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How do different cultures categorize nouns?

Graduation Thesis

Presented to

the Faculty of the Department of

English Language and Literature

Notre Dame Seishin University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirement for the Degree

Bachelor of Arts

by

Tomoshige Airi

2020

i

Contents

Abstract ii

Chapter One: Background 1

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Background 2

1.2.0 Introduction 2

1.2.1 Focus on color 2

1.2.2 Focus on numeral classifier 4

1.2.3 Focus on the personal pronoun 5

1.3 Previous research 7

1.3.1 Berlin & Kay (1969) 7

1.3.2 Research on modern color recognition 8

1.3.3 Research on modern color recognition in Japanese 8

1.3.4 Research on numeral classifiers in Japanese 9

1.3.5 Research on personal pronouns in Japanese 10

1.4 Research Questions 14

1.5 Conclusion 14

Chapter Two: The Data 14

ii

2.1 Introduction 14

2.2 The questionnaire 15

2.2.1 Introduction to the questionnaire 15

2.2.2 Method 15

2.2.3 Result 17

2.2.3.1 The data for the color scale 17

2.2.3.2 The data for classifying 21

2.2.3.3 The data for personal pronouns 25

2.3 Summary 53

Chapter Three: The Analysis 53

3.1 Introduction 53

3.2 Summary of the result from Chapter Two 53

3.3 Comparing previous research and these data 54

3.4 Discussion of the result 55

3.5 Research questions 57

3.6 Implications 58

3.7 Limitations of the Questionnaire 48

3.8 Further research 59

3.9 Conclusion 59

iii

References 60

Appendices 62

iv

Abstract

In Chapter One, we looked at the relationship between categorization and

language and culture. First, we considered what categorization is. We categorize

a lot of things in daily life unconsciously such as the colors, numeral classifiers

and the personal pronoun. People all over the world must see colors in the same

way but sometimes we categorize the color in different ways in each language

and culture. Japanese has unique categorizations about classifiers and personal

pronouns. and has big differences from the systems in English.

In Chapter Two, data were gathered from a questionnaire. Male and female

university subjects were asked to answer the questions about categorization. The

questionnaire focused on the colors, classifiers and personal pronouns. They

were given some situations and choices to demonstrate their categorizations to

find trends of categorization. They had to answer about themselves and other

people.

In Chapter Three, we analyzed the results of the questionnaire deeply and found

that there are some differences for categorization between subjects even if they

are in the same culture or community such as ages, sexes and others. However,

categorization is also deeply related to language, so subjects who are in the

same culture or language often share some sense of categorization.

Categorization facilitates our conversation. So when subjects learn culture or

language, they should learn categorization too.

v

Chapter 1: Background

1.1 Introduction

What is categorization? The Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary (2015) shows

the definition of the word “categorize." Categorize means to “put subjects or

things into groups according to what type they are." It also means “the way of life,

especially the general customs and beliefs, of a particular group of subjects at a

particular time."

Why do we categorize objects? We do it to develop a consistent and reliable way

to identify and distinguish many different objects. When we see an apple, we will

not be surprised because they know that it is an apple. We categorize objects by

their features for example, an apple is red, round, and can be eaten thus we can

react the same way even if they see another apple. However, do all of us in the

world categorize an object the same way? It is not true. We will categorize things

according to our tradition, habit and their environment. Sometimes, we do not

share the sense of categorization with subjects who have another environment or

culture.

The language and culture are closely related. Two anthropologists Edward Sapir

and Benjamin Lee Whorf (1930), noticed that the Hopi Indians in the United

States had no word to differentiate between the past, present, and future. In

English, we can easily think of tense and know what time frame someone is

referring to. The two scholars found that the way we think about and perceive the

world differs (Khan Academy, 2020) . How a language affects the way of thinking

is called linguistic relativism. It is a theory that organizes the influence of the

individual’s thinking on the language that the individual can use.

In this thesis, I will research what language categories exist in the world and how

they relate to culture by comparing them.

1

1.2 Background

1.2.0 Introduction

In this section we will look at the background of categorization. Especially, we will

focus on three fields, color, numeral classifiers and personal pronouns. First, we

will describe the background of color categorization and show the kind of

Japanese numeral classifiers compared to another language. Lastly, we will

focus on personal pronouns and show examples of personal pronouns in the

world.

1.2.1 Focus on color

Color is deeply connected with our daily life. We have a large number of colors,

however do subjects recognize and categorize color the same way between

another language or not.

In the research about color, the rainbow is often used. The border between the

colors of the rainbow is ambiguous but Japanese recognize “rainbow” as having

7 colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo and purple. Korean and Dutch

categorize colors in the same way as Japanese. On the other hand, a picture

book for Japanese kids (2017, in 『文化のちがい習慣のちがい』book) says that

American recognizes 6 colors. Moreover, German, French and Chinese describe

5 colors. In addition, some languages recognize a smaller number of colors.

