students and their families in the US understand that education

beyond high school is more necessary than ever to be successful in today’s world.

380

Enrollment increases are also being sparked by the increased enrollment of

students who already have college degrees. Twenty-eight percent of community

colleges’ non-credit students have a bachelor’s degree or higher, and nearly half of these

non-credit students have some form of postsecondary credential, including bachelor’s,

master’s and doctoral degrees. Over one quarter of part-time community college students

enrolled for credit have some form of postsecondary credential. In order to stay

competitive in today’s volatile economy, people are using community colleges to gain

practical, marketable employment skills, recognizing lifelong learning as an economic

necessity for staying employed or becoming re-employed.

Spikes in US community college enrollments also have been fueled by significant

tuition and fee increases in universities. Many students and their families turn to nearby

community colleges to complete lower-division course work before transferring to a

university, resulting in significant cost savings. Completing lower-division course work

at a community college is also much less expensive for the state. This fact led to a

proposal in California to divert some freshmen from the University of California to the

state’s community colleges for the freshman and sophomore years, with a guarantee of

transfer to the university.

At the same time that community colleges were faced with historic enrollment

demands, they were struggling with severe budget cuts. Data from the Grapevines

project at Illinois State University found that state funding for public community colleges

dropped by nearly $584.8 million between 2002-03 and 2003-04, with 22 states—44%--

reporting decreased funding.

Community college leaders struggled to meet the accelerating demand with

declining public resources. Many colleges and systems responded by increasing tuition

costs for students. After several years of relatively stable tuition levels, tuition increased

by over 27% in community colleges from 2002 to 2005. Tuition costs vary by state and

even by institution within a state. The average tuition for public community colleges for

US citizens is $1,379 compared to $3,746 at public colleges and universities.

Although community college leaders and governing boards have been forced to increase

tuition costs for students, they sought to limit the burden on students by implementing a

variety of cost-cutting actions. At some colleges, faculty and staff expenses were cut

381

either through early retirement incentives or reductions in force. The employment of

part-time or adjunct faculty has steadily increased in community colleges as a way of

offering classes at lower cost. Hiring freezes and employee travel restrictions also have

been a common reaction.

Even in good economic times, the percentage of state funds going to higher

education in the US has been shrinking for more than a decade. Faced with competing

needs for public funding to accommodate increased enrollments in K-12 and increased

costs for Medicaid and corrections, state policy makers have cited the well-publicized

benefits to the individual of having a college degree. They have thus argued that students

and their families should pay more of the cost of higher education. There have been

proposals in some states to “privatize” public higher education, with some institutions

seemingly willing to give up their remaining public support in order to free themselves of

state regulation and achieve fiscal stability. This would be very difficult for community

colleges, however, because of their greater reliance on government funds and the fact that

they cannot turn to federal research grants or alumni fund raising to the extent that many

universities can.

Although current financial problems will likely dominate the agendas of state and

federal policy makers for the next few years, the National Center for Public Policy and

Higher Education stresses the need for a longer-range perspective. Higher education in

the US has not yet made a strong enough case for policy makers to understand the

societal benefit of higher education. This public benefit can be most clearly

demonstrated by community colleges as the institutions that prepare students to enter or

re-enter the workforce, integrate new citizens into American society by providing

language and citizenship courses, and open avenues to higher education for low-income

and first-generation students–populations projected to supply increased numbers of the

future workers essential to the nation’s well-being. As has been noted, over the long term

states and the nation will face great challenges from intensifying international

competitiveness, the need to ensure educational opportunity to growing and increasingly

diverse high school graduating classes, and the demand for college educated employees

to replace large number of Baby Boomers. Community college leaders assert that

382

nothing less than the nation’s economic future rides on the broad and unfettered access

their institutions provide and the highly diverse student population they serve.

Higher education in the United States is clearly at a crossroads. A tidal wave of

new students is seeking admission to the nation’s colleges and universities at a time when

greater levels of education are increasingly important to the country’s well being. Policy

makers will have to decide whether to provide the funding to public higher education,

including community colleges, that is necessary to meet current and future needs.

Local business and industry are more and more stepping up support to

community colleges. One clear example is the support that community colleges with

well-established health care programs now receive from local hospitals and the health

care industry to expand facilities, increase clinical space, and support faculty salaries to

increase the capacity of nursing and other allied health programs. Microsoft and SBC

have provided grants to community colleges to build capacity in information technology

(IT) programs and to keep IT faculty up-to-date. Looking to the future and emerging

career fields, the National Science Foundation has provided significant support for

community colleges, most notably to fund Advanced Technological Education programs

and centers to enable the colleges to prepare the technologists needed for growing and

high-demand industries such as environmental and geospatial technologies.

We are now living in an increasingly global society and economy. Most of the

products purchased by Americans have either been manufactured in other countries or

have components that were made or assembled abroad. In fact, many American

companies have foreign subsidiaries. It is more important than ever for Americans to

understand people from other cultures, and it is important for people who live in other

countries to have an accurate understanding of American culture. Community colleges

are playing an important role by globalizing their curricula, promoting study-abroad

programs and recruiting international students. Community colleges constantly are

reaching out to welcome students and faculty from around the world. Over 75,000

international students attend U.S. community colleges to obtain their first two years of a

university education. And to ensure that U.S. students and faculty are becoming more

globally competent, community colleges have internationalized their curricula, expanded

383

their study abroad programs, enhanced faculty professional development opportunities,

and increased student/faculty international exchange programs.

America still has equity gaps to close as well. Minorities in the US do not have

the same levels of higher education access or success. Only 11% of Hispanic Americans

held baccalaureate degrees in 2002 compared to 17% of African-Americans and 28% of

Caucasian-Americans. Children from low-income families in the US have a much lower

chance of going to college than children of high-income families. Since community

colleges serve the most economically disadvantaged Americans and have the most

racially diverse student bodies, they are the most likely solution for closing these equity

gaps.

In the coming years in the US, there will be a shift away from placing value solely

on access to education and training to whether students are successful once they gain

access. This trend started in the early 1990s with the principles of the “Learning

Paradigm” or “Learning College.” It continues as accreditation commissions have asked

institutions to measure student-learning outcomes. The need to improve success rates for

students, especially those who are first generation college students, minorities, or students

from low income families, has attracted the support of major foundations in the United

States. The Community College Survey of Student Engagement, based at the University

of Texas at Austin, is also focused on helping community colleges to improve the success

rates for students by increasing their engagement with the college and its services.

The decisions by legislators in some states to allow selected community colleges

to offer baccalaureate degrees is the topic of considerable debate in the US. This

movement is fueled primarily by the shortage of school teachers and the need for more

baccalaureates in applied areas. Proponents of this movement toward baccalaureate

degree granting status argue that offering these degrees is compatible with the community

college value of providing access to needed educational programs. Opponents label this

trend “mission creep” and argue that it will detract from the egalitarian and open access

mission of community colleges.

Another significant challenge that American community colleges are just now

beginning to face is the need to replace significant numbers of faculty and leaders. As

noted earlier, many community colleges were established in the 1960s and 1970s. Many

384

of the faculty and administrators who were hired at these developing institutions are now

reaching retirement age. This large turnover of faculty and leaders is both a challenge

and an opportunity. It is a challenge to adequately prepare and recruit the faculty and

leaders of the future. But it is also an opportunity to bring greater diversity and new

energy and enthusiasm into the community college world.

The American Association of Community Colleges

The American Association of Community Colleges (AACC), formed over 85

years ago, is the voice of America’s community colleges throughout the world. AACC

serves its constituency through its work in advocacy with other sectors of higher

education, policy makers, and the media; learning and accountability; leadership and

professional development; economic development; extensive research; and international

outreach. The Association represents approximately 1,200 associate degree-granting

institutions and some 11 million students. AACC is motivated and committed to provide

the leadership that will further support the colleges in expanding the health and vitality of

America's communities by building a nation of learners.

AACC is housed at the National Center for Higher Education in Washington, DC,

along with 20 other higher education associations. Additional higher education and

international-related organizations are also located nearby in the city. This proximity to

so many other professional groups representing the nation’s colleges and universities

means that AACC can easily and regularly both give and collect information about issues

that affect community colleges and their students, as well as globally-related issues.

Thirty-two community college presidents and representatives of related

organizations serve rotating three-year terms on AACC’s elected board of directors.

Additional input from the field comes to AACC through its seven advisory commissions.

Twenty-four councils, affiliated with AACC, are separate community college

organizations that meet criteria set by the board.

Although there are some individual members and a growing number of

international affiliate members, AACC membership is primarily institutional and includes

over 95% of the regionally accredited community, technical, and junior colleges in the

385

US. A 32-member board of directors who are elected or appointed for a three-year term

governs AACC.

The Association communicates with its members through a biweekly electronic

AACC Letter sent to member presidents; special email alerts; a biweekly newspaper, the

Community College Times; and a bimonthly magazine, The Community College Journal.

AACC also publishes books on community college topics through the Community

College Press.

AACC is nearly always engaged in media campaigns to promote community

colleges and to enhance their image. AACC joined with other higher education

associations in 2005 in a campaign to promote higher education in general and to make

the case for the importance of investing in higher education, including community

colleges.

By almost any measure, community colleges have been a great success. But the

problems of today and those of the future are and will be challenging. AACC will help

meet those challenges as it continues its role to promote and enhance a strong image of

community colleges, both in the U.S. and abroad. Today’s and tomorrow’s jobs in the

US require higher-level skills that can be attained only by education beyond high school.

Close to half of all students now preparing to enter American higher education will enter

through the doors of the nation’s community colleges. Many of these students will

become certified for employment in careers that will keep our businesses and industries

globally competitive. Others will transfer to four-year institutions to work toward

advanced degrees, made ever more possible by improved transfer policies.

Community colleges are an integral part of American higher education, and are

key providers of the wider education needs of their community. The U.S. community

college system is key to providing a variety of opportunities for every citizen to pursue

and obtain a postsecondary education.

386

References

Boggs, G. and Cater, J. 1994. “The Historical Development of Academic Programs in

Community Colleges” in Baker, G. (ed) A Handbook On The Community College In

America—Its History, Mission, and Management. Westport, Connecticut: Greenwood

Press

Brint, S. and Karabel. 1989. The Diverted Dream. New York: Oxford University Press

Phillippe, K. and Gonzalez-Sullivan. 2005. National Profile of Community Colleges:

Trends and Statistics. Washington, DC: Community College Press

Vaughan, G. 2000. The Community College Story. Washington, DC: Community

College Press

387

Survey of Community College Development in Vietnam:

A Global and Local Dialectic

Diane E. Oliver

Sandra Engel

Analy Scorsone

This chapter provides evidence that, although not continuous, there has been a

community college movement in Vietnam and it began in the late 1960s. The movement

has gone through long periods of dormancy and has faced numerous challenges. It has

been gaining momentum since 2001, but there continues to be many uncertainties with

regard to the systemic structure and perhaps even the survivability of the newly formed

institutions. The chapter’s narrative and analysis are based upon the literature as well as

data from interviews, documents, and archival materials.

Vietnam’s community college movement is particularly interesting because it

illustrates two much broader themes that are relevant to higher education systems

throughout the world. First, this movement demonstrates the close link that exists

between a country’s political climate and the characteristics of its higher education

system. A reasonable proposition can be made that the status of Vietnam’s community

college movement has paralleled the orientation of the country’s international relations.

This is not to say that there is a definite causal relationship between the community

college and international relations; it is to say, however, that certain political conditions

facilitate the exchange of information and people thus enabling a concurrent transfer of

educational concepts across borders.

Second, this movement exemplifies the “dialectic between the global and the

local” (Arnove & Torres, 2003, p. 1) in which organizations such as the World Bank,

United Nations, Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), United States

Agency for International Development (USAID), and others play a significant role. The

term globalization is extremely complex and used frequently with different meanings

(Torres & Rhoads, 2006). As conceptualized in this chapter, globalization involves the

388

movement of economies, technologies, people, and ideas across borders, and it affects

individual countries differently as a result of their unique contexts (histories, cultures, and

socioeconomic priorities) (Knight, 1999). The “local” (Arnove & Torres, 2003, p. 1) can

be conceptualized as internationalization, which is the way that the country deals with the

impact of globalization while maintaining its own identity; thus globalization is the

catalyst and internationalization is the response (Knight, 1999). For community colleges

the local goes to another level because they respond to the needs of their communities.

The Socialist Republic of Vietnam

“Vietnam, which has been described as a shoulder pole with a rice basket at each

end, stretches in an S-shape from China in the north to the Gulf of Thailand in the south”

(Ashwill, 2005, p. 9). It has a large population of 83,535,576 (CIA Fact Book, 2006),

approximately half are under the age of 25 (Ashwill, 2005), and many live in the northern

Red River Delta and the southern Mekong Delta. Although Vietnam is home to 54 ethnic

groups, each having its own language, about 90% of the population is ethnic Vietnamese

(Kinh) (Ashwill, 2005). The official literacy rate is 93.9% (CIA Fact Book). Religious

practice generally combines Buddhism and Taoism with Confucian philosophy. The

country is controlled by the Communist Party of Vietnam, and its senior representative

legislative body, the National Assembly, meets twice yearly for several weeks. The

country is divided into 59 provinces and five municipalities, which are governed by

People’s Committees.

“Eighteen years of economic reforms have opened Vietnam to the outside world

and spurred high economic growth” (Ashwill 2005, p. 19). The U.S.-Vietnam Bilateral

Trade Agreement implemented in December 2001 was an important achievement for

both countries. Vietnam’s average economic growth from 2000 to 2005 was 7% annually

and today the gross domestic product per capita is $3,000 USD (CIA Fact Book, 2006).

Vietnam has had a long and difficult history. From 207 BC to the 10th century, Chinese

dynasties ruled, and in the mid 19th century the French colonized Vietnam, except for a

brief period of occupation during World War II by Japan. During the Cold War, the

North was supported by China and the Soviet Union while the South received support

from the United States. Tensions escalated into the Second Indochina War, U.S. troops

389

were withdrawn in March 1993, and the North overtook the South on April 30, 1995

followed by reunification of the country as the Socialist Republic of Vietnam.

In the Beginning

The history of Vietnam’s community college movement began in the late 1960s

when peace talks were underway and the Republic of Vietnam in the South was

optimistically planning for reconstruction. As stated by Yee (1995), “the concept of the

community college, with a comprehensive curriculum responsive to the needs of the

community was accepted with enthusiasm by the common people” (p. 142). The plan was

to convert military installations that would no longer be needed and underutilized

education facilities into community colleges, which would retrain demobilized military

personnel for civilian jobs and relieve some of the pressure on the universities (Doan,

2000). Thus community colleges originated with a decree by the President of the

Republic of Vietnam on August 15, 1971 (Thuy, 1971; Thu, 1974). According to the

decree, each community college was to include six types of programs: occupational,

transfer, remedial, guidance and counseling, general education, and adult education (Thu,

1974). It is worth noting that these also are core programs in U.S. community colleges.

In 1971, the first two community colleges were established, Tien Giang (Upper

Delta) Community College in My Tho (in the Mekong Delta) and Duyen Hai (Coastal)

Community College in Nha Trang (in the Central Region) (Thu, 1974; Doan, 2000).

Although several Vietnamese academics make creditable claims that a third community

college was established during this period, a search of the Cong Bao Cong Hoa (public

record) in the Texas Tech University Vietnam Archive provided no evidence of this.

A telephone interview conducted in 2001 with the former rector of Duyen Hai

Community College indicated that it operated from 1972 to 1975. He also said that in

preparation for taking over as the rector he had a 3-month internship at a community

college in Texas, and he visited two community colleges in California. Additionally, he

stopped in Japan to visit community colleges. Japan’s approach seemed to have potential

for Vietnam in view of its quick recovery with U.S. assistance after World War II.

Duyen Hai Community College had two divisions, career and transfer; many

students in the transfer division went on to study at Saigon University and Hue

390

University. Approximately 800 students were enrolled and the main programs were

fisheries and marine mechanics. The former rector said that the community college had

quite a lot of autonomy, but the Ministry of Education was kept informed and, if a

concern arose, the institution was required to respond (Oliver, 2002). However, Naughton

(1979) argues that higher education in the South was modeled after the very centralized

French colonial system with “Confucian undertones” (p. 102). “The decision-making

reflected national policies which were, in reality, those of the French in the 1950s and to

some extent the Americans of the 1960s” (Naughton, 1997, p. 104).

From Dormancy to Awakening

Two additional public two-year institutions were to be established in the future

(Thu, 1974), but the Second Indochina War did not end as planned by the Republic of

Vietnam. After reunification in 1975, the Soviet model of higher education was adopted

for the entire country. The community colleges were closed, private institutions were

either converted to public institutions or closed, multidisciplinary universities became

mono-disciplinary, except Can Tho University (CTU) in the Mekong Delta, and separate

research institutes were established. The new political order was clearly reflected in the

structure of the higher education system.

Perhaps the next most defining event for higher education in Vietnam was the

1987 implementation of doi moi, which “in Vietnamese literally means renovation and

refers to the process and consequences of pursuing an open-market orientation while

maintaining the principles of socialism as interpreted by the CPV [Communist Party of

Vietnam]” (Le & Sloper, 1995, p. 3). Tran Hoa Phuong (1998) states, “higher education

no longer had the sole purpose of supplying manpower for the state sector. It would now

serve the market-based economy” (p. 170). In 1993, a needs assessment of education and

training conducted by the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) also had a

substantial impact. One of the major issues identified by the UNDP report was poor

coordination and a lack of linkage between the components of higher education and the

needs of research, production, and employment (Sauvageau, 1997).