Yoshino (2011) describes American science textbooks for students in elementary

and junior high school say that the rainbow has 7 colors until in 1940. However,

the textbook “Cloud, rain, and snow” written by Bertha Morris Parker (1941) says

that the rainbow has 6 colors excluding indigo. Since that time, the rainbow has

come to be recognized as 6 having colors. However, the number of rainbow

colors in English have many discussions.Some songs of rainbow color in English

for kids say that rainbow has still 7 colors,red,orange,yellow,green,blue,indigo

and violet or, red,orange,yellow,green,blue,purple and pink.Why are there

discussions of the number of rainbow color and who did decide the number of

2

rainbow color? To answer these questions, we'll go all the way back to English

scientist and mathematician Isaac Newton. Newton was a pioneer in research on

light. The website” SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips” say that Newton

chose to define the rainbow as consisting of seven colors because he believed

the number of colors in a rainbow should be the same as the number of notes in

a musical scale. Clearly, this is a pretty arbitrary and non-scientific way to look at

the different colors in a rainbow. Indeed, many people still struggle to distinguish

indigo from violet and blue. So while the actual rainbow color order (the visible

spectrum) will always be the same, the way we talk about the rainbow color order

could change over time depending on how people view and choose to define

colors. Many modern portrayals of the rainbow have just six colors—red, orange,

yellow, green, blue, and violet—opting to leave out indigo entirely. For example,

the LGBT rainbow flag goes directly from blue to violet, without indigo.

So why do we still include indigo in the rainbow color order, especially if so many

people think of it as nothing more than a transitional color between blue and

violet? Many believe it is merely due to the desire to want to stick to tradition.

Nevertheless, it's certainly possible that future kindergartners will learn about

ROYGBV—minus the I for indigo.(2019 in webpage “SAT / ACT Prep Online

Guides and Tips What Is the Rainbow Color Order? Understanding ROYGBIV”)

Does the rainbow change the color by the location? The answer is No. Rainbow

can be seen the same all over the world. The reason why the rainbow is

described differently by country is because of culture and language. For

example, the Bassa subjects (an ethnic group of Liberia) have just two colors in

their language “Ziza” and “Hui." They recognize red, orange and yellow are “Ziza”

and green, blue and purple are “Hui."

Before the Edo period, subjects recognized the rainbow as having 5 colors in

Japan. Originally, western science thought the rainbow has 7 colors. Japan learnt

to adopt western ideas from the Edo period and changed the way to categorize

the colors of the rainbow. It shows that culture affects color recognition.

3

1.2.2 Focus on numeral classifier

A numeral classifier is a lexical element that is appended to a number to indicate

the quantity of things. A group of suffixes that make up numerals. For example,

匹 (hiki), 頭 (tou),羽 (wa), are numeral classifiers in Japanese to count animals.

In addition to Japanese, there are many numeral classifiers in East Asia and

Southeast Asia, including Chinese and Korean, as well as native American

languages.

In English, people usually do not use numeral classifiers. When people count

cups or animals, they use only numbers in English. English speakers use the

expressions, “a school of fish” or “a herd of cows” instead. Some languages have

a larger number of the numeral classifiers. In Burmese, there is a numeral

classifiers system but it shows differences between Japanese. For example, we

count balls or cups with 個 (ko) in Japanese. On the other hand, in Burmese,

people use a different numeral classifier between round things and other things.

(2019,in webpage『【ミャンマー語】数字の単位（助数詞）読み方 unit 単語集

いくつ一覧（ビルマ語表）』）

However, how does Japanese distinguish numeral classifiers and what

determines which classifier to use? Classifiers reflect to some extent the shape

and nature of what it counts. This is an example of categorization of classifiers in

Japanese.

small things

(apple, eggs,

cups…. )

thin things

(papers,

handkerchiefs,

cds, dishes)

long and thin

things (pencils,

umbrellas,

bananas,

cassette

tapes. . . )

vehicle and

consumer

electronics

(motorcycles,

cars, TVs,

phones…. )

water or drinks in

vessel

つ（tsu）

個（ko）

枚（mai）本（hon）台（dai）杯（hai）

4

This categorization border is really ambiguous. For example, the system of

numeral classifiers for animals is very complex in Japanese. Numeral classifiers

for animals usually are decided by size of the animal but we often use 匹 (hiki) for

wolves and 頭 (tou) for tigers. The size of wolves and tigers is mostly the same

but Japanese can use it clearly because they have the Japanese sense.

1.2.3 Focus on the personal pronoun

When people talk with someone, they usually use personal pronouns. English

speakers use “I” or “me” and French speakers use “je”, “me” or “moi” to describe

themselves. Furthermore, to call a partner who you are talking to, English

speakers use “you” and French speakers use “tu” or “vous." Many European

languages have a few personal pronouns but Japanese has a lot of personal

pronouns and they are very complex.