Two of MOET’s proposed initiatives in response to this issue were (a) to establish

community colleges that would develop training strategies for transitioning the economy

391

and (b) to create community colleges out of the pedagogical institutions located in

provinces throughout the country (Sauvageau, 1997). Although there was a long-range

vision and related collaboration had begun in 1990 with the Association of Canadian

Community Colleges (ACCC), as well as with several Canadian community colleges, the

major restructuring of higher education in 1993 did not really address this vision. The

pedagogical colleges were merely renamed as junior colleges (Sauvageau, 1997).

However, a provisional regulation was decreed on March 30, 1994 that served as the

legal foundation for establishment of community colleges in Vietnam (Harvey, 2005).

Thus the impact of this UNDP report was substantial and it illustrates the influence

exerted by international agencies on the education systems of developing countries.

Another transnational actor is the World Bank, and ranking high among its global

solutions is diversification in relation to types of higher education institutions and

funding. Relevant to the development of community colleges, the World Bank (1994)

states, “in the most successful cases, non-university institutions offer training that

responds flexibly to labor market demands and is linked with university programs

through appropriate transfer mechanisms such as credit systems and equivalency

provisions” (p. 5). Diversification of institutions has been evolving in Vietnam, but

tuition was implemented in 1987, and by 1994 public universities were receiving 22% of

their recurrent expenditures from student tuition (World Bank, 1994).

In 1995, diplomatic relations were restored between the U.S. and Vietnam. And

20 years after the closure of Duyen Hai Community College its former rector, now a

professor at Lansing Community College in the U.S., found himself once again to be a

player in the history of Vietnam’s community college movement. On October 18, 1995,

the Minister of Education and Training sent a letter to the President of Lansing

Community College inviting him to visit and “discuss the development of a national

community college system in Viet Nam” (Memorandum of Understanding, May 1996,

p. 1).

But this begs the question of why Lansing was selected for the invitation. A

subsequent interview with another Vietnamese American professor at Lansing revealed

that he had been in the Republic of Vietnam’s Ministry of Education and some of his

former students were now working in the Ministry of Education and Training (MOET).

392

He stated that he had facilitated the contact between MOET and Lansing Community

College. MOET also invited the ACCC to develop a joint proposal concerning the

development of community colleges (MOET & ACCC, n.d.). Thus Vietnam’s

community college movement began to come out of dormancy through the exchange of

people and the enabling interim regulation of 1994. However, in 1996 the Minister

stepped down and MOET discontinued the community college projects.

A Pilot Program

Vietnam National University-Ho Chi Minh City (VNU-HCMC) was established

in January1995 through the consolidation of nine independent universities (VNU-HCMC,

2000), and in 1996 VNU-HCMC ran a pilot community college program in three

provinces: Tien Giang, Dong Tap, and Binh Thuan. According to interviews and

translated archival documents, the rationale for establishing community colleges was that

remote areas are generally poor and the students cannot afford to live in the big cities.

Additionally, it was thought that the community college programs should match the

needs of the local area; for example, in the Mekong Delta they should teach agriculture,

fishery management, and forestry (Oliver, 2002). Yet this project was particularly unique

because it also included transfer of successful community college graduates to VNU-

HCMC affiliated universities. MOET did not endorse this initiative, but VNU-HCMC

proceeded because it reports directly to the Prime Minister and could obtain the necessary

funding from tuition and the existing VNU-HCMC budget.

Exchange visits were arranged that enabled Vietnamese academics, including the

vice president of VNU-HCMC, to visit Kentucky community colleges in May 1996, and

the vice chancellor of the Kentucky community college system with other representatives

from the University of Kentucky visited Vietnam in April 1997. The U.S. visitors met

with university officials in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, Can Tho, and with community as

well as technical college officials in Phan Thiet, Tien Giang, and Dong Thap.

But after two years MOET still had not certified the community colleges nor had

it provided any additional funding to operate them, so in 1998 these institutions closed

and their 3,000 students were transferred to other colleges. Three problems were

identified by the senior academic who led the pilot project: (a) lack of understanding

393

regarding the community college concept, especially by those in higher authority; (b)

concern that graduating students would have not received a good quality education; and

(c) concern over damaging the reputation of the sponsoring university if the community

colleges were unsuccessful (Oliver, 2002). A subsequent interview revealed that there

also was a problem in not having articulation agreements established with the receiving

universities, which all had different entrance requirements. One could reasonably

conclude that this was another significant factor in the decision to close the community

colleges. It also is important to note that most of the academics in MOET have been

Soviet trained and the Soviet higher education system focuses on topics with a narrow

scope and great depth. The community college’s broad knowledge and practice-oriented

curriculum was very foreign to their way of thinking; consequently, they could not relate

to its fundamental concepts. And this continues to be somewhat problematic for the

community colleges.

Six Community Colleges

It was primarily through the efforts of Can Tho University (CTU) with its

leadership’s excellent international relations skills and sustained interest in having

community colleges in the Mekong Delta that the movement was kept alive. According to

an interview with a senior academic at CTU, one of the rectors who had received his

Ph.D. in the U.S. tried to convince MOET that community colleges should be established,

but he was unsuccessful. This rector had developed excellent relations with the

Netherlands, so he discussed his ideas concerning community colleges with the Dutch

(Oliver, 2002).

According to Teekens (2002), in 1995 MOET requested that the Netherlands’

government consider providing assistance for core programs at six pilot community

colleges. These institutions ultimately were located in Hai Phong, Ha Tay, Quang Ngai,

Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Dong Thap, and Tien Giang. Hai Phong opened in December 2000

and the rest became operational in 2001. Three of the community colleges had food

processing core programs and three had mechanical engineering programs. Interestingly,

a long-range objective was to enable the transfer of students to a sponsoring university.

394

Although the Netherlands does not have community colleges, “’universities of

professional education’ (HBO) and ‘regional education centres’ (ROC) provide education

and training based on much the same ideas” (Teekens, 2002, p. 174). In addition to

funding, the Netherlands provided technical training to the Vietnamese community

college faculty. However, in 2003 apparently some issues developed between the

Netherlands and MOET; the Dutch withdrew their funding. The six community colleges

continued to operate, but there was no equipment to establish the core programs in food

processing and mechanical engineering.

The Vietnam Canada Community College Project

Tra Vinh Community College (TVCC) was approved by MOET on August 3,

2001 (Pham & Harvey, n.d.) as a result of CTU sponsorship and substantial assistance

from CIDA in cooperation with the ACCC and a consortium of four Canadian institutions

led by the Saskatchewan Institute of Applied Science and Technology (SIAST). The Tra

Vinh People’s Committee, which had been highly supportive, established TVCC on

August 29, 2001 and construction began (Pham & Harvey, n.d.). Particularly helpful to

the acceptance of the TVCC project was a well-planned study tour to a Canadian

community college by a Vietnamese technical team and a decision making team

comprising representatives of the Tra Vinh People’s Committee and MOET in 2001.

Considering that it is almost impossible for people in Vietnam to imagine what a

Canadian or U.S. community college might be like without actually seeing one, these

types of exchanges have been of great importance.

Tra Vinh is considered to be one of the poorest provinces in Vietnam. The

economy primarily depended on rice farming with labor-intensive methods, although

aquaculture and some industrial capacity were emerging (Harvey, 2005). Of Tra Vinh’s

985,000 residents, approximately 85% lived in rural communities. And a particularly

important consideration for developing the community college was that only 10% of the

population had completed secondary school and “women, rural residents and the Khmer

minority (representing 30 percent of the provincial population) have traditionally been

under-represented in the education system” (Pham & Harvey, n.d., p. 2). The province

planned to diversify crops and expand “the services, manufacturing, and commercial

395

sectors” (Pham & Harvey, n.d., p. 2). Thus the community college model was seen as

providing the relevant training programs and accessibility needed to support economic

development.

The initial courses to be offered were agriculture, aquaculture, information

technology, office education, electrical construction, and building construction (Pham &

Harvey, n.d.), and it was assumed that TVCC would focus on three-year college

diplomas. As cited in Harvey (2005), who conducted a careful analysis of changes

incorporated into the 11th Draft Education Law of 2004, Article 28, stated:

College level is trained with duration of three years served to learners who hold Upper

Secondary Education Certificate; and trained with duration of 1.5 – 2 years for learners

who complete and hold the Certificate of Technical Education of short and long-term

training of similar trades with [practical] working experience. (p. 66)

However, of particular interest was the outcome of a Tra Vinh Province labor

market analysis that was conducted in October 2002: “Local and regional employment

and self-employment training demand was inversely proportional to credential level and

training duration” (Harvey, 2005, p. 81). This meant that college level graduates would

likely have difficulty finding employment. The greatest demand was for short duration

agriculture and aquaculture production programs.

Reflective of the situation in Vietnam’s other rural provinces, this finding posed

the problem of reconciling the demands of the labor market with the political pressure for

a new institution that offered a college level diploma and, to a certain level, academic

esteem. TVCC dealt with this challenge through the formulation of “an innovative model

for program articulation between post-secondary vocational and college level programs”

and students “exited with a post-secondary vocational certificate at six months, one year

or two years of training” (Harvey, 2005, p. 82). By completing another 18 months of

training, a two-year vocational graduate could be awarded a three-year college diploma.

TVCC also offered flexibility through a continuing education program that enabled

students to return at a later time for upgrade of their skills or certification. MOET

approved this pilot program in March 2005 (Harvey, 2005).

In November 2004, TVCC also opened four satellite training centers for the

purpose of offering short duration courses in locations that are accessible, and the

396

instruction is delivered in a way that meets the needs of rural adult learners. Harvey

(2005) also states that TVCC established an agreement with Nong Lam University in Thu

Duc that “facilitated articulation between the TVCC college diploma and Long Nam

University degree programs in agriculture, aquaculture, and post harvest technologies”

(p. 83). This is interesting as MOET had previously been resistant to allowing transfers

from the community colleges to universities.

In summary, TVCC has established an impressive model with the financial

support and highly professional assistance of the Canadian agencies and partners.

Although other community colleges could learn from this model, historically, exchanges

of information among higher education institutions in Vietnam have not been common

practice. Additionally, the staff and faculty at TVCC received excellent training from the

Canadians in needs assessment, strategic planning, and curriculum development that will

enable this institution to continue its progress. This type of knowledge and these skills do

not generally exist at the other community colleges.

Can Tho University and the Kien Giang Community College Project

In May 2001, the rector of CTU invited representatives from each of the 12

provinces to meet and discuss higher education development in the Mekong Delta. One

of the CTU vice rectors gave a presentation on the community college concept, and CTU

made the recommendation that each province establish its own community college. To

deal with the image problem that community colleges have as a result of (a)

misunderstanding their role and (b) the strong preference for receiving a Bachelor’s

Degree, the vice rector focused on distinguishing between the university and the college.

According to an interview with this vice rector, he emphasized that universities serve the

market sector comprising state owned organizations, large companies, and foreign owned

companies. Therefore, community colleges are essential for the development of private

industry, training entrepreneurs, and developing small to medium size businesses.

A short time after CTU’s meeting, the Kien Giang Provincial People’s Committee

submitted a proposal to MOET for the establishment of a community college. With a

population of more than 1.5 million, Kien Giang is one of the larger provinces in the

Mekong Delta. Twenty two percent of the people were rural, 78% were urban, 86% were

397

Kinh (ethnic Vietnamese), 12% were Khmer, and 2% were Chinese (Kien Giang

Provincial People’s Committee, 2001). The demographics of Kien Giang Province are

quite different from those of Tra Vinh; however, in the KGCC proposal, Kien Giang is

described as a “bordering province very far from big cities, has two-thirds of [its] districts

in remote rural regions and islands and therefore people are very poor. They cannot

afford their children’s education in big cities” (Kien Giang Provincial People’s

Committee, 2001, p. 2). The socioeconomic situation and a shortage of trained workers

were two of the compelling justifications for establishing the community college. It was

estimated that Kien Giang Community College (KGCC) would enroll between 3,600 and

4,500 students.

CTU had already developed an excellent relationship with the Texas Tech

University Vietnam Center, and one of the Center’s staff members was conducting

research to evaluate the suitability of a U.S. community college-like model relative to the

Vietnam context. Thus in June 2001, CTU asked the Vietnam Center to find a U.S.

partner for KGCC, and Mohawk Valley Community College (New York) agreed to take

on that role with the continued involvement of Texas Tech University. The Kentucky

Community and Technical College System accepted an invitation to join the partnership

in March 2002. In April 2002, the Kien Giang People’s Committee received approval

from MOET to establish the community college.

In November 2002, KGCC’s U.S. partners, in cooperation with CTU and MOET,

held a 2-day seminar that was attended by seven of the eight Vietnamese community

colleges. Apparently, Ha Tay Community College was not invited by MOET. The reason

is unclear but there is some evidence that MOET did not approve of the initial approach

Ha Tay took to forming its community college; a subsequent reorganization seemed to

resolve the issue. During the conference, the rectors and MOET representative announced

that they would form an association of community colleges. While the association would

have been very helpful in terms of sharing ideas and experiences, it is not easy to obtain

approval for such a formal organization in Vietnam, so the rectors could not bring this to

fruition. But MOET periodically calls the rectors together for meetings and this approach

to working on systemic challenges seems to be reasonably effective.

398

By the time that a Memorandum of Understanding was signed between KGCC

and the U.S. partnering institutions in May 2003, Richland College of the Dallas County

Community College District (Texas) had joined. Because the U.S. partners did not have a

funding source to support the KGCC project, they realized that an incremental approach

would be necessary rather than trying to help develop an entire community college, as

was done in Tra Vinh. KGCC was asked to prioritize the programs that it wished to

develop, and the rector singled out the area of information technology (IT). One

important factor in facilitating communications and exchanges of ideas during this

formative period was that the partner from Mohawk Valley Community College worked

at KGCC as a Fulbright Scholar from February to June 2003 (Engel, 2003).

In October 2003, the U.S. partners met at Mohawk Valley Community College to

draft a grant proposal, and in 2004 a major milestone occurred with the award of a

USAID/The Association Liaison Office for Cooperation in Development (ALO) grant to

upgrade KGCC’s two and three year IT programs (Kentucky Community and Technical

College System, 2004). This project involved work by U.S. community college faculty in

Vietnam and KGCC faculty in the U.S. It was excellent for faculty development, served

to make the partnership even stronger, and clearly demonstrated the great value in

exchanging people and ideas.

As of the 2005 academic year, KGCC had 2,024 full-time and 2,975 part-time

students. The primary three-year programs were IT, accounting, electrical engineering,

and food processing technology. The two-year programs were in aquaculture, IT,

accounting, and animal husbandry. KGCC also offers short-term and vocational training.

MOVING TOWARD A NEW ERA

In November 2005, an important Vietnam Community College Conference was

co-sponsored by MOET and the Kien Giang People’s Committee. The primary organizer

was the rector of KGCC and the conference was held in the People’s Committee’s

conference rooms near KGCC in Rach Gia, the capital city of Kien Giang Province. The

objectives were to have a dialogue and facilitate drafting, for the first time, a permanent

regulation authorizing the operation of community colleges. KGCC’s U.S. partners

arranged for conference speakers from the U.S., Canada, and Thailand. “Present were

399

representatives from the U.S. Embassy in Hanoi and consulate in Ho Chi Minh City,

Vietnamese provincial People’s Committee members, NGOs . . . and others. Most

importantly, more than 100 Vietnamese higher education leaders attended” (Whitus, as

cited in Bondurant, 2005, ¶ 5). An interesting comment made by the Deputy Press and

Cultural Attaché, U.S. Consulate, was that the Vietnam Community College Conference

followed shortly after the tenth anniversary of normalized relations between the U.S. and

Vietnam, and the Prime Minister’s visit to the U.S.

Harvey (2005), who provides a detailed analysis of the provisional regulation on

community colleges, states that the original decree establishing community colleges in

1994 was amended on August 8, 2002. “The legislation recognized that community

colleges played a pivotal role in tertiary program articulation, especially between the

vocational and college programming levels that were delivered in the colleges

themselves” (Harvey, 2005, p. 89). Particularly significant was the discussion concerning

decentralization of program decision-making to the People’s Committee level.

Another conference was conducted at Ba Ria-Vung Tau in January 2006 to work on the

draft of a permanent regulation for Vietnam’s community colleges. The participants

included nine community college and two MOET representatives. According to one of

the rectors, most of the ideas, opinions, suggestions, and papers from the November 2005

conference were considered in preparing the final draft that was submitted to MOET a

few days following the conference at Ba Ria-Vung Tau.

These conferences, the current existence of nine community colleges in Vietnam

(Ba Ria-Vung Tau, Dong Thap, Ha Tay, Hai Phong, Ha Giang, Kien Giang, Quang Ngai,

Tra Vinh, and Vinh Long), the impending completion of a permanent regulation, and the

government’s plan to establish community colleges in seven more Mekong Delta

provinces by 2010 indicate that community colleges are now being accepted as an

important way to meet the country’s socioeconomic and higher education needs,

especially in the rural areas. The government’s future plan includes the establishment of

community colleges at Soc Trang in 2006, Ca Mau and Long An in 2007, An Giang in

2008, and Bac Lieu and Can Tho in 2010 (Nguyen Xuan Thu, personal communication,

October 11, 2005). Additionally, one of the rectors mentioned that a community college

has been approved for establishment in Hanoi.