The first person pronoun means how to call myself. There are large number of

pronouns in Japanese, for example 私 (watashi) 、僕 (boku) 、俺 (ore) and so

on. However, English has one first person pronoun ”I." All people use “I”

regardless of gender in English. In contrast, the first person is used differently

depending on gender in Japanese. Sometimes, people use a different first

person depending on age. Japanese has a complex system of categorization

about personal pronouns more than English.

On the other hand, there are also categorizations that English changes the way

it is divided according to gender. For example, we have different animal names

between male and female. In Japanese, we do not usually care about the gender

of animals. If we want to express gender clearly, we put the word "オス" or “メス”

in the name of an animal. However, English uses different words to distinguish the gender, for example, bull is male and a cow is female. (『表現にさぐ

る性差』2003)

Sometimes, the language is related to gender. Some nouns are distinguished by

gender like the examples above. In addition, some languages have masculine

5

and feminine nouns. In German, all objects are distinguished by gender, male,

female and neuter nouns for example, a chair is a masculine noun, a washing

machine is a feminine noun and a car is a neuter noun. However, can Japanese

people recognize that a chair is male? It is difficult because we never think about

the gender of furniture. Japanese have images for some nouns. For example,

violence or war has a male image but they are feminine nouns in French.

This categorization of animals is simple because there is no change in the way

they are called in any situation but the Japanese first person pronoun changes

depending on the situations. What factors affect the choice of personal pronoun?

In Japanese, the way of using the first person has a lot of categorization and it is

sometimes very important in communication. 「吾輩は猫である (wagahai wa

neko dearu) 。」 is a famous novel written by Natsume Souseki. This novel is

translated as “I am a cat” in the English version. However, a subtle nuance of

expression will be different between Japanese and English. Souseki chose “ 吾輩

(wagahai) ” with the intention not to use “私 ." It is interesting that a cat is given

“吾輩." Because “吾輩” has unique image. Nakamura (2007) said that the image

of a man who uses "俺 " and the image of a man who uses "僕" have come to be

clearly distinguished. 俺 has a image of a passionate man who doesn’t think

about the future and 僕 has a image of a gentle and polite male. In an anime of

“ドラえもん” (Doraemon), the two phrase,「ぼく、のび太」 (Boku Nobita) and

「おれは、ジャイアン」 (Ore wa Jaian) are really famous. The two self-

proclaimed words “ 僕” and ” 俺” create a distinction between a "gentle good young man" and a "hot-blooded man with fighting spirit" in the male image.

In addition, a website shows the differences between Japanese and English first

person by using anime. (2017 webpage『日本語の一人称の違いは英語に訳せる

のか』The male character usually uses “俺” but someday he used “僕” when he

talked with his friends. And then, his friends were surprised that he used “僕” and

they asked him ”Are you a rich boy?." On the other hand, the male character

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used “merely” to express a clever expression in English version. The example

clearly shows that personal pronouns are really important in Japanese

conversation and English doesn’t care about the meaning of personal pronouns.

1.3 Previous Research

1.3.1 Berlin & Kay (1969)

Which basic color name a color is called depends on the culture. For example,

the English word "yellow" includes "ochre" (ocher or a color close to brown) and

has a wider range than the Japanese word "yellow." Also, in the Chinese

character cultural sphere (ancient China, Korean Peninsula, Japan, Vietnam) and

the Maya civilization, "green" and "blue" are called "blue" without distinction.

Berlin and Kay (1969) insisted that color vocabulary has universality. They

compared 98 languages and found that the number of basic colors is different

and the range of colors that the basic colors correspond to is different by the

language. Furthermore, they said that the basic colors gradually differentiate and

increase by the evolution of language. They described that there is regularity in

how color names increase and it is the same rule in all languages. This is the

order of the rule according to them. First, all languages contain terms for black

and white. Second, if a language contains three terms, then it contains a term for

red. Third, if a language contains four terms, then it contains a term for either

green or yellow, but not both. Fourth, if a language contains five terms, then it

contains terms for both green and yellow. Fifth, if a language contains six terms,

then it contains a term for blue. Sixth, if a language contains seven terms, then it

contains a term for brown. Lastly, if a language contains eight or more terms,

then it contains a term for purple, pink, orange, and/or gray. Through this

process, basic colors increased to eleven colors and they determined the eleven

basic colors were white, black, red, yellow, green, blue, purple, blown, orange,

pink and gray. The basic colors do not relate with race or language but the

boundaries and ranges have differences by country or culture.

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1.3.2 Research on modern color recognition

Berlin and Kay (1969) described that most developed languages have eleven

basic color names but they also said that there may exist exceptional languages

in which twelve color words play a similar role spending on the speaker. An

example is Russian. It has two terms to express blue. From their word, David and

Corbett (1994) did some research about color recognition in Russian. Their study

seeked to establish basic Russian color terms using performance measures to

see whether Russian is truly an exception to their theory. They tested 77 subjects

in total, 24 males and 53 females, whose ages ranged from 18 to 65 years with

mean of 34 years and all were native speakers of Russian living in Moscow.