400

Another significant development is that, according to an announcement by CTU,

MOET will be enacting an official document in May 2006 that will allow for transfers

between the community colleges and universities. CTU expects to receive transfer

enrollment quotas from MOET in mid 2006 for four academic programs: IT, accounting,

food processing technology, and aquaculture. KGCC has students who will be

completing their second year of training and at least some of the qualified students can

transfer (KGCC rector, personal communication, March 15, 2006).

Challenges

Currently, there exists the difficulty of adapting global concepts to local

conditions; therefore, perhaps the greatest challenge facing the further development of

community colleges in Vietnam, other than funding, is establishing its own basic model.

This task requires a clear definition of mission and flexibility for adapting to the local

context. It also requires management that is informed by strategic planning and quality

assessment. Strategic planning is not one of higher education’s strengths in Vietnam.

Quality assessment is just beginning to be discussed as a result of progress made over the

last several years to establish an accreditation system.

Additionally, there is a second challenge that could have a substantial impact on

the future development of Vietnam’s community colleges. “For Vietnam, in contrast to

many other developing countries, Confucian philosophy strongly influences the way that

society views education” and knowledge itself is highly valued (Oliver, 2004, p. 5). Thus,

even though employment surveys indicate that the community college is an excellent fit

for human resource development, especially in the rural areas, some provinces will not be

satisfied with anything but a university. And this reflects the mindset of the Vietnamese

people. There has been a community college in My Tho, Tien Giang Province, at each

phase of the community college movement (in 1971, 1996, and 2001). Yet the Tien

Giang People’s Committee made a decision on January 6, 2005 to turn the community

college into a university. This transition may be replicated in other provinces as well, but

it is probable that at least some community college leaders and People’s Committees will

stay the course in developing their community colleges. That the government has voiced

the need to focus on providing vocational, occupational, and technical training, and it has

401

discussed a need for increased autonomy and accountability for higher education

institutions (Viet Nam Net, 2005) is encouraging for the community colleges.

Conclusion

Thus the case is made that there has been a community college movement in

Vietnam and it is stronger now than during any former period in its history. The political

climate has affected the characteristics of Vietnam’s higher education system, and the

move toward a socialist market-oriented economy has resulted in dramatic changes that

make community colleges even more relevant to addressing the country’s socioeconomic

needs. Normalized relations between the U.S. and Vietnam have facilitated higher

education partnerships, and U.S. community colleges are looking for opportunities to join

with international partners to develop projects that globalize the perspectives of their

faculty and students. The Canadians will likely continue to provide their professional

expertise and support to Vietnam’s community college development. Finally, it has been

shown that paying close attention to the dialectic of the global and the local is critical to

the success of international partnerships and community colleges in Vietnam.

402

References

Arnove, R. F., & Torres, C. A. (Eds.). (2003). Comparative education: The dialectic of

the global and the local. New York: Rowan & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Ashwell, M. A., with Thai, Ngoc Diep. (2005). Vietnam today: A guide to a nation at a

crossroad. Boston: Intercultural Press.

Bondurant, J. (2005, December 14). News release: Kentucky Community and Technical

College System. Retrieved March 12, 2006 from

http://www.kctcs.net/newspublications/newsreleases.cfm?nr_id=127.

CIA Fact Book. (2006, January 10). Vietnam. Retrieved March 17, 2006 from

http://www.cia.gov/cia/publication/factbook/geos/

Doan, Hue Dung. (2000). Foreign-trained academics and the development of Vietnamese

higher education since doi moi. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of

Nottingham, Nottingham, England, United Kingdom.

Engel, S. (2003, January 12). Vietnam so much more than a war. Utica Observer-

Dispatch. Retrieved March 27, 2006 from

http://www.uticaod.com/archive/2003/01/12/opinion/14010.html

Harvey, D. J. (2005). Policy recommendations for community colleges in Vietnam.

Unpublished master’s thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada

Kentucky Community and Technical College System. (2004). U.S. Institutions and Kien

Giang Community College partnership program: Information technology

workforce development. USAID/ALO grant. (Available from Kentucky

Community and Technical College System, 300 North Main Street, Versailles,

KY 40383).

Kien Giang Provincial People’s Committee. (2001). Kien Giang Community College

founding project. (Available from Kien Giang Community College, 217 Chu Van

An Street, Rach Gia Town, Vietnam).

Knight, J. (1999). Internationalisation of higher education. In Organisation for Economic

Co-operation and Development (OECD) (Ed.) Quality and internationalisation in

higher education (pp. 13-28). Paris: OECD.

403

Le, Thac Can, & Sloper, D. (1995). Higher education in Vietnam: The door opens –from

inside. In D. Sloper & Le Thac Can (Eds.). Higher education in Vietnam: Change

and response (pp. 1-25). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Memorandum of Understanding on Cooperation between The Department of Higher

Education, Ministry of Education and Training, Viet Nam, and Lansing

Community College, Michigan, U.S.A. (1996, May). (Available from Lancing

Community College, 1113-Multicultural Center, P.O. Box 40010, Lansing

Michigan 48901-7210.)

Ministry of Education and Training, & Association of Canadian Community Colleges

(MOET & ACCC). (n.d.). Vietnam WRITE project: Workforce restructuring in a

transitional economy. Authors.

Naughton, P. W. (1979). Some comparisons of higher education in Vietnam: 1954-1976.

Canadian and International Education, 8(2), 100-116.

Oliver, D. E. (2002). The U.S. community college system as a potential model for

developing countries: The case of Vietnam. (University Microfilms International

No. 9918255).

Oliver, D. E. (2004, Summer). Higher education challenges in developing countries: The

case of Vietnam. International Journal of Educational Policy, Research, &

Practice, 5(2), 3-18.

Pham, Tiet Khanh, & Harvey, D. (n.d.). The Tra Vinh Community College model:

Integration of vocational, college and university education and training delivery to

meet local and regional needs. Available from Saskatchewan Institute of Applied

Science and Technology (SIAST), 119 4th Avenue South, Saskatoon, SK,

Canada, S7K 5X2.

Sauvageau, P. P. (1997). Higher education for development: A history of modern higher

education in the Socialist Republic of Vietnam. Boston University. Retrieved May

13, 2001 from http://www.gis.net/~psauvage/DISSERTATION/htm

Teekens, H. (2002). The establishment of six pilot community colleges in Vietnam:

Educational innovation in higher education. In K. Epskamp (Ed.), Education in

the South: Modalities of international support revisited [Nuffic Paperback 3].

Netherlands: Nuffic

404

Torres, C. A., & Rhoads, R. A. (2006). Introduction: Globalization and higher education

in the Americas. In R. A. Rhoads & C. A. Torres (Eds.), The university, state, and

market: The political economy of globalization in the Americas (pp. 3-38).

Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Tran, Hoa Phuong (1998). Vietnamese higher education at the intersection of French and

Soviet influences. (University Microfilms International No. 9918255).

Thu, Nguyen Xuan. (1974). Organizational structure and governance of public

universities in Vietnam. (University Microfilms International No. 7505672).

Thuy, Nguyen Van. (1974). Proposal for a model core curriculum for the first two

undergraduate years in institutions of higher education in Vietnam. (University

Microfilms International No. 7222294).

Vietnam National University – Ho Chi Minh City (VNU-HCMC). (2000). Prospectus.

[Brochure]. Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam: Author.

Viet Nam Net. (2005, November 6). 15 nam nua, GD dai hoc VN dat dang cap khu vuc.

(In 15 years Vietnam higher education will reach to the regional level). Author.

World Bank. (1994). Higher education: The lesson of experience. (World Bank Stock No.

12745). Washington, DC: The World Bank

Yee, A. H. (1995). East Asian higher education: Traditions and transformations. New

York: International Association of Universities and Elsevier Science Ltd.

405

Community Colleges Development

in India, the Dominican Republic and Georgia

John Halder

Overview

The intention of this chapter is to provide an overview of three case studies of the

genesis of the community college overseas.

Only a few years ago, the concept of the community college outside the United

States, with a few exceptions, was relatively unknown. Although organizations like

Community Colleges for International Development, Inc, have worked for three decades

with international colleagues, as have individual colleges in some instances, as a general

rule community colleges had not been established overseas. That radically changed in

the period from approximately 1990 through 2005, with the community college model

being expressly sort out by overseas educators, for implementation or adaptation to

conditions outside North America. Some of this has been due to a desire by U.S.

community colleges to internationalize their faculty, but also the availability of funds for

U.S. community colleges to undertake work overseas has been important. In other

instances the overseas country has recognized and valued the community college concept

and has pursued partners in the U.S.

Country Selection

For the purposes of this discussion three countries have been selected:

India

The Dominican Republic

Georgia

Each was chosen because the emergence of the community college, while

occurring for very similar reasons - the establishment of a process for the training of

technicians to meet the needs of business and industry – the paths that have been

406

followed to meet that goal have varied. In India, a grass roots initiative largely took the

sub-continent by storm, following the work of a number of colleges in the early and mid

1990’s. It was truly a “bottom – up” phenomenon, with grass-roots initiatives creating

“colleges for the people.” By the year 2006 the community college movement in India is

being officially accepted by the government, with the introduction of legislation,

especially in the Chennai area, to bring the growing number of community colleges (160,

at the most recent count) under the umbrella of the higher education system. In the

Dominican Republic, presidential candidate, Dr. Leonel Fernandez, having studied and

worked in the USA, used the community college as a piece of his political platform, and

positioned it as part of his presidential campaign to appeal to the masses – again, as

“college for the people.” However, in the country of Georgia we find a different

approach as a country finds its feet following years of Soviet suppression. Here, we find

higher education officials seeking to identify ways to meet the growing need for

technicians for the 21st century, while at the same time addressing the challenges of the

melt-down of their higher education system following the total loss of support form the

Soviet Union.

These three countries will be case studies we shall describe and analyze on the

following pages. In each scenario, the main players will vary, from India (the people), to

the Dominican Republic (the president), to Georgia (a progressive educational

establishment).

The Community College as a Model

When we in the United States think of the community college, we perhaps picture

the typical institution resting on three pillars. One pillar is that of the university transfer

student, beginning their academic career at an institution where they will find less

expensive tuition, small classes, and very approachable professors. The second pillar is

that of the student returning to the classroom, having graduated perhaps ten years earlier

with a baccalaureate degree, but now needing further training in specific skills for career

purposes. Studying for a two year degree or diploma will equip her for that career

change.

407

The final pillar is that of the contract training division of the college. This

department works closely with business and industry to identify their training needs and

requirements.

The concept of credit transfer is firmly established in US higher education. In a

society as mobile as the United States, how could it not be so? A student may begin their

higher education at a community college, transfer to the local university, and drop out of

education to pursue a promising career, move to another state a thousand miles away, and

then enroll at the university in the new location. Five years later he or she returns for

more training. No where in the rest of the world does a higher education model exist that

so accurately reflects and supports the mobility of the society through built in flexibility.

In addition, open access and financial accessibility are key attributes. Another major

component of the US community college is that of open access. We commit to work

with the student to ensure their success, no matter their prior academic history or lack

thereof.

When reviewing the community college overseas, however, this US model needs

to be cast thoroughly and unceremoniously to one side. The community college overseas

is an adaptive, creative and cunning variation on the theme established in the United

Diagrammatic OverviewDiagrammatic Overview

100 +Transfer

Programs

72+ WorkplaceGovernmentCommunity

Example: Kirkwood Community College, Iowa

University Transfer

Applied Science

Workforce Partnerships

53 Applied Sc. degrees36 Diploma’s

408

States. It has emerged under unique circumstances, often under the stern overview of

prestigious universities, established a century or more ago, under perhaps colonial

tutelage. Universities, polytechnics and technical colleges may already occupy the

landscape, each with their own unique histories, political connections and funding

formulae.

It is into this milieu that the overseas community college thrusts its precocious

self, filling the void identified by its champions in the country in question.

The Experience of India

Community Colleges for International Development has had at least a 25-year

history of working in India. In recent years, leadership has been provided equally by

Eastern Iowa Community College District, Iowa, (EICCD) and Sinclair Community

College, Ohio, (SCC) but faculty from other CCID colleges have also been involved.

Prior to these colleges’ engagement, early CCID India activities included Fulbright

Exchanges, and the hosting of Indian education delegations sponsored by the World

Bank, the University Grants Commission, and the U.S Department of State. CCID has

also sponsored U.S. community college delegations to India, conducted workshops in

India on community colleges, and created working partnerships between higher education

and the business community.

The real impetus for the development of community colleges in India resulted

from a chance meeting between Indian educator Adrian Almeida and Professor Jean

Cook of Sinclair Community College, Dayton, Ohio, in 1990. Following their meeting at

a conference, Sinclair applied for a USAID University Development Linkage Project

grant to assist Mr. Almeida with his vision for creating the Center for Vocational

Education in Madras. This five - year project, begun in 1992 and valued at $750,000.00

with equal match, was directed by Sinclair Community College and co-directed by

Eastern Iowa Community College District, and was completed in 1997. The project

brought 15 vocational / technical faculty from eight CCID colleges to what was to

become the Center for Vocational Education in Madras. Ultimately over 25 U.S. faculty

participated in this project, with some traveling to India using college professional

development funds after the grant expired. These faculty working with Indian partners,

409

developed vocational training programs aimed at school dropouts, rural and urban poor,

and women with limited opportunities, modeling fairly closely the concepts of open

access so familiar in the U.S. community college. The building was donated by the

Catholic Arch-Diocese of Madras which also spent funds on updating and repairs. Later,

the name of the Center for Vocational Education was dropped in favor of the Madras

Community College, which is still thriving today. Representatives of CCID were present

at the inauguration in August 1997.

Under the auspices of that grant, in August 1997, the “Training Options for Early

School Leavers Conference,” took place in Madras, developed jointly by CVE, Sinclair

Community College and EICCD. More than 100 people representing five countries

attended. The conference focused world attention on the plight of the early school leaver.

Teaching / learning experiments that promote training and education for this population

were shared, thereby providing impetus to workforce development, and school to work

concepts.

Map Courtesy of The CIA World Fact Book http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/in.html

Today the Community College movement in India thrives, with an estimated 150

colleges established in 17 states140. The Madras Center for Research and Development of

Community College Education (MCRDCE) has been the pioneer in keeping the

momentum going, under the leadership of Father Xavier Alphonse. Father Alphonse

140 “Marching with the Marginalized, Published by MCRDCE, December 2005, page vii

410

followed Mr. Almeida as Principal of the Madras Community College, before leaving to

establish and direct MCRDCE in 1999. The function of this organization, undertaken by

the Jesuits of Tamil Nadu, is to act as a resource to help and facilitate the community

college movement. They provide consulting services, hold national workshops, provide

networking and monitoring services, and act as a resource center.

Support of the community college initiatives in India by American colleges and

CCID have been on-going, and in recent years have included, fall 2000, a series of four,

one-day workshops. Targeted at business, government and educators, they were held in

the cities of Chennai, Trivandrum, Hyderabad and Bangalore. They focused on the

development of relevant workforce training in India and the potential for partnerships

with U.S. colleges. CCID representatives have also met with officials from Mahindra

Motors, Nasik, and with L & T John Deere, Pune, to discuss their workforce development

needs.

Other key factors supporting community college development in India included a

USIA University Affiliations Project 1995-1998, valued at $120,000.00 for three years,

again directed by Sinclair Community College. This involved the exchange of faculty

from Stella Maris College, Madras (a private, Catholic, women’s college), with faculty

from Sinclair and Eastern Iowa Community College District. The project strengthened

literacy education in the U.S. and India, and today (2006) is leading to discussions about

the establishment of a community college under the auspices of Stella Maris College and

with Eastern Iowa taking the lead.

Another project was a U.S. Department of Education – Title VI B Business

Linkage Project, for two years, and directed by EICCD, that strengthened international

business education at U.S. community colleges and promoted trade relationships between

companies in India and the U.S. EICCD led a trade mission of small and medium- sized

businesses to India in the fall 1996. In addition to the resulting trade development, it also

provided an excellent case study for the Indians of the role that a community college can

play in the economic development of a community.

The rapid growth of the community college in India is largely due to the pre-

existing college infrastructure created by the Catholic Church. Over many decades the

Church has been instrumental in developing sewing schools, cooking schools, secretarial

411

colleges, etc, and transforming these has been the main impetus for the rapid growth of

community colleges across the sub-continent. Early converts to the community college

concept in the Indian context, where class and caste have been major barriers to

education, leapt at the idea of open access for all, once it was made known to them.

Providing opportunities, especially for females and minorities, resonated with the church

from a peace and justice perspective, and assisted with creating the growth in the new

colleges we have reported. Key persons in India traveled to the United States, and key

college personnel from the States working in India, helped to generate the fertile

conditions for the growth we have observed. While the university sector of Higher

education in India is of the highest quality, and can hold it’s own with universities around

the globe, the pre-existing technical colleges were extremely low on the totem pole in

terms of quality and standards. Creating the new community colleges, with short-term,

good quality, relevant training, was a contributing factor in their rapid adoption and

growth.141

Today, the Indian federal and regional governments are making attempts to

manage the growth, and find the appropriate structure within higher education to house

these new colleges. Course approvals, funding, accreditation and other issues are now

being more centrally addressed, with the colleges in many instances being placed under

the administrative purview of the universities. In a country as large as India there are

many variations on this theme, but there appears to be a serious attempt to rationalize and

organize the system.

141 I am indebted to Professor Robert Keener, Sinclair Community College, Ohio, for assistance with dates and the sequence of activities.

412

The Experience of the Dominican Republic

Presidential candidate, Dr. Leonel Fernández, was running for re-election in 2004

when he received a group of businessmen who were leaders of a business council in the

Eastern province of Santo Domingo. Due to the lack of qualified and adequately trained

labor, they had been trying to develop formalized technical training for their province for

the prior 10 years. They had attempted to align themselves with the Public University,

and with former government officials, but because of political interests could never get

the project off the ground.

Map courtesy of the CIA World Fact Book http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/dr.html

Prior to this visit, Dr. Fernández had signed an agreement with Dr. Sharples,

President of Daytona Beach Community College, Florida, to foster exchanges and work

on a variety of projects together. Dr. Fernández reviewed the Eastern province of Santo

Domingo, the industrial development in the area, and the nearby airport and free zones,

and thought it would be a perfect place for the community college, based on an American

model of education that had impressed him for so many years (Fernández had lived in the

U.S. during his middle and high school years, and had also been exposed to the model

while visiting the U.S. while President of the country and as former President). He

viewed this educational model as having the flexibility necessary to provide for quality

413

training in a short timeframe, enabling these communities to offer incentives to

companies wanting a capable labor force and promoting economic development for the

country. The community college model also would provide a service to the growing

population of young people that cannot afford to attend the private universities in the

country. The community college would enable them to learn the skills that will allow

them to get jobs, and at the same time continue their education if they so desire. He

strongly believed that economic development begins with education, and that in order to

compete in the 21st century, the Dominican Republic needed to focus on training its

human capital.

Ms Yvette Lopez142, on the staff of Dr. Fernandez, became the liaison with

Daytona Beach Community College, and with the local business people, holding regular

meetings and getting input from the leaders in the Eastern Santo Domingo community.

President Fernández took office again in August of 2004, and since then the project has

been formalized through government channels, specifically with the Secretary of State for

Higher Education, in order to develop a model that takes into consideration the specific

issues of the Dominican Republic, its educational system, with the goal of successfully

opening the first community college in the fall of 2006. In the most recent phase of the

project Ms. Ligia Amada Melo, Secretary of State for Higher Education, and Victor Hugo

Delancer, Asst. Secretary of State for Higher Education, have also been highly engaged

in the project.

Specific challenges faced by President Fernández have included finding the right

location for the new institution, clearing the site and commencing construction. Other

challenges have involved finding a working compromise with existing higher education

institutions - the local universities - and other partners, to work together to develop a

model. Ms. Ligia Amada Melo has had the practical issued of hiring and training staff

and administrators, formalizing the boards of directors, and certifying course content and

community college programs. Dr. Don Matthews, Director of International Programs at

Daytona Beach Community College has been the liaison between DBCC and the

government, in order to host delegations and hold informational programs to provide

expertise in various fields. Ms. Lopez as the overall project director has been the liaison 142 Special thanks are accorded to Ms. Lopez for her background information regarding the college development in the D.R.

414

between the Dominican government and working with Don Matthews, in order to

strategize and create timelines, analyze obstacles, and devise solutions.

In this case study the Daytona Beach Community College model was used as the

model for the Dominican community college organization, student services, adult

education and remedial programs. The courses and programs followed their

comprehensive model of a community college, while making adjustments in accordance

with the Dominican situation. Other key US colleges that have played a role have

included Tompkins-Courtland Community College, NY, and Portland Community

College, Oregon. Each has played an important role, allowing Dominican delegations to

review and further understand the diversity in the programming, and the college models,

available within the United States.

In the long term the Dominican Government plans to create four community

colleges and creating United State partners for them. With these relationships they plan

to review the diversity of programs, in order to partner depending on the area of expertise

and the needs of the communities around the future sites.

In this instance of community college development overseas we have a mandate

from the President of the country, who had experienced first hand the educational system

within the United States. Being a populist leader he had very clear ideas about what he

wished to develop, and incorporated these into his election platform. This approach is

different from the other two countries reviewed in this chapter, but with a public mandate

to proceed, political support for the new colleges had to follow from the government.

Clearly in this case study, the support of business and industry is apparent and in no way

in doubt, and will be a key component in the choice of courses and programs being

developed at the college.

415

The Experience of Georgia

The development of community colleges in Georgia, while in its early stages,

continues the reform of Georgia’s educational institutions begun in the post – Soviet era.

First, new specialties were introduced and then during the past three years a major

program of educational reform has been introduced by the Georgian Ministry of Science

and Education. As a result the numbers of majors, departments, teachers, and students at

the universities have been diminished. The reforms, importantly for us, also follow the

requirements of the European Bologna Process for Higher Education, by providing access

to all Georgian school graduates (and school leavers) to a system of vocational and

professional career education, through the network of new community colleges.

As background, after the break up of the Soviet Union the system of professional

education (like the Russian style Technikons that had been the sole source of technical

education) began to fall apart as educational and training needs of the enterprises shifted.

The Technikons, as throughout all Soviet dominated territories, had been designed to

produce large numbers of technicians, but in extremely limited and focused disciplines.

Many of these disciplines were producing too many graduates, while others were not

required at all. Compounding this was the fact that many of the enterprises whose

training needs had been met in the old system themselves were no longer working.

Nowhere were the courses focused on the needs of business and industry, and the new

areas of potential business growth, with a workforce development mandate. Clearly new

ideas about post secondary education and how to focus it on the topics needed by

business and industry were required.

Starting in 2005 dialogue among professors at the Georgian Technical University,

members of the government and administration, and with colleagues overseas, began to

plant the seed concept of the community college in the minds of key Georgian

policymakers. The Ministry of Education and Science had earlier began the larger reform

process of primary and secondary education with World Bank funding, but as with the

story of the emergence of the community college around the world, their establishment in

Georgia is being funded through a combination of building donations, in-kind

contributions, U.S. grant submissions, funding from the Ministry, and hope.

416

CCID’s involvement came through the efforts of two key figures in this re-design

effort. Dr. Lali Ghogheliani143 is the Coordinator of Higher Education and Science

Reforms at Georgian Technical University. Dr. Ardith Maney144, a political science

professor from Iowa State University, USA, who was working on “women in science”

issues globally, and who also was familiar with community colleges and their programs.

Both nurtured the fledgling concept to the point where Ghogheliani led a delegation of

Georgian Higher Education officials to the U.S. in the summer of 2005, and visited

community colleges. These officials, including other teachers from the Georgian

Technical University, Tbilisi, visited Kirkwood Community College and Eastern Iowa

Community College, both in Iowa; Waukesha County Technical College in Wisconsin;

and Moraine Valley Community College in the western Chicago suburbs in Illinois. All

of these outstanding colleges are members of CCID, and all within easy access of airport

hub city Chicago, both important factors when working with tight budgets and travel

schedules.

The delegation that visited the U.S. during 2005 certainly had a major impact, as

officials from the Ministry of Education & Science asked to attend the CCID 30th

Anniversary Conference in Jacksonville, Florida, February 2006. These meetings

between the Ministry and community college officials clearly heralded a new

commitment by all to see that the Georgians had the informational resources to see the

project through. These resources included a commitment by the colleges that the earlier

Georgian delegation had visited to continue to be part of the effort of support; an

assurance that the ministry officials had a clear understanding of the scope of community

colleges, achieved by also taking them to visit Santa Fe Community College in

Jacksonville, Florida; and the agreement to sign a Memorandum of Understanding

between the Georgian Ministry of Education and Community Colleges for International

Development, Inc to support the reform efforts. A key step such as this provided the

impetus for further work to be undertaken between the parties.

143 Appreciation is extended to Dr. Ghogheliani confirming dates and accuracy of information.144 Appreciation is due to Dr. Maney for her knowledge of higher education in Georgia, and the many telephone conversations about the creation of community colleges in that country.

417

The signing took place on April 6th 2006, when an official from CCID met the

Minister of Education in Tbilisi, and signed the Agreement. The importance of such an

event was underscored by the attendance of the U.S. Ambassador to Georgia, The

Honorable John Tefft, who in his remarks talked about the vitality of the U.S. economy

being in part due to the training and retraining capabilities of the U.S. community

colleges. He envisaged such a system planted in Georgia with U.S. assistance, and

designed to meet the unique needs of the Georgian economy. During a visit to Georgia

in April 2006, this writer learnt that the Prime Minister, when opening a new factory, was

talking about the new community colleges training the factory technicians in the skills

needed for modern industry. Clearly the initiative to introduce community colleges in

Georgia had political support from the very highest sectors of the government and

administration. As a result of these initiatives it is hoped that the enabling legislation will

be introduced into Parliament before the close of 2007. Issues to still be resolved include

student testing, the application process, teacher qualifications, university transfer, etc.

The Minister of Education and Science, Dr. Lomaia, decided to locate the first

community college in Gori, a regional center approximately 1 ½ hours north-west of

Georgia’s capital, Tbilisi. Due to its location near the main east-west and north-south

transportation corridors, and located close to one of the two regions claiming

independence from Georgia, Gori is strategically important.

418

Map courtesy of the CIA World Fact Book:

http://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/gg.html

Although Tbilisi is bustling and renewal is coming to the cities of the Black Sea

coast through travel and tourism and the activities of the oil and gas pipelines that are

running from the Caspian Sea oilfield through Georgia’s sea coast terminals and/or to

Turkey’s Mediterranean Sea coast for onward shipment to Europe, the economic

conditions in the small towns and rural areas is still difficult and many people outside the

cities now rely on subsistence agriculture. Because the goal is to assist economic

modernization and build careers for Georgia’s young people – so that they do not have to

leave for careers elsewhere - Gori is an excellent location to establish the Ministry’s new

market-responsive model of professional training.

Thanks to a start-up grant awarded from the U.S. Agency for International

Development (spring 2006), to a consortium of the U.S. colleges mentioned above, and

GTU, as the implementing agency in Georgia, the plan is to open the doors of the first

community college to students in fall 2007. In follow-up work CCID will assist in the

Ministry’s plan to have community colleges based in 12 locations around the country,

with the college at Gori as the pilot.

The adaptability of the community college model, and it’s planting in parts or the

whole, is a key attribute to the flexibility of community colleges, and how they can be

adapted to the needs of international clients. While most overseas nations do not have the

capability to implement the credit transfer part of the model, in Georgia they are viewing

this component positively. It will require a much larger educational reform to achieve

this, but with the dynamism observed in the Georgina education officials, this goal is

achievable.

Concluding remarks

The goal of this chapter has been to indicate that the community college model in

the United States has been a beacon to other countries as they contemplate educational

reform. Although the model has been remade in local images, the core values remain.

These include open access, and relevance to workforce training, and in some instances,

transferability of credit. While the model has quite correctly been adapted, in most

419

instances in these countries it would not be recognized by a community college educator

from the United States. But it is probably equally true to say that an educator from the

early years of the U.S. community college system – let’s say from 1965 – would be hard

pressed to recognize the colleges of the 21st century, that have developed from their

humble origins. That is the great benefit of the community college model – adaptability

and creativity. The community college creates a gateway to the world of higher

education for the underprivileged, and thereby connects potential with opportunity. The

education reformers in India, the Dominican Republic and Georgia have seen how the

model can be adapted, and are moving forward assertively. As with all adventures, the

journey is equally important as the destination.

420

Case Studies

Two Presidents of Colleges, Coen Free of Koning Willem I College and Tayeb Kamali - Vice Chancellor of the Higher Colleges of Technology in United Arab Emirates, presented two case studies of their colleges and systems.

These two studies are included because they give a more in-depth perspective of how their colleges have responded to Technical Education and workforce training in special and quite specific ways. Readers of this Global Survey should find these more in-depth descriptions of their colleges of some value.

421

Evolution of Technical Education and Training in the UAE

A case study of the Higher Colleges of Technology

Dr. Tayeb KamaliVice Chancellor, Higher Colleges of Technology, UAE

Chapter Outline:

1) Introduction and Background

2) The Mandate, the Vision and Mission

3) Formative years: Balancing Quality with Demand (1988-1994)

4) Designing Programs: Locally relevant & Internationally Benchmarked

5) Second phase: Mass provider of technician training (1995-2002)

6) Corporate sponsored training programs: CERT (1996-Present)

7) lnnovations in teaching and learning

8) Outcomes-based HCT Learning Model

9) Evolution of Quality Assurance model

10) Future challenges and solutions

422

Introduction and Background

The discovery and exploitation of oil and gas reserves in the Arabian Gulf

countries of Saudi Arabia, (what is now) the UAE, Qatar, Kuwait, Bahrain and

Oman in the 1960's significantly impacted these societies over a very short

period of time.

In these hitherto thinly-populated and undeveloped regions, the sudden influx

of revenues presented the rulers with unprecedented opportunity to focus on

developing physical infrastructures at a dramatic pace. Within two decades,

amazing results were achieved in construction and infrastructure development

projects.

From the mid 1960's to the mid 1980's, developments in housing, roads,

schools, hospitals and telecommunication networks to the standards of the

developed world were made possible with the help of multinational companies

and a great influx of expatriate labor supported by technical and professional

advisors. It was during this period that particular emphasis was placed on the

building of a large network of kindergarten to grade 12 schools to ensure that

every national child was given free and easy access to basic education.

Incentives were given to all national families to increase family size in order to

meet the ever-expanding human resource needs in these increasingly affluent

economies. Traditional universities were established to help provide the

administrative and managerial leaders needed to assume key and leading

government and public sector positions. These positions were initially held by

expatriates who assisted in this massive undertaking. Economic growth

certainly meant that manpower needs continued to outstrip the supply of

trained nationals. The social incentives put in place to increase the national

population began to show results during the 1980's with strong demographic

423

growth witnessed in the number of school-aged national children as the

number of students in primary schools tripled from 1980 to 1995 and the

number of secondary school students increased from 62,000 in 1985 to

160,000 in 1995.

GCC planners began to focus their attention on the increasing numbers of

school leavers and the type of occupations that would be available to them in

the coming decades when they entered the workforce. Many economic and

HR statistical indicators pointed these planners toward conclusions similar to

the findings of one of the region's leading researchers (2): "They (employers)

complain that our schools are incapable of producing an adequate supply of

trained and technically qualified workers. The acute shortage of indigenous

workers is both quantitative and qualitative.. GCC Countries have to strike a

balance between the need to prepare professionals such as engineers,

doctors and lawyers, and the need for middle-level workers such as

technicians and semi-skilled workers. The acute shortage of local technicians

and skilled workers should drive GCC governments to shift their emphasis

from Universities to lower-cost training colleges and polytechnics in order to

enhance their capabilities of providing better quality training for larger

numbers."

The Mandate, The Vision, The Mission

In the words of the Founding President of UAE, the late His Highness Sheikh

Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, "Education is a lantern that lights your way in a

dark alley.” Sheikh Zayed led the nation during an era that saw the UAE

transform itself from a small cluster of emirates to one of the most modern

countries in the world. A visionary, he saw his dream of a unified nation

materialize during his lifetime. Throughout his presidency the country

424

witnessed drastic changes, a magical metamorphosis from the pre-oil days to

unparalleled development. He not only led the country into the 21st century

but also put the UAE on the world map.

In 1987, Sheikh Zayed gave a clear mandate to the Chancellor of the UAE

University, His Excellency Sheikh Nahayan Mabarak Al Nahayan to establish

a system of technical institutions throughout the country to train and develop

young UAE nationals in technical specializations.

Sheikh Nahayan set the vision for a world class higher educational institution

that would be the lead provider of tertiary education in the country and would

effectively meet the quantitative and qualitative needs for the national

workforce and would soon become the best-in-class institution in the region at

large.

The new, federally-funded system was named The Higher Colleges of

Technology. It became known as the HCT and its mission statement

effectively included the President's mandate and the Chancellor's vision. To

articulate his vision, Sheikh Nahayan crafted the HCT mission statement in

1988 which has stood the test of time during the rapid development of the

HCT and the UAE over these past 18 years: "The Higher Colleges of

Technology are dedicated to the delivery of technical and professional

programs of the highest quality to the students, within the context of sincere

respect for all beliefs and values. Graduates of the colleges will have the

linguistic ability to function effectively in an international environment; the

technical skills to operate in an increasingly complex technological world; the

intellectual capacity to adapt to constant change; and the leadership potential

to make the fullest possible contribution to the development of the community

for the good of all its people."

425

Sheikh Nahayan's visionary leadership, dedication and untiring efforts have

been the cornerstones in translating this vision into measurable outcomes and

success. From the outset, it was his firm belief that the strong foundation to

such a world-class institution shall be uncompromising attention to quality,

integrity and continual improvement of the teaching - learning process. As

noted in the mission statement, he has also been consistently insistent on

preparing graduates to work effectively in an international environment, thus

emphasizing on international accreditation and benchmarking of programs

and processes.

As the impending deadline set by the President demanded an ambitious

timeline, implementation had to precede the governmental decrees and

processes necessary to formally set up this federal institution with its own

budget and award-granting status.

Sheikh Nahayan, as the Chancellor of this new institution, initiated a 'fast-

track' implementation to convert this Presidential vision into the practical

reality of 'state-of-the-art' campuses offering career-oriented programs with

students enrolled by year end. A select number of technical programs,

curriculum details and infrastructure were expeditiously put in place with the

assistance of international experts.