David and Corbett asked the subjects and evaluated psychological manifestation

from frequency and order of each color word appearing in the answer. This is the

result of them “they denote non overlapping regions of color space rather than

goluboj ‘light blue’ being included in the domain of sinij ‘dark blue’, as Berlin and

Kay originally thought. Provided our measures are valid indicators of basicness,

then we must accept that both terms are basic. ” It means that Russian has two

words to express blue and they show individual ranges, so Russian has 12 basic

color names including two blue.

1.3.3 Research on modern color recognition in Japanese

David and Corbett (1994) found that Russian has two color names for blue. Also,

Japanese has many color names to show blue, for example, 青色 (aoiro), 水色

(mizuiro) and 紺色 (koniro) . In addition, 青 has a large range. We use 青 for

traffic right or vegetable but they seem like green. 青 may be related to another

range of color in Japanese. Uchikawa & Boynton (1987) researched Japanese

basic color names for versions of blue. There were 10 Japanese subjects. From

the research, they found that there are no basic color names to show blue but

other color names might be included as basic color names. The leading

8

candidate is 水色, 肌色 (hadairo) and 草色 (kusairo) . Thirty years later, Kuriki

(2017) updated the result from the research by Uchikawa & Boynton. Kuriki said

that 水色 established the status as a basic color while thirty years and the

importance of 紺色 and obsolete 草色. He showed the disappearance of usage

as a word for the wide color range of 青.

1.3.4 Research on numeral classifiers in Japanese

Japanese have a lot of numeral classifiers but we can use them differently in our

daily life. Especially, we often use 個 and つ but people do not know the exact

difference. Japanese classifiers classify things by their state and shape.

However, nowadays, the use of classifiers tends to decrease. In particular, young

people are beginning to simplify classifiers by using only "つ" and "個" when

counting things, except for common classifiers such as "本" (hon) and "枚” (mai) .

Iida (1999) pointed out that there is a difference in the general usage of "つ" and

"個" that "個" mainly counts "concrete nouns" and "つ" mainly counts "abstract

nouns." For example, つ is used as1 つの基準 (one standard),1 つの要素 (one

element ) . 個 is used as メロン１個 (one melon), レンガ１個 (one brick) .

There is a research about the difference between 個 and つ according to the

Asahi Shimbun by Ping Tao (2009) . Through the research, he derived the seven

features of 個 and つ. First, "つ" is used much more often than "個" when

counting things. Since "つ" has a wide range of abstract meanings, its limited

usage is low and its range of use is wide. Second, when counting nouns related

to "sports, stock certificates, life", there is a strong tendency to count by "個" even

though it is an abstract noun. This is thought to be due to the individuality of

meaning. Third, when counting extremely small things such as "molecules and

cells", they are counted as "個." Fourth, when counting natural phenomena

(things that change shape such as clouds and wind) and body nouns (things that

show unique properties such as eyes), there is a tendency to count by "つ." Fifth,

9

when emphasizing the noun "independence" that indicates animacy, "個" or "つ"

is also used in humans. Sixth, “つ” is a Japanese word that comprehensively

expresses a wide range of things in one word, giving an abstract image, and can

include similar but heterogeneous things. On the other hand, "個" can be clearly

defined in meaning, it gives a concrete image, and counts homogeneous ones.

Lastly, the function of classifiers, "つ" is flexible as a Japanese word and is often

used as a special idiomatic expression or adverb.

1.3.5 Research on personal pronouns in Japanese

As we saw, Japanese has many personal pronouns and we use different ways to

talk with people. Personal pronouns have important meanings in Japanese

conversation but it is not decided clearly how to use them. We can choose the

first person by our sense in conversation. Owada’s (2010) discussed the use of

personal pronouns by young people. He had conducted an exploratory study of

the aspects of first-person pronoun use according to the social dimension of

individual adolescents and the functional implications of each first-person

pronoun. From the research, he found eight patterns of using personal pronouns.

Males have four patterns, 1) using 俺 only, 2) 俺 and 自分(jibun), 3) mostly 俺

and sometimes other one, 4) mostly 僕 and sometimes other one. Females also

have four patterns, 1) わたし only,2) あたし only, 3) わたし and あたし,4) うち

only. In addition, regarding the functional meaning contained in the first person, a

characteristic difference was found for each of the above eight patterns.

1) Males using 俺 only

Owada found males 俺 typically only have a characteristics of using “俺” in any

situation. Males using 俺 tend to only have positive images for “俺” such as “cool”

and "masculine", but they don’t have a strong preference for using “俺." Males

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using this pattern regularly use “俺” because the expression of “俺” regard as the

most standard and is a habitual expression used since childhood. So, they

actually do not have no hesitation in using “俺” in any situations but they

sometimes have hesitation for example, when talking with superiors or first

meeting person. Some males of this patternuse have a image for ”自分” such as

“humble”, so they use “自分” when they talk with superiors or first meeting

person.In addition, some of males using 俺 only have a negative image for “僕”

and the others have a positive image for “僕."