As a direct interpretation of its mission, HCT embarked on technical education

that

Was relevant to the needs of local government, business and

industry

Prepared graduates for a globally competitive marketplace with

English as the language of instruction in programs that were

426

benchmarked against, and accredited by, international best

practices.

Developed graduates with holistic aptitudes and core

competencies that were sought after by all top industries

irrespective of specific vocational skills.

Continued to seek feedback from local industry through a system

of Program Advisory Committees and acted to adjust program

offerings and content so that HCT graduates would be work-

ready immediately upon graduation.

Equipped the graduates with life-long learning skills and

technology prowess so they would be able to upgrade their skills

throughout their careers.

Formative Years – Balancing Quality with Demand (1988-1994)

As it's first and foremost priority, the leadership of the HCT focused its early

efforts on establishing a reputation for program quality. While enrollment

levels, the diversity of offerings and the cost per student were elemental

considerations, it was the quality of the learning experience that was

paramount. It was this pursuit of excellence in the program and the graduate

that became the driving force for development and change. Therefore, in the

early years, admission was highly selective and no efforts were spared in

ensuring these select groups of students had access to world-class resources

and top caliber faculty. Excellent learning resources, equipment and facilities

were all made available. These were totally free of cost for the students.

427

Such investments were made in order to emphasize the importance the

government placed on technical graduates from vocational streams and to

attract some of the top secondary school graduates to the HCT and away

from traditional universities. Emphasis on the quality of its graduates was vital

as the acceptance of these graduates by the employers as preferred recruits

was the goal.

The selective intake enrollment ensured that early adjustments to the

curriculum, assessment and management processes of this fledgling

institution would not be impacted adversely with a large number of students.

This also allowed this young institution sufficient time to evolve into a unique

system of technical colleges that would meet the unique environmental

requirements of the UAE.

A major early adjustment was the introduction of a Foundation year to prepare

the public secondary school graduates who came from schools where Arabic

was the primary medium of instruction, to the HCT where English was the

only medium of instruction. This Foundation year armed the students with

requisite general education and active learning skills before they commenced

into career programs for a further 3 years, after which, if successful in their

studies, they would graduate with a Higher National Diploma.

In the beginning, the HCT chose to follow the model - curriculum, human

resources, academic policies - of the Ontario Colleges of Applied Arts and

Technology (CAATS). However, during the first year of operation, it became

apparent that the HCT would be wise to also integrate and incorporate best

practices of other world-class postsecondary systems for several reasons:

Industry in the region, the ultimate stakeholder of the HCT, was

strongly influenced by several international practices: the

428

Engineering and Accounting industries in the United Arab Emirates

typically followed U.S. and U.K. standards and codes. This included

the key sectors of energy and construction. Skilled technicians and

semi-skilled operators predominantly came from South Asia. There

was little Canadian influence on the regional industry.

In terms of recognition of vocational or educational credentials, the

British system of Higher National Diplomas and Higher National

Certificates was best understood and accepted by many Human

Resource managers of major companies.

The system of education in the primary and the secondary schools

coupled with their Arabic medium of instruction meant that national

school leavers had very different skill levels and learning styles from

those who entered North American tertiary educational institutions.

Hence, significant transitional programs had to be designed before

any western-designed curriculum could be effectively delivered.

These forces led to geographic hiring adjustments mandated by the

leadership that affected faculty and academic manager recruitment. This new

outreach would give a balanced mix of professionals from the U.K., the U.S.,

Canada and Australia as well as some with educational or industrial experience

in the region. This mix of international best-of-breed faculty teams then began to

refine the original curriculum in close consultation with relevant Program Advisory

Committees, made up of representatives from major local employers.

Some of the early feedback from the employers with respect to graduate

attitudes and intellectual skills helped shaped HCT policies toward attendance,

punctuality and student conduct. Work placement as a program component,

system-wide common assessments, and international language proficiency tests

429

such as IELTS became major directives for future practice. It is also of note that

the UAE Civil Service regulations and practices of employer screening had an

impact on switching to the letter grades of A, B, C, F, from the pass/fail grading

system originally employed by Educansult.

By 1993-1994, thanks to strategic appointments at executive levels to lead the

new colleges and support structure, a unique academic system of higher

education was fast evolving at the HCT. The leadership sought to balance the

increasing demand for new campuses throughout the country caused by the

increasing demand for admission with the introduction of centrally monitored

checks and balances using a strong Quality Assurance/Quality Control unit at the

centre. To that end, Academic Central Services (ACS) was established, along

with streamlined administrative processes utilizing central committees under the

leadership of the system Vice Chancellor.

DESIGNING PROGRAMS: LOCALLY RELEVANT & INTERNATIONALLY BENCHMARKED

Right from the outset, the mission of the HCT mandated the curriculum leaders to

design and continually refine programs with two primary objectives:

1) The programs had to be relevant to the needs of the local industry so that

HCT graduates would be effectively employed at entry-level technical jobs

with minimal need for retraining.

2) The program outcomes had to be benchmarked and I or accredited by

relevant international institutions for quality assurance purposes as well as

for effective articulation paths for HCT graduates who may wish to pursue

graduate programs overseas.

430

Every program cluster offered in each college of the HCT was expected to have

a Program Advisory Committee (PAC) comprised of relevant professional

managers from potential local employers. The PACs were to review curriculum,

suggest changes, and advise on new career program opportunities and foster

increasing interaction between the HCT's staff and students and the relevant

professional community within the UAE. This active interaction and the

importance given to PAC feedback in program design and suggested changes

helped ensure that the HCT continued to meet its first objective of producing

graduates with skill sets that were locally relevant and sought after by the

employers.

International Benchmarking and Accreditation were encouraged at three levels:

1) Specific programs sought relevant professional accreditation where

possible for international benchmarking. For example, all Higher Diploma

and Bachelor of Applied Science programs offered by the Business

division were accredited by ACBSB. Higher Diploma programs in

Engineering were benchmarked by ABET (TAC) and those in lnformation

Technology programs were accredited by Edexcel for several years.

2) The HCT have made significant strides in their endeavors towards

institutional accreditation to ensure quality of its overall management,

administrative, HR and program delivery processes. The HCT is now

going through candidature process with the Southern Association of

Colleges and Schools (SACS) in the US.

3) An internal quality assurance and audit process has been in place since

1998, starting primarily as a Program Quality Assurance process. This

PQA system is explained in detail later.

431

SECOND PHASE: MASS PROVIDER OF TECHNICIAN TRAINING (1995-2002)

During their first 6 years, the HCT leadership, while ensuring highly selective

admission to the Higher Diploma programs to maintain a strong reputation for the

quality of programs and graduates, continued to emphasize the overarching

objective of the HCT being an ‘open access’ institution for every eligible UAE

national student who wished to pursue tertiary education.

With the number of secondary school graduates increasing every year and with

the firm positioning of HCT as a top class higher education institution, by 1994,

there was increasing pressure from the community for the HCT to fulfill its ‘open

access’ mandate.

After a year of structured consultation with community stakeholders and internal

curriculum discussions during the academic year 94/95, June 1995 saw the

establishment of Certificate-Diploma (CD) programs open to all national school

leavers who applied and put in place admission processes for these new CD

programs. This resulted in a dramatic shift in the paradigm of education as well

as resource management challenges for the Higher Colleges of Technology. The

sudden increase in student enrollment can be seen from Figure 1 (Appendix I)

that indicates an increase of 80% enrollment in 1995 over the previous academic

year (3). From an institution of 2,300 students in June 1995, HCT had grown to

over 16,000 students in 10 years.

HCT responds very well to the challenges presented by dramatic growth by

adopting innovations in the design and delivery of appropriate curriculum and

also in aggressively recruiting faculty from over 80 countries who are qualified to

teach vocational programs with much more basic levels of academic knowledge

and communication skills in English. HCT has established itself as an early

432

adopter of technology in facilitating a flexible learning environment. Adoption of

blended e-learning platforms in course delivery ahs not only ensured effective

utilization of resources but also greatly improved student participation and

learning. Close co-ordination with industry partners has also helped HCT created

programs that equip graduates who meet industry needs.

CORPORATE SPONSORED TRAINING PROGRAMS: CERT (1996-PRESENT)

All operational costs of the HCT are fully funded by the UAE Federal Government

through its annual budget plan. Fixed investments such as land, facilities and

major equipment are the responsibility of the respective local emirate in which

each college is situated. The UAE government is committed to a free tertiary

level education for all eligible UAE national students who graduate from the

secondary schools every year. The corporate sector has been keen to promote

educational opportunities for national employees. To meet this need, HCT

established a commercial, corporate training and consulting arm in 1996, The

Centre of Excellence for Research and Training (CERT), and it became the

needed cost-recovery, corporate, commercial arm of HCT.

In the early years, in addition to running short, continuing education courses for

the community, CERT began to design, develop and deliver academic programs

customized to meet the needs of specific clients such as the UAE armed forces,

municipalities, oil & gas process Industries, the aviation industry, healthcare

agencies etc. These sponsored programs would lead to HCT credentials such as

a Diploma, Higher Diploma or Bachelor degree in specialist areas typically not

available for general HCT students.

These sponsored programs offered ‘win-win’ for every stakeholder involved:

433

For the client industries, the ability to design the outcomes of these

programs helped reduce training and development time periods

such that these graduates were able to quickly become productive

employees. With the guaranteed number of UAE national

graduates coming out of these programs, these organizations were

able to plan and implement their nationalization plans with

confidence.

For students sponsored into these programs, there was typically a

good stipend offered (in addition to free tuition support) for their

studies. Also, these sponsored students were contractually

guaranteed employment in the sponsoring company immediately

upon graduation, thus removing any uncertainty in their minds and

enabling the student to focus on his or her career path even while

studying.

Since the costs of offering these programs were fully recovered

from the client, HCT also has the opportunity to expand its program

offerings in specialist areas relevant to local industry.

CERT is presently engaged in an ambitious plan to expand its operations and be

actively involved in many other related commercial education, training and

research opportunities within the UAE and the region at large. At present, over

one thousand students and trainees are engaged in sponsored programs and

courses at HCT-CERT and this number is likely to multiply several fold in the

next two to three years.

INNOVATIONS IN TEACHING AND LEARNING

From its inception, the HCT have been consistent in their expectations from the

faculty and the students on hands-on active learning. Curriculum design and

434

assessment have been based on learning outcomes and the delivery has always

been learner-centered. Applied, hands-on, activity based teaching and learning

has been encouraged and this forms the basis of recruiting and rewarding faculty

members. 'Chalk and talk' lecture modes of delivery are strongly discouraged.

Small class size (15 to 20) helps faculty facilitate highly interactive and

participative learning. The learning environment and curriculum design help

integrate the delivery of theory and laboratory components of any course as

traditional classroom layouts are set within labs, giving total flexibility to faculty to

teach a theoretical concept for a few minutes and immediately get the students to

apply and understand this through hands-on experiments in the same room.

Use of technology is strongly encouraged and facilitated as an integral and

essential part of teaching and learning in all HCT programs. Most HCT campuses

are now wireless-enabled and students are required to purchase high-end

laptops before registering in the college. Thus, traditional computer labs have

been eliminated as every learning space has become a potential computer lab

with the help of the new, wireless campus. In addition, many learning spaces are

equipped with electronic smart boards that enable faculty to write (and the

students to download), to display PowerPoint and to access websites. Through

video conferencing facilities, students and staff are able to connect with experts

from around the world. Faculty members are encouraged to place all course

notes and course information on a WebCT platform for effective and easy access

by students through the internet. For the last few years, focused efforts have

been made in designing and offering online courses with twin objectives: In the

short term, to encourage directed self-managed learning among students as

contrasted with teacher led traditional learning: In the long term, to offer fully

online degrees for Diploma and HD graduates who are placed in far away,

offshore or onshore sites without easy access to HCT campuses, to continue

their studies. HCT has become a well known centre for pioneering work in

eLearning as they bring together international eLearning experts and educators

435

to discuss relevant issues through major international conferences. It hosts a

biennial conference 'E-ducation without Borders' (4) and an annual 'e-Merging e-

Learning' conference (5).

Where appropriate, project based learning (PBL) has become the norm, rather

than the exception. To ensure that learners are able to integrate and apply

concepts across different courses taken in the same semester or year, integrated

projects are often designed by a team of faculty and formally assessed as part of

every course taken by the learner. Many programs include a graduation project in

the final year or final semester where students and faculty are encouraged to

solve real-life industry/business based problems for this purpose.

Field visits and industry based 'sandwich' or co-operative programs (alternate

semesters in the college and the workplace - taking structured training for credit

towards a diploma or degree) are increasingly being incorporated in many

programs particularly in the fields of engineering and allied health. Work

experience/clinical placements/on the job training are included in the program

structure as mandatory courses with clearly defined goals and learning outcomes

that are jointly assessed by the faculty supervisor and the workplace supervisor.

OUTCOMES-BASED HCT LEARNING MODEL

From the beginning, HCT's curriculum developers focused on clearly articulating

individual course and program outcomes. However, with the introduction of

several new program majors within a few years (from 1993 to 1997), it was

critical to ensure overall consistency in credential characteristics and program

outcomes across different program majors which were simultaneously developed

in parallel. Thus, concerted efforts have been made since 1998 to develop a

consistent framework against which individual specialized programs could be

developed and benchmarked.

436

Continuing on with its rich practice of building on best-of-breed global educational

experiences and current developments, the HCT have had a faster induction to

outcomes-based education than many other leading international universities and

colleges. Hence, the HCT have been able to adapt and evolve an outcomes-

based education into a clearly measurable and verifiable Learning Model (6)

where the curriculum and student efforts are well mapped and documented

against target graduate outcomes for a specific credential or program major.

The HCT Learning Model describes the standards expected of learners, the

values and attributes they should be encouraged to obtain and maintain and the

learning environment in which the essential dialogue between faculty and student

should occur. Graduate Outcomes are a mechanism for establishing the

standards of credentials and the depth and breadth of knowledge of HCT

programs. They can also assist in the benchmarking of HCT graduates in the

national and international tertiary sector. The HCT graduate who experiences a

holistic learning experience will be the truest expression of the HCT meeting its

Mission.

The outcomes-based HCT Learning Model seeks to ensure that HCT graduates

acquire the knowledge, skills and abilities appropriate to their graduating status.

HCT Graduate Outcomes define the HCT graduate. The HCT strives to ensure

that its graduates possess capabilities in:

Communications and Information Literacy

Critical thinking, Problem solving and Interdisciplinary exploration

Global awareness

Information Technology

Self Management and Life Long Learning

Teamwork and Leadership

Vocational Competences

437

The credential characteristics developed as part of the HCT Learning Model,

carefully distinguish diploma programs (technician level training – more

vocational in character), higher diploma programs (developing technologists with

sufficient theoretical background to serve as a link between theoretical designers

and front line technical staff) and Bachelor degree programs (rounding up

undergraduate education), as illustrated by the two credential descriptions below:

Diploma Credential Characteristics:

A breadth, depth and complexity of knowledge and competencies that

cover a broad range of varied activities or applications within a wide

variety of contexts, most of which may be routine and predictable and

others which are complex and non-routine.

Leadership and guidance are involved when organizing activities of

self and others, as well as contributing to technical solutions of a non-

routine or contingency nature.

Performance of a broad range of skilled applications including

requirements to evaluate and analyze current practices, develop new

criteria and procedures for performing current practices, and provision

of some leadership and guidance to others in the application and

planning of skills.

Applications involve responsibility for, and limited organization of,

others.

Higher Diploma Credential Characteristics:

Breadth, depth and complexity covering planning and initiation of

alternative approaches to skills or knowledge applications across a

438

broad range of technical and/or management requirements, evaluation

and co-ordination.

The self-directed application of knowledge and skills, with substantial

depth in some areas where judgment is required in planning and

selecting appropriate equipment, services and techniques for self and

others.

Applications involve participation in development of strategic initiatives,

as well as personal responsibility and autonomy in performing complex

technical operations or organizing others. It may include participation in

teams including those concerned with planning and evaluation

functions. Group or team co-ordination will be involved.

The HCT's academic leaders have learned from the mission and curriculum

creep that have occurred in many polytechnics and 4-year colleges around the

world - often turning vocational diplomas (which, as terminal qualifications, are in

high demand from industry) to associate degree pathway articulation to

undergraduate programs and a gradual blurring of the technical and applied

character of such institutions that distinguish them from the traditional universities

which enabled them to offer unique provisions and services to the local

community.

EVOLUTION OF QUALITY ASSURANCE MODEL

At inception, it became evident to the leadership that an Academic Central

Services (ACS) unit would be necessary to co-ordinate and ensure design and

delivery of programs at several campuses spread across the country. Programs

were organized across the academic divisions: General Education, Engineering,

Information Technology (IT), Business, Health Science, Education and

439

Communications Technology. Deans and coordinators were appointed as part of

the ACS unit and they reported to the Director of that unit. One key function of

this newly formed team was to set minimum quality parameters for the design,

delivery and monitoring of every program in each college. Colleges were to meet

or exceed these levels so that system-wide consistencies could be assured to

the employers of the HCT graduates.

In its formative years, ACS was given significant support by the leadership along

with the mandate to set standards in curriculum design, key assessments, lab

and library resourcing, academic policies and procedures with respect to

admission criteria, progression policies, academic dismissals, graduation

eligibility and the like. Program teams, Division academic teams, Academic

Council and Policy Council structures provided the organizational framework for

approval of new programs and policies. The ACS managers chaired most of

these committees which were formed by representatives from each college.

In 1992, ACS applied quality control through system wide Graduate Aptitude

Tests (GATS) in which 3 to 4 major written assessments designed and

administered by ACS were instituted as a must-pass condition for graduation

to all students who had completed all coursework in the colleges. Over the next 3

years, the GATS became a part of the regular system-wide assessments for key

courses during the academic year rather than being given immediately prior to

graduation. Such key common assessments continue to be given primarily as

spot-checks to ensure system standards in interpretation of course outlines. Over

time, these assessments took different forms. High stakes examinations, project

work, oral presentations, practical work and other appropriate assessments

could now be included as key common assessments.

From its early years of spot-checking graduates at exit as a measure of quality

control, the system evolved significantly. A program quality assurance (PQA)

model was introduced in 1998 to ensure that each HCT program was designed

440

and delivered according to common quality parameters and this internal QA audit

was in turn designed to ensure that each program team was engaged in a

deliberate, documented, measurable continuous quality improvement process.

There were two primary aims of the PQA system:

To contribute toward improvements by colleges and Divisional

Academic Teams in providing students with the best opportunities

for academic and personal success and

To provide a framework for colleges and Divisional Academic

Teams to report how they are contributing towards the HCT

achieving its mission

The PQA system was designed to ensure quality assurance of both curriculum

design issues and curriculum delivery aspects. Thus, the unit responsible for

implementing the PQA had to monitor both the work of Deans at ACS and the

college faculty. Consequently, a new unit, the Institutional Effectiveness

Directorate was created, as part of the Vice Chancellor's office. This new unit

was to focus on international program accreditation, and seek out appropriate

international benchmarks.

Each college and its Divisional Academic Teams (DATs) used the HCT's PQA

Key Criteria (KC) to evaluate the quality of Its PQA processes and activities and

then recommended how these could be improved. A college was now required to

demonstrate how the following KCs were satisfied for each program:

KC1: Industry and community satisfaction with the program

KC2: Professional and external benchmarking, status and recognition of the program

441

KC3: Program and course aims, design, and learning outcomes: ensuring that they are

aligned with the HCT graduate outcomes

KC4: Student performance in assessment and progression through the program

KC5: Student and graduate satisfaction with teaching, learning and assessment

KC6: Optimization of resources and resource issues for the program and courses

KC7: Course delivery and teaching, learning and assessment strategies: ensuring these

are aligned with KC3

Each college and DAT responds to each of the Key Criteria by answering the

following Key Questions:

What is our process?

What is the evidence from our process?

What program improvements can we make on analysis of this

evidence?

Each college was to document its responses to the seven Key Criteria in a major

PQA report for each of the programs that it offered, on a system wide five-year

cycle. Evidence of PQA processes for each of these Key Criteria and evidence

resulting from these processes became a part of the relevant Divisional Quality

Portfolio at each college.

Today, operating in parallel with the above PQA system, is an annual

assessment of how well graduates meet the HCT Graduate Outcomes. Each

college annually demonstrates student achievement of the HCT Graduate

442

Outcomes in each of its programs through:

Results from Key Common Assessments in English, Mathematics

and Computing (and any other common, system-wide assessments

required by each Divisional Academic Team)

Outcomes-based assessments including, where appropriate,

associated assessment products and grades from the portfolios of

final-year students

The QA system at HCT continues to evolve at a rapid pace. At present, the

internal QA audit system is being extended to cover other college-supported

services including management and leadership. International accreditation and

benchmarking of programs continue to be strongly encouraged by the HCT

leadership.

As previously mentioned, Business programs are accredited by ACBSP,

Engineering programs have been benchmarked by ABET (TAC) and

Communication Technology programs have been accredited by the American

Communication Association. There are concerted efforts to seek accreditation of

IT and Health Science programs.

In addition, as a natural evolution of the internal QA, the HCT leadership decided

to seek institutional accreditation and the HCT have already submitted candidacy

documents to the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools

(SACS) of USA.

Future Challenges and Solutions

In a fast evolving, dynamic society such as the UAE, it is a major challenge to

prepare long term plans for higher education. However, medium term strategic

443

plans are possible and are now encouraged by the leadership. As the HCT

Chancellor summarized in his 2002 HCT Conference keynote address (7), "Mature institutions such as ours share certain characteristics and qualities that

enable them to experience success and forge their future. I would like to list

some of these characteristics with you now: Mature organizations, especially

academic institutions, avoid repeating past mistakes and are able to anticipate

problems before they occur; mature organizations use technology wisely and

effectively and espouse teamwork, creativity, and innovation. Mature

organizations also have finely tuned fiscal management systems and firm

resource allocation plans. And mature academic institutions have flexible course

delivery strategies, strong student support services, an ongoing commitment to

life-long learning, active partnerships with the community, effective assessment

procedures for students, faculty, and administrators, professional development

plans for all staff, and relevant collegial relationships with their sister institutions.

Many of these characteristics and qualities are already in place within our college

system, but many others need to be developed and refined."

Since 2002, the HCT have become the top choice of UAE national secondary

school leavers applying for higher education, in comparison with other national

and private universities in the country and overseas. This increasing demand is

further exacerbated by the increasing number of secondary school graduates

resulting from an ever increasing population. As a result, the HCT has a set of

challenges that require innovative solutions due to the following combination of

reasons:

The national mandate on the HCT is to provide open and free

access to tertiary education for all eligible UAE nationals - this does

not permit levying any student fees even to partially recoup some of

the costs.

444

At this stage of national development, to recruit teaching faculty

and administrators, higher education institutions primarily rely on

international staff - thus resulting in higher HR costs to provide for

housing, children's education and other compensation allowances.

Due to its highly selective nature, the HCT's HR costs are higher

than those of comparable technical colleges elsewhere in the

developed world.

To attract, recruit and retain world-class faculty members at the

HCT, the overall package must remain competitive and present

significant advantages to individuals on successful career paths in

their home countries. HCT leadership is determined not to

compromise quality of education in order to meet the increasing

quantitative demand.

The HCT's Policy Council has been studying different solutions and

approaches used by similar state funded universities and colleges in other

countries facing similar budgetary problems in their evolution. In the near

future, some combinations of the following solutions could help restore the

balance between demand and supply:

Increased levels of Federal and local government support for the

HCT budget.

Private sector contribution through grants, scholarships and

sponsored programs

Fee recovery on some of the direct costs such as textbooks, lab

consumables and computer usage, tuition fees for those students

repeating courses and the like.

445

Expansion and franchising of the HCT in other countries on a

commercial basis and bringing back some of the revenue to

support UAE operations.

A Summary Statement

The Higher Colleges of Technology are meeting identified manpower needs of

the business and industrial communities of the UAE. The graduates are

competent in the use of the English language and they possess the necessary

computer and scientific skills for the technology-driven times we now face. They

are often referred to as the graduates of choice by the region's employers.

Continuous emphasis on quality and relevance has provided a variety of program

offerings which attempts to meet increasing and ever changing requirements.

The system's focus on quality and its measurement has kept the HCT as a

leading institution in the Gulf region and the unwavering leadership of HE Sheikh

Nahayan Mabarak al Nahayan with his commitment to building a world class

institution has given the UAE a place of reputation in the post secondary systems

in the world today. Originally of Canadian roots, this system has taken the best

from the developed countries of the world. It has hired faculty and managers from

these countries and benchmarked against their programs. This has led to a

success of which the UAE can be very proud today.

446

REFERENCES:

1. UNESCO Statistical Yearbook, 1997

2. Al-Sulayti, Hamad, "Education and Training in GCC Countries: Some

issues of Concern" p275, Education and the Arab World-Challenges of the

Next Millennium, ECSSR, 1999.

3. Higher Colleges of Technology - Student Enrollment Overall Summary to

Date: http://mis.hct.ac.ae/css/csasnew/stats/enrltodt.htm

4. E-ducation without Borders conference website,

http://www.e-ducation2005.com

5. e-Merging e-Learning Conference website, http://eMerqirlq-

eLearning.com/

6. Rutland, Peter and Davison, Trevor "The HCT Learning Model",

http://mis.hct.ac.ae/ied/insteffec/IEDwebsite/learningmodel.pdf

7. Al Nahayan, Nahayan Mabarak, Higher Colleges of Technology 2002

Conference, http://crm.hct.ac.ae/events/archive/2002/chancellor2OO2.htm

MOVING FROM A CAMPUS CENTERED ENVIRONMENT TO A LEARNING VILLAGE

By Coen Free

I The Education System in the Netherlands

Primary and secondary educationChildren are allowed to begin school at the age of four, but are not legally

requires to do so until the age of five. Primary education lasts eight years of

which seven are compulsory, in the last year pupils are advised as to the type of

secondary education they should pursue.

Secondary education, which begins at the age of 12, compulsory until the age of

16, is offered at several levels. Four years programmes combine general and

vocational education, after which pupils can continue in senior secondary

vocational education and training (MBO). Beside that there are five years

programmes and six years programmes. These two programmes of general

education grant admission to higher education. Pupils are enrolled according to

their ability, to these selective types of secondary education. The six years

curriculum prepares pupils for the university; the five years curriculum for the

university of professional education.

Senior secondary vocational education and training Senior secondary vocational education and training (VET in English and MBO in

Dutch) is offered in the areas of economics, technology, health, personal care,

hospitality, welfare and agriculture. VET programmes vary in length from one to

four years as well in level (1 to 4). Graduates of four and five years programmes

are eligible for admission to VET, Level 4 of MBO programmes qualifies students

448

for access to the university of professional education. You can compare these

colleges of senior secondary vocational education and training with the British

Colleges of Further and Higher Education.

Higher EducationHigher education in the Netherlands is offered at two types of institution:

research universities and universities of professional education. Research

universities include general universities, universities specializing in engineering

and agriculture, and the Open University. Research universities are primarily

responsible for offering research-oriented programmes. Universities of

professional education include general institutions as well as institutions

specializing in a specific field such as agriculture, fine and performing arts, or

teacher training. Universities of professional education are primarily responsible

for offering programmes of higher professional education, which prepare

students for particular professions. These tend to be more practically oriented

than programmes offered by research universities.

KONING WILLEM I COLLEGE

The Koning Willem I College is one of 46 Colleges of Further Education in the

Netherlands. Because the Netherlands has national teaching and curriculum

standards and diplomas, there is great similarity in terms of the programs,

structure and organization of the 46 colleges. With regard to the Dutch situation it

is therefore sufficient to describe one college.

The most interesting is the Koning Willem I College in ’s-Hertogenbosch, a city in

the south of the Netherlands, halfway between Amsterdam and Brussels. It is the

only college with a campus.

The Koning Willem I College is generally recognized as the only Dutch

Community College and as one of the best and most innovative colleges in the

Netherlands. Among other things it is the founder of ‘School voor de Toekomst’

[School for the Future], founding member and base of the Dutch Consortium for

449

Innovation, a sister organization of the League for Innovation, and founding

member of the European Federation for Open and Distance Learning. Another

interesting feature is the composition of the organization: a K-12 school with 400

pupils; a High School with 1000 students; a College with 20,000 enrolled

students. The College is playing a leading role in the redesign of the European

and Dutch education system.

II NECESSITY AND OBLIGATION TO CHANGE

RevolutionaryChange is a fact of life, as is innovation. A number of unique and defining

revolutionary ‘moments’ can be identified in our centuries-old history. Take, for

example, the invention of the printing press in 1450, which led to the

Renaissance, and the concepts of Enlightenment, which led to the Industrial

Revolution in 1760. Today, at the beginning of the 21st century, we are also at a

juncture in which similar changes are in store for us, some of which are already

in progress. Our society is under great pressure as a result of globalization,

technological developments and changing competitive relationships between the

US, Europe and Asia. Old values, standards and certainties can no longer be

taken for granted. Society is constantly evolving. All kinds of familiar systems

seem to be coming to the end of their lifecycle. National borders are fading.

Governments are working on new laws and regulations. Social and cultural

differences lead to a lot of tension, relationships in and with companies are not

what they once were. Young people follow fast-paced technological

developments closely, use all kinds of new technologies quickly and creatively

and feel right at home in the digital age. Many changes are related, sometimes

enhancing and sometimes counteracting each other.

Ambitions of the European UnionThe generation of young people growing up in this day and age live a very

different life than the generations before them; they are stimulated differently,

450

they interpret things differently, and they are engaged in society differently.

Today’s generation wants to make its own choices, chart its own course in life

and choose its own direction in education, often with its own standards and

values.

European vocational education is very close to society and the employment

market. Striking changes and shifts in these areas have a significant and

immediate effect on vocational education. Therefore the European government

has decided to introduce major innovations in European vocational education,

the effectiveness and quality of which are under urgent pressure, particularly

when compared to elsewhere in the world.

Ambitions of the NetherlandsThe redesign certainly isn’t only about an exclusive, internal education process.

In essence it is about enabling vocational education to make effective and

dynamic links with movements in the outside world. Besides product and process

innovation, i.e. innovation of content and didactics (what and how do we teach

learners?), innovation in educational theory (how do we deal with learners?) and

innovation in educational psychology (how do people learn?), it is also about

system innovation, e.g. innovations through which the parties involved can

achieve fundamentally different relationships and structures.

In effect the ‘Herontwerp MBO’ [redesign for upper secondary vocational

education] is about creating completely new vocational courses based on a

number of government and societal ambitions. These ambitions are:

1. Introducing a completely new, competence-oriented qualification

structure.

2. Introducing new educational concepts centered on learning and

developing competences.

3. Realizing flexible and demand-oriented upper secondary vocational

education, which fits seamlessly and is able to evolve with the

regional employment market.

451

4. Creating a strong learning environment in which the student’s

career is at the forefront.

5. Significantly reducing the number of dropouts and stimulating social

inclusion.

6. Stimulating the transfer from VMBO (preparatory secondary

vocational education) to MBO (senior secondary vocational

education) and to universities of professional education.

7. Colleges must opt for and work on new educational and advisory

concepts, with an emphasis on the educational psychology of social

constructivism, as related to problem-based, project-based and

task-based learning. The possibilities offered by e-learning should

be utilized increasingly.

Critical success factors Personnel are a major critical success factor in this radical renewal of upper

secondary vocational education. Organizations are formed by the people who

work in them. They ‘create’ the organization again each day, enable it to operate

and implement small and large changes. There are inventors and helpers,

pioneers and inhibitors, followers and faultfinders. Naturally this colorful palette

creates tension. What does this mean for the Redesign in practice?

The human and cultural side of the Redesign require a lot of attention. Staff

members need to learn to work in and with new, demand-oriented teaching

concepts, which not only fit with the dynamics of professional life, with a dynamic

youth culture and difficult target groups, but which also constantly inspire young

people to pursue mastery learning, i.e. a healthy desire to perform and to

succeed at the highest possible level. Teachers have a very urgent and important

role in this. They must serve as professional role models of attitude, of a high

degree of expertise and of excellent professional skills (comparable to the

traditional master-journeyman-apprentice system). Furthermore, there must be a

shift towards wanting and being able to bear responsibility for results, as an

individual and as a team. It also involves a shift from vertical department

452

orientation to college orientation, with a great deal of attention for knowledge

sharing and horizontal synergy. Finally, there must be a shift from internal to

external orientation. In the new system, education and the business community

are no longer separate quantities, but are instead complementary to each other.

The Redesign is about a strong College in a strong region. Intensive and

effective regional cooperation between the College and all social-economic

parties is needed to achieve this. Strategic alliances and covenants are important

tools for realizing and safeguarding the regional embedding of a College. In that

context it is important that schools take an entrepreneurial approach and develop

into social businesses.

The 10 Commandments for the Ideal College(In accordance with the instructions of the European and Dutch governments)

1. The College functions like a community college, which can and wants to

prevent a split in society, by offering effective learning paths in the area of

senior secondary (and higher) vocational education and general secondary

education for adults, for everyone aged 16 and up, for all social classes and

for all racial groups. It also teaches students to function as good citizens in

society.

2. The College has emerged as a quality conscious college by and for the

region, as a real community of learners, where the learners (students and

staff) learn together, not for the diploma, but for life. It is characterized by its

professional culture, in which educational innovation can bud time and again.

It is appealing and stands for innovation, vitality and creativity. The learning

paths are individually oriented, attractive, challenging and bring enjoyment to

learning and working. There are hardly any dropouts.

3. The College envisions a sustainable society and has found a good balance

between social, economic and ecological values.

4. The College is the axis of ongoing regional, societal and economic renewal.

453

5. The College provides effective learning paths that aim to give students a

strong starting position in the employment market as excellent professionals.

6. The College educates junior bachelors, young people who can easily move

up in higher education. This takes place at a large and constantly growing

volume.

7. The College provides programs for the associate’s degree in cooperation with

higher education.

8. The College makes and keeps people socially and economically employable

by providing efficient and effective customized learning paths in the areas of

integration and reintegration, refresher training, further training and retraining.

9. The College contributes to innovation in companies, thanks to well prepared

students, who are equipped with the necessary knowledge of languages,

technological knowledge, creativity, thinking skills, active skills and the right

professional attitude.

10. The College acts as a breeding ground for (self-employed) entrepreneurs,

who have turned their attention to the world, who have learned to deal with

risk and who have learned how to capitalize on their knowledge and skills in

the market.

In ShortCompared to the 20th century, we can say that the concept of knowledge is

changing. And when the concept of knowledge changes, so do the concepts of

school, student and teacher.