2) Males using 俺 and 自分

According to Owada, males using 俺 and 自分 have a positive images such as

"cool", "male", "youthful", and "aggressive" for "俺" like males using 俺 only

recognize.Males using 俺 and 僕 think that “俺” is the best first person pronoun.

However, they are reluctant to use “俺” for the first meeting person so they use

“自分” instead of “俺."Unlike males using 俺 only, males using 俺 and 自分 have

a strong preference to use ”俺."Males using 俺 and 自分 used ”僕” when they

were child and they gradually started to use ”俺” because they began to

recognize that “俺” is cool. At the present time, males using 俺 and 自分 have

negative image and they avoid using “僕."

3) Males using mostly 俺

Males who correspond to this pattern basically use “俺” but use various first

person pronoun,”僕”, “自分”, “私”, depending on the situation. Especially, they

use “僕” and “私” for the superior or first meeting person. Also, males using

mostly 俺 used ”僕” in their childhood but they began to recognize the coolness

11

of “俺” like males using 俺 and 自分 and started to use “俺." Males using mostly

“俺” feel the big difference for the way others see them by using “俺” or “僕."

4) Males using mostly 僕

Males using mostly 僕 have complex phases. Males using mostly 僕 have two

backgrounds. In the one of the pattern, males used “僕” in their childhood but

they changed the first person pronoun to “俺” because they started to recognized

“俺” is much mature. However they returned the first person pronoun to

“僕”because they have a image that ”俺” is not gentle. They prefer to use ”僕” at

official situation. In the other pattern, males used “俺” in their childhood but they

started to be conscious the first person pronoun in their puberty and they

changed the first person pronoun to “僕” which is recognized more mature. Also,

males using mostly have two conflicting feelings. They often use “僕” but they

want to use “ 私” or ”自分” because, “私” and “自分” is more gentle than “僕." On

the other hand, males using mostly 僕 wish they could use “俺” on a daily basis.

As described above, males using mostly 俺 have complex phases.

Also, according to Owada, females are divided into four patterns.

1) Females using わたし only

Females using わたし only have a positive image for both of “わたし” and “あた

し”, but females choose these first person pronouns according to the situation,

for example “わたし” can be used in formal situations and “あたし” can be used

in private situations. In addition, females using わたし only don’t have a strong

preference for using “わたし." Females using this pattern regularly use “わたし”

because the expression of “わたし” is regarded as the most standard and is a

habitual expression used since childhood. Some of females using わたし only

use their own name when they talk with their family.

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2) Females using あたし only

Females using あたし only have neutral image for both of “わたし” and ”あたし”,

for example they recognize that “わたし” is more formal than “わたし” or ”あた

し” is more casual than ”わたし." In addition, females using あたし only choose

“わたし” or ”あたし” according to the situation in the same way as females using

わたし only. Also, females using あたし only use their own name when they talk

with their family like females using わたし only.

3) Females using わたし and あたし

Females using わたし and あたし recognize the difference between “わたし”

and “あたし” clearly, knowing “わたし” should be used in public and “あたし”

should be used in private. In addition, they think “あたし” is “childish” and “not

polite." They had negative image for “あたし” a little bit. Also, females using わた

し and あたし use thier own name when they talk with friends from junior high

school or high school.

4) Females using うち only

Females using うち have various images for “あたし” for example, friendly or

formal. They think that ”うち” is a friendly expression and they tend to use ”わた

し” in formal situations. Females using うち have a background that they were

influenced by people around them. Females using うち had friends using うち in

thier childhood and they started to use “うち."Females using うち also use “わた

し”or ”あたし” according to the situation. Females using うち don’t have a strong

preference for using “うち." They tend to be influenced by the environment which

surrounds them.

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1.4 Research Questions

This thesis has 3 research questions. These questions seek to find out how we

categorize information.

1. Do Japanese subjects categorize colors the same way?

2. Do Japanese subjects use the same count modifiers for objects ?

3. Do Japanese subjects use the first person pronouns the same way?

1.5 Conclusion

In this chapter we looked at some examples of the categorization for nouns

focused on color, classifiers and first person pronouns. Nouns are categorized in

different ways by the language or culture and categorization is important for

communication so we wish to find out if the categorization in Japanese is

consistent. In Chapter Two, we will look at the data from questionnaires to see

how different subjects categorize color, nouns and use the first person pronouns.

Chapter2: The Data

2.1 Introduction

In Chapter One, we looked at categorization in terms of the categorization of

color, classifiers and personal pronouns.

This chapter presents the data for a questionnaire about how subjects categorize

the nouns in the same language.

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2.2 The questionnaire

2.2.1 Introduction to the questionnaire

The aim of the questionnaire was to find out how differently subjects categorize

some nouns to show the relationship between categorization and culture. There

are three questions to be researched in the questionnaire.

1. Do Japanese subjects see colors the same way?

2. Do Japanese subjects count something the same way ?

3. Do Japanese subjects use the first person the same way?

2.2.2 Method

1) Subjects

The125 subjects of this questionnaire were 3rd year and 4th year English major

students of Notre Dame Seishin University English, Okayama Prefecture

University 4th year students OKayama university students and Shujitsu university

students 4th year students included 80 females and 45 males. They were ages

19-22.

2) Questionnaire design

Following the research questions in Section 1.4, a questionnaire was made to

investigate how subjects categorize nouns, colors and personal pronouns in

different languages. The questionnaire had seven sections.

In Section One, the subjects were asked their name and consent for being used

in their answer for my thesis.

15

In Section Two, two color scales were given to the subjects. One of the color

scales was from the colors pink to yellow with the numbers. Another one was

from the color like yellow to red. The subjects had to state the border where they

noticed that the color changed names using the numbers. This question aimed to

find out the differences of recognition of color between people.

In Section Three, the images of animals were shown to the subjects. The animals

were a wolf, rabbit, horse and tiger. The subjects were asked which classifiers

they use to count each animal.

In Section Four, images of objects were shown to the subjects. The objects were

a newspaper, letter, postcard, paper booklet and papers. There were some

examples of classifiers and the subjects chose all the classifiers that they usually

use with these nouns. The question was used to find how subjects use the

classifiers in different ways from Section Two.

c) Personal pronoun categories

In Section Five, the subject had questions about the first person pronouns. First,

the subjects were asked about themselves. They were given some situations, for

example, A person said “give me a hand please” and the subjects had to say “I

will. ” by using first person pronouns. There were some situations in which

someone was the subject's friend, teacher, father or mother and senior. The aim

was to find out how the first person pronouns used changes depending on the

situation and the person they talked with.

Secondly, the questionnaire presented some characters, Takeshi who was a 20

year old male (a peer), Taro, a 45 year old male (senior) and Risa a 15 year old

female (younger), to the subjects to find out the differences for using the first

person pronouns between gender and age, these characters were selected. The

subjects choose the most suitable first person pronouns for these characters

according to each situation and the person they talked with. The aim was to find

how and which first person pronouns were used.

16

In Section Six, this questionnaire wanted to find out the difference in the way of

using the first person pronouns by gender. It asked females what first person

pronouns they use in various situations. First situation is where a girl subject

goes to dinner with six males and another one is where she goes to dinner with

six females.

Furthermore, it asked males what first person pronouns they use where a male

goes to dinner with six females and another one is where he goes to dinner with

six males.

In Section Seven, the questionnaire wanted to find out the recognition of

politeness in the first person pronouns. The subjects were given some first

person pronouns and asked to rank them in terms of how they would be used.

Procedures

The questionnaire was made with Google Forms. After making it, the subjects

were asked to complete it. The subjects could answer this questionnaire by

smartphone or computer at any time. The data were analyzed in Microsoft Excel.

2.2.3 Results

2.2.3.1 The data for the color scale

In this Section we will look at the data for color categorization. These questions

asked the subjects to answer the name of color and the number where they think

the color changes. The data from Question One are shown in Table 1.

17

Table 1: The data for the color scale

Average the number of subjects who recognize the color

赤 (red) 0.5-3.5 2

ピンク (pink) 0-3 95

赤紫 (red purple) 0.4-3.9 5

紫 (purple) 2.8-5.4 77

藍 (Indigo) 5.6-10.6 5

紺 (dark blue) 5.4-10.8 9

青紫 (blue purple) 5-12 1

群青 (deep blue, ultramarine) 7-8 1

青 (blue) 6.2-13.4 108

薄い青 (light blue) 11.3-14 3

より薄い青 (more light blue) 13-15 11

濃いめの水色 (dark sky blue ) 11-15 1

水色 (sky blue) 13.8-18 106

薄い水色 (light sky blue) 15-18 1

翠 (green) 18-23 1

18

青緑 (blue green) 18-19 1

ミント (mint green) 18-19 1

エメラルドグリーン (emerald green)

18-19 1

緑 (green) 18.4-23.1 107

薄緑 (light green) 21-22.5 2

黄緑 (yellow green) 22.9-26.6 85

黄 (yellow) 26.1-29.9 93

The data from Table 1 show almost everyone recognized the 7 colors in this

color scale. 95 subjects recognized pink from 0-3, 77 subjects recognized purple

from 2.8 -5.4, 108 subjects recognized blue from 6.2-13.4, 106 subjects

recognized sky blue from 13.8-18, 107 subjects recognized green from 18.4-23.