Technologies are succeeding each other rapidly. This is leading to a flood of

information. Learning to find your way in new and ever-expanding fields of

knowledge is far more important than memorizing as many facts as possible or

being able to monotonously repeat job-specific procedures. The new concept of

learning is characterized by the transition from and passive consumption of

teaching to active forms of learning.

The innovative use of technology and plugging into the learning skills and

learning style of the Internet generation will have a huge influence on the

454

didactics, the educational theory, the content and the structure of education. The

school as an institute and as an organization will also have to be redesigned.

The conventional school organization organized all kinds of things, but this did

not include the participant’s learning needs. The career of students in the Dutch

education system is characterized by repeatedly overcoming the barriers placed

before them. The barriers are the exams and exit qualifications which students

keep having to pass after a certain period. Instead of development, the focus of

Dutch education is on achieving a boundary. From that perspective a College

does not yet offer effective and efficient career development. Placing the

student’s career and the introduction of competence-developing learning at the

forefront has a major influence on the overall organization. It requires a

completely different management and direction. Learning processes and

guidance should be customized as much as possible. Flexible education

demands flexible management. You can only offer students customization if this

is supported by the structure and the underlying processes. This requires a great

deal of attention for synergy and cross linking in the organization. Services,

project agencies and departments cannot and may no longer operate according

to an island structure with strictly separated and monitored boundaries.

Management must be based on constant change, on external focus and on

results. This also has an affect on the organization financially. Therefore there is

a great need for systems and indicators to continually test innovations and

quality. In short: the Redesign affects the whole operation, in terms of structure,

staff, accommodation, finances, ICT and, last but not least, quality assurance.

All of this requires courageous decisions, separated from opportunism, self-

interest and party politics. The countries that will flourish in the 21st century and

offer their citizens a dignified existence are the countries that adapt their

education systems to the placeless and timeless society. Not continuing to build

on old concepts, but based on a totally new situation.

455

III STRATEGY

What can a school organization offer to hold onto in these turbulent times? The

answer is: a clear innovation strategy. Because there is no way back. School

organizations that do not stop to think about the future now will be left standing

on the wrong platform, waiting for the wrong train, with only the past to hold onto.

A strong, realistic and challenging innovation strategy that responds to the

demands of a rapidly changing society also stimulates and excites parties

interested in the school organization. The school can then emerge as an

identifiable 21st century learning/working environment and a valued partner in

knowledge creation for the region. That is the position in society to which a

College should aspire. Koning Willem I College calls its innovation strategy:

The Learning Village.

IV THE LEARNING VILLAGE

From Diploma Factory to Learning Village“The Dutch prefer to remain villagers.” This was the conclusion of a major survey

conducted in the Netherlands on the effects of a performance-oriented society,

with trends like globalization and individualization. This is something of a

paradox. On the one hand, today’s world citizens actively take part in the hard,

fast-paced and modern life, travel the world and lovingly embrace the

technological achievements of today and tomorrow, while on the other they have

a great need for order, simple comfortable solutions and a return to the safety

and security of yesterday. Absolute bliss seems to be: surfing the Internet and

text messaging by mobile phone in a sunny, nostalgic village square in the

shadow of the rustling leaves of an oak tree.

It is in this spirit that our own Redesign has been given the metaphor ‘The

Learning Village’. The old-style diploma factory will gradually disappear in the

21st century. A researcher recently spoke of “business practice in the institution,

456

formerly known as a school.” While it won’t soon come to that, it is food for

thought. One of the greatest revolutions, through technological developments, is

the creation of new spaces. For centuries the world has only known one kind of

space: the physical space; the world of buildings and spatial planning. A space

that gradually offered too little room for the discovering person. Two more spaces

have since been added: the mental space, the emerging world of thinking and

imagination, and the digital space, the world of cyberspace. Although neither is

tangible, they do have a considerable influence on our whole lives, our day-to-

day lives and on our learning processes. So they also affect the school. Teachers

will no longer be nor will they have to be the only source of content and

information. For centuries, the physical learning environment was determined by

the didactics of teaching verbally to a selected group of students on the basis of

a fixed program. Because this form of education was and continues to be bound

to a specific location, with specific characteristics, and a specific time. However,

a virtual learning environment involves a completely different scenario. It is no

longer necessary to bring teachers and students together physically; people and

objects can change constantly; reading proficiency is one of the main learning

skills; location and time are no longer defined; and the virtual learning

environment is never closed.

This is a fundamental shift from a culture of collective transfer of knowledge to a

culture of individual learning. Where it is no longer a matter of course that this

takes place through lectures at a school. We have to think carefully about what a

21st century college should be in general and what a physical learning

environment should be in particular.

An initial suggestion: Such a college is a learning environment with different

functions. You go there when you want to develop yourself, want to meet others

and when you want to enjoy or experience something. The latter fits in with the

trend of the experience economy, which means that today’s consumer constantly

wants to experience something, discover something authentic, in order to feel

good. So obviously a college must be a place you enjoy coming to frequently.

457

Inspiring learning, working, meeting and leisure environments are preconditions

for this. We refer to all of this as our Learning Village. You go to that Learning

Village physically or virtually, when you have a need for development, for

meeting or for relaxation. There you meet other people, who are attracted to the

same atmosphere, who have the same goal or the same interests. You agree to

meet there, or you happen to run into people there. On your own, or with others,

you explore the possibilities of the physical, mental and virtual spaces of the

Learning Village. This is always fun and inspiring, because the Learning Village

is appealing, surprising and inspiring. So, rather than a physical organizational

concept, the Learning Village is a new learning, working and living concept.

Open the Learning VillageThere is no existing example of what we want; the concept has never been

invented before. So it will become a collective, undoubtedly exiting, voyage of

discovery, in search of the ideal Learning Village. Our sources of inspiration are a

variety of organizations such as the University of Cambridge, the Community

Colleges in Phoenix Az and Kansas City, Città della Scienza in Naples, and our

own K-12 school. What we do already have is a number of basic principles.

Learning Village

The Learning Village is a unique collection of physical, mental and digital spaces.

We call it a Learning Village for two reasons. It is a new metaphor for a totally

new educational concept; when we talk about a knowledge corporation, about a

shopping center, etc., thoughts soon turn in a particular direction. Secondly, from

a Dutch point of view, the idea of a College as a large-scale diploma factory puts

people off. Yet everyone sees a village of a similar size as cozy, friendly and

conveniently organized. The Learning Village should be a flourishing village

community, and a true knowledge network.

458

Didactics

Imagine a teacher from two hundred years ago (when the blackboard was

invented) arriving in our education system. He would be impressed by the

techniques and the technology. But once in the classroom he would simply start

to teach. The only difference is that he would now have to write on a white board

with black marker, instead of on a blackboard with chalk. Research has shown

that students only remember 20% of what they read and hear. But they

remember 80% of what they experience, and as much as 90% of what they

explain to somebody else. That is what the didactics will have to focus on. The

theory and the teaching no longer occupy center stage. Instead the student’s

personality and learning needs are at the forefront. Four forms of education that

possess this potential are: competence-developing, project-based, task-based

and problem-based learning.

Educational theory

The things that governments, business and industry and educational institutions

consider useful are becoming less and less meaningful to students. This gap will

likely only grow wider and is one of the main reasons why students drop out.

Involvement is a condition for learning. You cannot create involvement

automatically by teaching a lesson on a subject, no matter how interesting it is.

You create involvement by linking in with the knowledge, ambitions and qualities

of the students, and in particular by taking them seriously.

The Dutch professor Monique Boekaerts of Leiden University supports her ‘Leids

Didactisch Model’ [Leiden Instruction Model] this way. Everyone has goals in life.

Goals that arise from one’s own personality structure have a motivating effect

and bring about positive emotions and positive energy (award system). Goals

that do not arise from one’s own personality structure usually have a

discouraging effect and bring about negative emotions and energy (punishment

system).

People draw value and meaning from: needs, goals, motivation and security.

Students draw value from the following three goals:

459

meaningful learning (context-oriented, interesting);

personal balance (being successful, self-satisfaction);

social balance (feeling like they’re being taken seriously, being able to make

their own choices = autonomy). Students who are frustrated in their

learning objectives express this through maladjusted behavior: not actively

participating, acting up, pestering, skipping class, and vandalism.

Virtually all students are motivated when they take up a course of study. This is

based on three needs:

the psychological need for competences (subject-specific and learning to

learn);

the psychological need for social relationships (fellow students, peers and

teachers who provide assistance and support);

the need for autonomy (negotiation model).

As far as educational theory is concerned, we have largely skipped the

developments of increasing independence, increasing diversity and in particular

the increasingly changing ability of young people to learn.

We worry about the future of education, look for renewal of content, of design

and of didactics, but there is (too) little attention for the most powerful and most

crucial renewal factor: the students themselves.

Net Generation

Young people growing up with cable television, computers, the Internet and

mobile telephones are developing their own new and unique learning style which

contrasts sharply with standard didactics and educational theory. Education is

still based on printed texts and standardized methods, is still linear and is still

formal and teacher-driven. The way in which the Internet generation learns is just

the opposite: learning takes place via monitors, symbols, icons, sound, games,

trying things out, asking others questions, and it is not linear but associative.

Children are already experienced at processing information before they start

school. They are used to choosing from many sources of information and do not

460

make those choices anywhere near as randomly or coincidentally as educators

think.

Sociologist Vinken is convinced that the Internet is nothing less than a wedge

between two generations. And the American sociologist Rushkoff even regards

the Internet generation as a new type of living being; beings that are capable of

thinking associatively as if many different windows are open at the same time,

and who are even able to find connections between these different windows. This

is in contrast to their parents, the linear thinking television generation, who

desperately and often unsuccessfully try to find logic in a flood of information.

This Internet generation – the first generation in the history of humanity to

educate its parents! – distinguishes itself from previous generations by the

frequent and effortless use of three devices: the remote control, the mouse and

the mobile phone. What these devices have in common is that they enable the

user to decide which information is available and absorbed. By changing

channels, clicking and text messaging, children learn from an early age to make

their own choices from the many data flows. This freedom to choose has a great

influence on the way in which children deal with information and how they learn.

From the age of three, they learn through exploratory play with the aid of

technology. When a child receives a new computer game, he starts playing

immediately and certainly doesn’t waste any time reading the manual. If he

doesn’t know something he presses the Help button or goes to a cheat site for a

code that gets him to the next level, or he uses his mobile to phone a friend for

advice. And with the answer, which he’ll always get some way or another, he can

carry on playing and learning. The Internet generation learns by trying things out,

by communicating and by networking. MSN Messenger is always on. When

communicating they are concerned with the heart of the information, not with the

style or the form. This leads to new forms of communication, such as chatting

and text messaging, and to new words and concepts. For the Internet generation

virtual and physical contacts overlap seamlessly. They can talk in a group while

simultaneously communicating with other people by mobile phone. They

communicate with anyone, anywhere in the world, whether they know them or

461

not. They have no sense of or respect for distance, nor for authority. The Internet

generation lives at home in the triangle of the TV screen, computer screen and

mobile phone screen. In this self-created learning environment, they constantly

make choices and take decisions on which knowledge and information is useful

and which information to delete. And this is really what they want at school as

well.

For the Internet generation learning is about playing and communicating, and you

do this through playing and exploring. Learning is also very goal-oriented. The

Internet generation learns things that will be useful in the future. Essentially,

thanks to all their digital voyages of discovery, they have skills and a learning

style which are perfectly suited for learning processes and future working

environments. The Internet generation also reads in a very different way than

previous generations. Actually they do not read, but they scan. This means that

they focus on a combination of images, icons, colors, movements, sound and

short texts. They mainly focus on the signs that refer to the heart of the

information. Often these are words they can click on. As they scan the screen

they soon have an idea of the relevance of the information and decide just as

quickly to click on the next page in search of more relevant information. In a

society in which all information is available in digital form, and in which the role of

multimedia will only increase, the ability to scan is important for all knowledge

workers.

A second skill developed by today’s children with ease is multitasking. The

Internet generation can do everything at once: talk on the phone, watch TV,

answer e-mails, chat, send text messages, listen to music, and do homework.

Multitasking is a skill that greatly accelerates the rate of information processing

and also stimulates rapid knowledge construction.

The Internet generation develops a third skill through watching a lot of TV. This

skill is dealing with discontinuous information. On closer consideration their

channel changing behavior isn’t so random at all. They prefer to follow three or

four programs at once. They see interrupted – or discontinuous – pieces of

information from each program. Their brains make logical connections between

462

these pieces of information. This way of thinking and acting enables them to

develop the ability to construct a meaningful whole from discontinuous

information, as well as the ability to process more information than someone

watching a single program could process in the same amount of time. This skill is

important in a society in which you have to be able to obtain information from

many different sources, use this information to form your own opinion, and do so

quickly.

A fourth skill is the non-linear, associative approach to processing information,

right across many different degrees of difficulty. They develop this skill through

the way they handle playing computer games. A method that is at odds with the

scholastic approach, where the systematic, linear and sequential approach is

taught from easy to difficult.

The Internet generation applies these four skills just-in-time, just-for-me, just-

enough and just-for-fun (J-4 model). Education still underestimates the great

skills and power for learning which homo zappiens have. There is still insufficient

recognition of idea that learning in the digital age truly does occur differently and

can occur through the use of technology and by taking advantage of the

screenagers’ skills.

Knowledge workers

Because knowledge is the source of every innovation, creating knowledge,

sharing knowledge and organizing it is the core business of every educational

organization. When people learn together, each individual learns for himself, but

the group also learns collectively. Collective learning with collective processes

and collective results is the most ideal situation for an organization. Learning

then leads to a change in behavior and in work, and to innovation of processes

and products. Learning is simply a matter of knowledge management. This view

fits with that of social constructivism which interprets learning as a process of

social interaction in which new knowledge is constantly constructed and

reconstructed. Knowledge creation within a school is not possible without the full

participation of students. In such a view students are not clients, but knowledge

463

workers, who constantly create new knowledge together with other knowledge

workers (the school’s own staff and those from professional life). Thus a College

can also play a role with regard to the innovation of occupations and operational

processes.

Knowledge Networks and Knowledge Workers

A knowledge network is not a committee or a working group. Participants in a

knowledge network share a passion, a practice, and face the same worries and

issues. A knowledge network is a learning community in which the participants

explore questions together, take a look at what they each have to offer and enter

into discussions with internal and external experts. A knowledge network does

not offer any ultimate answers, but is a powerful learning environment in which

difficult matters are addressed. The success lies in the involvement of the

participants and the learning friendship they develop with one another. Sincere

interest is a precondition, as is the willingness to contribute to the other’s

development. Participants do not avoid difficult questions, they make taboos

discussable and are able to identify surprise and disappointment. They focus on

bearing disappointments and celebrating successes together. Our Center for

Teaching and Learning (CTL), our recently formed Innovation Platform, our

Central Examination Board and the Advisory Council of the ICT Academy and

our Student Success Center (SSC) are existing knowledge networks.

As knowledge workers, students will also have to be used in internal business

situations as much as possible, as a form of learning by working within the

school; examples of this are Our Restaurant, our Mensa, our Travel Agency.

Such a form of learning can also take place by providing services to or for

external parties; see our Hairdressing Salon and the Service Center High Tech

Metalelektro. Another possibility is mini-businesses set up and run by students,

which the community can make use of. There are also many possibilities in the

area of social traineeships; for example our Community week; Sports students

who provide training sessions and clinics for young children and referee games;

Wellness and Healthcare students who organize outings and activities for people

464

with limitations, serve coffee and read aloud in hospitals or nursing homes; ICT

and Multimedia students who provide Internet and computer lessons to elderly

people and others who are new to the Internet. The Learning Village will bustle

with this type of activity.

Educational Psychology

Learning is the process of assigning new meaning to information. In addition new

knowledge is constructed. This is an individual mental process, which is

stimulated through communication with others. So the aim of learning is to

construct new knowledge, and this is also the aim of the knowledge economy.

In the industrial age, educational psychology was dominated by behaviorism. The

aim was knowledge, and the student’s brain was regarded as an empty vessel

into which the teacher poured ordered and standardized knowledge by means of

verbal instruction and the exchange of questions and answers. Social

constructivism has led to an educational psychology that does far more justice to

21st century people and processes. Social constructivism regards the learner as

someone who activity constructs knowledge and insight in interaction with his

environment. Social constructivism says that someone learns by reflecting on his

own experiences and then adapting his behavior on the basis of new

experiences. Only if you are aware of your own thought processes and actions

can you decide to change them. So fitting in experiences always leads to new

knowledge.

The names Gardner and De Bono cannot be left unmentioned in this section.

The Theories (with a capital T) of Howard Gardner on multiple intelligences, and

those of Edward de Bono on the development of lateral thinking and serious

creativity, are very useful within social constructivism. Gardner is in favor of a

new education system. This should enable the learner to show that he has

acquired the required knowledge in his own unique way, by means of his eight

intelligences. So away with standardized tests and uniform practical exams, and

long live the individual master’s test! De Bono has translated his views on

creative thinking in to the CoRT program. This is a program of 64 lessons that

465

introduce thinking as a skill. Through all kinds of assignments children start

learning in a playful way from the age of 4 how to use both sides of the brain in

their learning processes. Scientific research has shown that the CoRT program

can produce a 40% increase in the effectiveness of education. The ideas of

Gardner and De Bono are indispensable in the Learning Village, because in

order to have equal opportunities children must not be treated equally in

education!