1, 85 subjects recognized yellow green from 22.9-26. 6 and 93 subjects

recognized yellow from 26.1-29.9. In addition, a few subjects recognized some

colors in this color scale.

The data from Question two are shown in Table 2.

Table 2: The data from color scale

19

Average the number of

subjects who

recognize the color

レモン (lemon) 2-4 2

黄色 (yellow) 0.2-4.2 110

肌色 (skin) 2-5 1

山吹色 (bright yellow) 3.75-6.5 4

薄橙 (light orange) 3-8 1

橙 (orange) 5-12.4 26

赤橙 (red orange) 11.5-15.5 2

薄いオレンジ (light orange) 4.3-8.3 6

オレンジ (orange) 5.1-12.5 82

濃いオレンジ (deep orange) 10-14 6

朱色 (vermilion) 12.6-16.4 15

赤 (red) 13.6-24.5 106

茶 (brown) 25 1

The data in Table 2 show almost everyone recognized 3 colors in this color

scale. 110 subjects recognized yellow from 0.2-4. 2, 82 subjects recognized

orange from 5.1-12. 5 and 106 subjects recognized red from 13.6 - 24.5. In

addition, a few subjects recognized some colors in this color scale.

20

2.2.3.2 The data for classifying

These questions asked the subjects to answer how you count these animals with

a classifier.

Table 3: The data for the way of use classifier

wolf rabbit horse tiger

匹(hiki) 100 54 3 52

頭(tou) 23 3 116 68

体(tai) 1 0 0 3

羽(wa) 0 54 0 0

その他 0 0 2 0

The data in Table 2 show how subjects used different classifiers for each animal.

Most subjects use 匹 for wolf and other subjects used 頭. Rabbit rendered two

classifiers 匹 and 羽. A few subjects used 頭. Furthermore, almost everyone

used 頭 for horse and just three subjects used 匹. Finally, tiger showed used two

classifiers 匹 and 頭 but 頭 is more than 匹. The subjects use classifiers

differently for each animal except horse.

These questions asked the subjects to answer the following statement “Please

check the appropriate answers for the classifiers for each object.”

Table 4:The data for the classifiers

① For newspapers

21

Q. Please answer all of the classifiers that can be used for this object.

The data show 99.2％ of the subjects use 部(bu) and 52.0％ of the subjects use 枚(mai) for counting newspapers but 部 is by far the most frequently used.

② For letters


22

The data show many subjects use two classifiers, 枚 and 通(tsū), for counting letters. 通 is more than 枚 a little bit.

③ For postcards


The data show 枚 and 通 are used by most subjects for counting postcards but 枚 is more than 通. This result is the opposite of the result for letters.

④For booklets


23

The data show that 部 and 冊(satsu) are used about the same amount for counting booklets. This result is a bit similar to the result of the newspapers.

⑤ For papers


The data show most subjects use 枚 for counting papers. When subjects count

booklets, they use 部 the most but when they count papers, they rarely use it.

24

2.2.3.3 The data for personal pronouns

These questions asked the subjects to answer what first person pronoun they

use in each situation.

Table 5: The data for the first person pronouns

Situation 1

When a person said 「誰か隣の部屋からはさみをとってきてくれない？」,

please answer the request using the first person pronouns in Japanese.

Table 5.1 The data from females

Friend Teacher Parents Seniors

わたし(watashi) 68 75 60 75

あたし(atashi) 2 0 2 0

うち(uchi) 4 0 4 0

俺(ore) 0 0 0 0

僕(boku) 0 0 0 0

自分(jibun) 0 0 0 0

名前(own name) 1 0 9 0

わし(washi) 0 0 0 0

おいら(oira) 0 0 0 0

25

わい(wai) 0 0 0 0

回答無し(no answer) 1 1 1 1

Table 5.2 The answers from males


わたし 2 9 1 2

あたし 0 0 0 0

うち 0 0 0 0

俺 35 4 34 17

僕 0 19 1 15

自分 5 11 4 9

名前 0 0 1 0

わし 1 0 0 0

おいら 0 0 1 0

わい 0 0 1 0

26

回答無し 1 1 1 1

This question asked the subjects to answer the question about themselves. The

data show that females and males use completely different first person pronouns.

In addition, many subjects use the first person pronouns differently depending on

the person. Compared to females, males tend to use the first person pronouns

differently depending on the person. Most females use わたし for anyone but

many males tend to use 俺 for friends and parents and use 僕 for teachers.

Furthermore, the females never use 俺 or 僕 in conversations but males

sometimes use わたし.

Situation 2

When a person said 「このポスター誰が張ったの？」Please answer the

question using first person pronouns in Japanese.