All Ages

Optimal knowledge creation and optimal knowledge sharing demand that there is

sufficient space in our Learning Village for people of all ages, involved in a

lifelong learning process from four to approx. seventy years.

This is why the Koning Willem I College has recently merged with a K-12 school

and a High School.

Place and Time

The Learning Village has to:

have the opportunity to control time, and must therefore always be

open virtually;

have the opportunity to manage the physical and virtual spaces

optimally;

have the opportunity to register physical and virtual attendance.

Different learning environments

In a recent, international study on 21st century learning environments (this

includes all conditions that contribute to a learning process) ten spaces were

distinguished, some physical and some virtual. These are spaces for instruction,

documentation, information, communication, cooperation, research, simulation,

multimedia, virtual reality and e-learning.

The SCHOOL FOR THE FUTURE has a special role to play. As a center for

research on new learning environments, as well as the design, development and

466

implementation of such environments, and also as an internal and external

knowledge and presentation platform, the School for the Future symbolizes the

innovation and knowledge creation of the Learning Village. The School for the

Future also has a distinct role as the meeting place for staff, where employees

can work, take breaks and communicate in the relaxed atmosphere of Route 66,

La Cantina, the Cybercafé and Leerplaza [Learning Plaza]. Following in the

footsteps of the SSC, the School for the Future School is the Teachers’ Success Center to which employees can turn with all their learning, innovation

and professionalization questions. To this end, besides that of the CTL, the

School for the Future is also the home base for the Innovation Platform, the

Application Expertise Center and the De Bono Expertise Center.

SummaryWe called the realization of our Learning Village concept a collective voyage of

discovery. We also see learning in our Learning Village as a voyage, during

which the senses gain many impressions. An inspiring voyage, with the aim of

achieving an excellent position in the employment market or a successful follow-

up study in higher education. It goes without saying that within the framework of

lifelong learning, graduates would like to continue to return to our Learning

Village. Not only because they have learned to learn with all their senses, but

also because they have learned with sense.

Aim

The aim of the Learning Village education concept is to organize our education,

on the basis of learner characteristics, so that effective custom paths can be

implemented.

The education concept is based on the principles of ‘self-driven learning’ and

mastery learning according to the theories of the ‘Leids Didactisch Model’ and

the J4-Model, developed in the School for the Future; the ideas of De Bono and

Gardner on learning to think and act creatively, conceptually and sensorially; and

the latest insights in the area of e-learning. Knowledge of languages and ICT

467

occupy a prominent position. So does internationalization, which is a natural and

obvious part of our educational vision. Learning paths are designed as effectively

and efficiently as possible, so that they are not only inspiring, but also do not last

longer than necessary. In doing this we use strong, context-rich intramural and

extramural learning environments.

Therefore our students have contemporary and competitive professional,

learning, career and citizenship competences, so that they are excellently

qualified and prepared for the (international) employment market and

(international) higher education. We strive to ensure that everyone who registers

at the Koning Willem I College earns a diploma (at least at the European starting

qualification level), which corresponds to his ambitions and qualities.

In the middle of society

The student never travels alone on his voyage, but always with others. In the

college he travels with fellow students and staff. Outside the college he travels

with businesses, institutions and organizations. This makes the Koning Willem I

College a true Community College. Not an island, but a bustling center of

intramural and extramural learning processes. Constantly evolving and with a

deep social commitment, which is also the main motive: everything to serve the

community, the society, to which the student belongs.

V EPILOGUESince the beginning of its centuries-old history the city of ’s-Hertogenbosch has

attracted artists, scientists, thinkers and visionaries who have left their mark on

the city. The city’s most famous son is the master painter and teacher

Jheronimus Bosch (± 1450 – 1516). The way in which he was inspired by the

city, its region and its inhabitants has been followed in many different areas. The

Koning Willem I College continues this valuable tradition in its own unique way.

By being a source and a role model of knowledge and culture. By striving for

perfection. By constantly giving new impetuses to society. But above all, by being

a strong, inspiring and contemporary learning environment.

468

REFERENCES

Boekaerts, M. (1994). Motivation in Education, The Fourteenth Vernon-Wall Lecture.

Moreambe.

Boekaerts, M. (1995). Self-regulated learning: Bridging the Gap between

Metacognitive and Metamotivation Theories. Educational Psychologist, 30 (4),

195-200.

Christiansen, L.K. (2005). Mesa Community College Self-Study Report 2005. Mesa

AZ.: MCC.

De Bono, E. (2000). New thinking for the new Millennium. Beverly Hills: New

Millennium Press.

De Bono, E. (2003). Why so stupid? How the Human Race has never really learned

to think. Dublin: Blackhall Publishing.

Elsner, P.A. & Boggs, G.R. (2005). Encouraging Civility as a Community College

Leader. Washington DC: Community College Press.

Florida, R. (2004). The Flight of the Creative Class. New York: Harper Collins

Publishers.

Free, C. (2005). The Learner. ‘s-Hertogenbosch: School for the Future.

Friedman, Th.L. (2005). The World is Flat. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.

Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple Intelligences, The Theory in Practice. New York: Basic

Books.

Gardner, H. (1995). The Unschooled Mind, How Children Think en How Schools

Should Teach. New York: Basic Books.

Gelb, M.J. (2000). How to Think like Leonardo da Vinci. New York: Dell Publishing.

Johnson, S. (2005). Everything Bad is Good for You, How Popular Culture is Making

Us Smarter. New York: Riverhead Books.

Knoke, W. (1996). Bold new world, The essential roadmap to the twenty-first century.

Schiedam: Scriptum.

Morgan, G. (1993). Imaginization, the art of creative management. Schiedam:

Scriptum.

Nonaka, I. & Takeuchi, H. (1995). The Knowledge-Creating Company. Oxford:

University Press.

Oblinger, D.G. & Oblinger, J.L. (2004). Educating the Net Generation, Boulder:

Educause.

Palmer, P.J. (1998). The Courage to Teach. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

Pine, B.J. & Gilmore, J.H. (1999). The experience economy. Boston: Harvard

Business School Press.

Peters, O. (2003). Distance Education in Transition. Oldenburg: University Press.

Rifkin, J. (2004). The European Dream. New York: Penguin Group.

Tapscott, D. (1998). Growing up digital, The Rise of the Net Generation. New York:

Mc Graw-Hill.

Tessaring, M. & Wannan, J. (2004). Vocational education and training, key to the

future, Lisbon – Copenhagen – Maastricht mobilising for 2010. Luxembourg:

Office for Official Publications of the European Communities.

470

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

Coen Free is President of Koning Willem I College (King William I College) ‘s-

Hertogenbosch (a town in the south of the Netherlands) since 1990; King William I

College is considered as one of the most innovative Community Colleges in Europe. A

special project of Koning Willem I College is School for the Future, a very innovative

Center for Teaching and Learning, E-learning and Creative Thinking.

Coen Free is also President of the Dutch Consortium for Innovation, a sister organization

of the American League for Innovation. He is founding member of the European

Federation for Open and Distance Learning (EFODL) Brussel. He is member of the

International Advisory Board of the Chair Academy, Phoenix AZ.

In journals and book form he publish frequently his ideas about education in the 21st

century. At several universities in Europe he gives guest lectures.

He is also a well respected member of the community of ‘s-Hertogenbosch.

Because of his merits to the city of ‘s-Hertogenbosch, he received two rewards: a very

special social cultural award the ‘Moeder Truus Poffer’ and because of all his efforts he

was elected Citizen of the Year 1999.

471

Summary Notes for Global Development of Technical College, Community College,

and Further Education

Paul A. ElsnerGeorge Boggs

Judith Irwin

While the editors have extensive backgrounds as leaders in American community colleges and higher education, this publication is written at a time when all countries are pre-occupied with finding effective models for workforce preparation and post-secondary education. The new global economy appears to place extraordinary pressure on international policy planners and education ministries to find the right combination of education and training strategies to fit both adults and youth into the ever-changing global and information economy.

Paul Elsner served as the Chancellor of the ten-college Maricopa Community College District for over twenty-three years. His experience includes planning state systems, organizational studies, and a wide publishing and consulting experience in several states and countries.

George Boggs is the President of the 1183-member American Association of Community Colleges. He sits on the secretariat for all US segments of higher education, represented at the National Center for Higher Education (NCHE). He is a former college president, and presides over a higher education segment membership that reaches over seven million students.

In addition, Dr Boggs has been active in the Congresses of World Wide Poly-Technical Colleges that meets under the auspices of the Federation of Poly-Technical Colleges (WFPC). He is the current president of the WFPC; the host of the Fourth Congress that met in New York in February, 2008.

Judith Irwin has served as Executive Director of the American Council on Education’s (ACE) prestigious Business-Higher Education Forum, which includes forty of the major Fortune 500 U.S. companies, and most influential research based universities, the Canadian, Japanese and Australian Business and Higher Education Forum secretaries. She is currently the Director of International Education and Programs for the AACC.

472

The editors chose to not prescribe dominant models for such preparation. It happens that every combination and variety, under various names and nomenclature, appears in the some twenty-three countries surveyed in this publication. While American community colleges are represented in the editor’s backgrounds, every country reaches its national technology preparation and post-secondary education goals in a variety of kinds and names of their institutions.

There appears to be great similarities among further education, technical education, polytechnic education, and community colleges. Most have similar challenges, particularly preparing a workforce that can succeed in different world economies.

We had hoped that offering this publication not only to the American Association of Community Colleges’ membership readers, but also to policy planners, principals, and ministries throughout the world. It is also hoped that the contributing chapter writers will use the network created by this book for further reference.

As reference source, this publication was not intended to be exhaustive. Of course, covering as many as twenty-three countries can only provide a snapshot of the structure, history, and the issues and challenges among several countries’ for various further education, community college and technical college systems.

Trends and Patterns

At the 2007 AACC Annual Convention in Tampa, Florida, three chapter contributors served as panelists. They spoke of some common issues and characteristics of the technical community college and further education systems among the twenty-three countries reviewed in this Global Survey. Generally, the panelists, Diane Oliver of Texas Tech, James Horton, former CEO of the Higher Colleges of Technology in the United Arab Emirates and Geoff Hall, President of the New College of Nottingham voiced these considerations.145

Both the developing countries, as well as the developed ones, all have energized intentions of moving up the tempo of refining their technical and workforce strategies for the new, increasingly complex global economy, the characteristics of which are being defined as this publication goes to press.

145 Commentary at AACC Convention – Tampa, Florida 2007.

473

George Boggs underscores the energy to restructure and maintain a competitive foothold on the new global economy.

In the increasingly global society and economy, education is now seen as essential to a nation’s competitiveness and the standard of living of its people. (Boggs, Foreword, 2007)

Diane Oliver commented that at least ten community colleges are being planned for the Mekong Delta in Vietnam, a country she has studied and for which she has consulted. Such development has lead those involved in this Global Survey to be cautious when we are tempted to frame less developed countries as less activist in current, future oriented goals for their technical and post-secondary colleges. Which are developed and which are underdeveloped needs rethinking. Some Southeast Asia countries also speak of preparing for a knowledge economy. Hopefully, this Global Survey will assist readers in seeing different realities in many developing nations.

The AACC Tampa Convention panelists did say

University transfer was generally less developed as a mission among many countries outside the United States.

While on the general surface we think this is true, but in the “Grid Analysis” (Table 1)146 developed by George Boggs, we can see the more significant gains in achieving some transfer of credit and course portability to universities. There are many arrangements and procedures for achieving college credit transfer to universities that have emerged in recent years. The Grid reveals these patterns in certain countries.

The Tampa AACC panelists also emphasized that

Names and terms mean different things in different countries.

One admonition offered by the panelists is that we should ask “What’s in a name?” Community College certainly means more than one thing. Americans in particular need to invoke more flexibility and tolerance for the word community. George Boggs’ foreword expands on such flexible definitions used by many countries.

These institutions go by different names: community colleges, technical colleges, technical universities, polytechnics, further 146 AACC Global Survey Grid by George Boggs

474

education (FE) institutions, technical and further education (TAFE) institutions, institutes of technology, colleges of technology, and junior colleges. Their evolution has been shaped by the needs that have emerged in various regions, political and economic pressures, and the visions of leaders. The institutions vary as to whether they are public, private, or private for-profit. The missions vary as to the level of degrees or qualifications they can award and their focus on vocational/technical education or academic liberal arts. In some countries, they are considered part of the higher education system; in others, there is a marked separation between higher education and further education. In some places, they are part of university systems; in others they stand alone. In some countries, students can transfer credits that they earn in these institutions to universities; in others, they cannot. In some countries, the institutions are governed centrally; in others, governance systems are localized. Some focus more on younger students; while others serve adults and their need for lifelong learning. (Boggs, Foreword, 2007)

International mission outside of the US is more technical and vocationally oriented among further education and most international post-secondary systems.

The Denmark, the British, United Arab Emirates systems and many others are set up to achieve vocational and technical education missions. Limited allowing of transfer to university exists, but technical, vocational and workforce preparation is the foremost objective in Thailand, Vietnam, Ireland, South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, Turkey and many other countries surveyed. While all countries have universities, the vocational technical tiers are often quite separate, although some are integrated and even run or coordinated by universities … but they are generally a more focused technical, vocational and workforce preparation system. The ratcheting up of needed world competitive high-end skills presents complex challenges to virtually all world systems. In addition, the U.S. and so-called advanced western countries differ in the manner of how national policy is set forth.

In most countries, central and federal ministries assert more direction for their member institutions than what occurs in the United States.

There may be reasons for this difference of control and governance. First, many of the countries are smaller and have specific statutory or parliamentary authority to direct workforce or technical preparation from the national policy level. This is certainly true, for example, in the

475

Netherlands, Britain, Australia, New Zealand, and many countries in the Survey. Geoff Hall pointed out at the AACC, Tampa, Florida panel that further education institutions can be lined out of existence by the national government for not meeting performance goals in technical training. Moreover, their funding authorities conduct rigorous inspection on such performance for which the colleges feel fully accountable.

Australia’s technical and further education system (TAFE) have long responded to national workforce and economic development strategy set by the federal capital and by the overtures of the Australian training authority, both activists on national and institutional mandates for performance accountability.

But it’s also obvious among the chapter contributors that the new global economy is of central concern. We can expect that greater accountability will follow such universal concern.

In addition, one of the valuable lessons learned in undertaking of this “Global Survey” was to come to understand that the world has awakened to the common, interdependent challenges of globalism and the new economy. For those of us in America, we have had to come along way since 1988 when the Commission on the Future of the Community Colleges gave some print space to the need for a broader world view as quoted in Building Communities: A Vision for a New Century:

COMMUNITY:A PERSPECTIVE THAT IS GLOBAL

In the past half-century, our planet has become vastly more crowded, more interdependent, and more unstable. Since man orbited into space, it has become dramatically apparent that we are all custodians of a single planet. The world may not yet be a global village, but surely our sense of neighborhood must expand. If students do not see beyond themselves and better understand their place in our complex world, their capacity to live responsibly will be dangerously diminished.

When drought ravages the Sahara, when war in Indochina creates refugees, neither our compassion nor our analytic intelligence can be bounded by a dotted line on a political map. We are beginning to understand that hunger and human rights affect alliances as decisively as weapons and treaties. Dwarfing all other concerns, the mushroom cloud hangs ominously over

476

our world consciousness. These realities and the obligations they impose must be understood by every student.

Over the past two decades, the United States’ economy has become dependent on the world economy. The share of Gross National Product devoted to exports has doubled, as more and more U.S. producers have come to depend on foreign markets. Increasingly, American businesses operate on a global basis. If the college’s technical programs do not take into account these global relationships so important to industry, students’ skills will become obsolete.

Community colleges have, historically, been geographically restricted. They consider their “service area” to be limited to the county or district sponsoring the institution. However, these barriers are breaking down. Some community colleges now have large migrations of foreign students in their region, including large numbers of Asian and other nonwestern students. Others have been actively involved in encouraging travel abroad and even in starting campuses or programs overseas. In addition, many of the industries served by the community college have international connections.

The Commission concludes that community colleges have an urgent obligation to keep students informed about people and cultures other than their own, and that the building of partnerships must be not only local and national, but global, too. In the century ahead, parochialism is not an option.

We recommend that each community college coordinate – perhaps in a single office – its international activities. The goal should be to increase international awareness on campus and in the surrounding community, not only through the general education curriculum, but also through lectures, business seminars, and, when appropriate, international exchanges.

We also suggest that foreign students be used as campus resources for information about the language, culture, and religions of their country so their knowledge and perspective can enrich campus life. (pp31-32)147

These recommendations sound somewhat “faint” when we consider the more current historical context and the huge economic 147 Building Communities: A Vision for a New Century (1988)

477

ramifications of a new global economy to which all countries developed, small, and recently awakened to new trade and economic realities, i.e., the flat world.

But while America awakened rather late, we now see what the AACC, Tampa, Florida panelists emphasized:

Developing countries have ambitious goals - third tier countries should not always be referred to as behind – often, they are emerging leaders in technology, newer solutions, and because of their smallness, can move more quickly and have leapfrog capabilities.

This AACC Press Publication can serve to provide all of our world partners, our AACC membership, ourselves as leaders and teachers, a more valid, as well as an inspiring reality about at least twenty three countries in this survey.

The Editors

Paul A ElsnerGeorge BoggsJudith Irwin

478