Table 5.3 The data from females


わたし 69 75 62 76

あたし 2 0 2 0

うち 4 0 4 0

俺 0 0 0 0

27

僕 0 0 0 0

自分 0 1 0 0

名前 1 0 8 0

わし 0 0 0 0

おいら 0 0 0 0

わい 0 0 0 0

Table 5.4 The data from males


わたし 1 9 1 3

あたし 0 0 0 0

うち 0 0 0 0

俺 37 4 37 17

僕 1 19 1 14

28

自分 3 12 3 10

名前 0 0 1 0

わし 0 0 0 0

おいら 0 0 0 0

わい 2 0 1 0

回答無し 0 0 0 0

This question asked the subjects to answer the question from each person. The

data show almost the same result with situation 1. subjects do not use the first

person pronouns according to the situation, but rather according to the other

person.


The subjects are given some characters and situations.

Situation 1

There is a university student named Takeshi who is 20 years old. His teacher is

asking someone who put the pen case here. Please check the most appropriate

answer for his reply.

先生「ここに筆箱を置いたのは誰ですか？」

His teacher “Who put the pen case here?”

Table 6.1

29

The data show that 吾輩, うち and たけし were recognized as “not good” in this

situation. 107 subjects chose “Not good” for 吾輩, 96 subjects for うち and 91

subjects for たけし. On the other hand, わたし and 僕 are recognized as

“Perfect” or “Really good” in this situation. 87 subjects chose “Perfect” for わたし

and 67 subjects for 僕.

30

Situation 2: Takeshi has a 15 years sister. She is asking someone who had her

pudding. Please check the most appropriate answer for his reply.

たけしの妹「私のプリン食べたの誰？」

His sister “who ate my pudding?”

Table 6.2

The data show that 吾輩 and わたくし were recognized as "Not good” in this

situation. 83 subjects chose “Not good” for 吾輩 and 95 subjects for わたくし. 52

31

subjects chose “Not good” for わたし. On the other hand, 僕 and 俺 are

recognized as "Perfect” in this situation. 82 subjects chose “Perfect” for 僕 and

94 subjects for 俺.

Situation 3: There is a man named Tarou who is a 45 year old office worker. His

boss is asking someone who put the material here. Please check the most

appropriate answer for his reply.

上司「資料をここに置いたのはだれですか？」

His boss “Who put the material here?”

Table 6.3

32

The data show that 吾輩, 俺, うち and たろう were recognized as "Not good” in this situation. 106 subjects chose “Not good” for 吾輩, 85 subjects for 俺, 109 subjects for うち and 114 subjects for たろう. On the other hand, わたし and わたくし were recognized as "Perfect” in this situation. 78 subjects chose “Perfect” for わたくし and 93 subjects for わたし.

Situation 4: A man’s wife is asking who ate her pudding. Please check the most

appropriate answer for his reply.

たろうの妻「私のプリン食べたの誰？」

His wife “who ate my pudding?”

Table 6.4

33

The data show that 吾輩, わたくし, うち and たろう were recognized as "Not

good” in this situation. 84 subjects chose “Not good” for 吾輩, 86 subjects for わ

たくし, 70 subjects for うち and 66 subjects for たろう. On the other hand, 僕

and 俺 are recognized as "Perfect” in this situation. 91 subjects chose “Perfect”

for 僕 and 95 subjects for 俺.

34

Situation 5: There is a girl named Risa who is 15 years old. Her teacher is asking

someone who put the pen case here. Please check the most appropriate answer

for her reply.

先生「ここに筆箱を置いたのはだれですか？」

Her teacher “Who put the pen case here?”

Table 6.5

35

The data show that 吾輩, 僕, 俺 and りさ were recognized as "Not good” in this

situation. 107 subjects chose “Not good” for 吾輩, 79 subjects for 僕, 89 subjects

for 俺 and 80 subjects for りさ. Almost of half the subjects thought that うち was

also “Not good ." わたし is overwhelmingly recognized as "Perfect” in this

situation. 107 subjects chose “Perfect” for わたし.

Situation 6: Risa has a 10 years sister. She is asking someone who had her

pudding Please check the most appropriate answer for her reply.

りさの妹「私のプリン食べたの誰？」

Her sister “who ate my pudding?”

Table 6.6

36

The data show that 吾輩, わたくし, 僕 and 俺 were recognized as "Not good” in

this situation. 92 subjects chose “Not good” for 吾輩, 87 subjects for わたくし, 80

subjects for 僕 and 86 subjects for 俺. わたし is overwhelmingly recognized as

"Perfect” in this situation. 99 subjects chose “Perfect” for わたし.

These data show how subjects perceive the first person pronouns used by others

and what kind of image subjects have for each first person pronouns.

First, most subjects think that 吾輩 should not be used by anyone and in any

situation. わたくし can be used by anyone and it gives a very polite impression

so it shouldn’t be used for people close to us. Females can use わたし in every

situation but male should use it only in formal situations.

In addition, 僕 and 俺 are recognized as male words and females are not

expected to use them. There is a difference between 僕 and 俺. 僕 can be used

in almost every situation but 俺 cannot be used in formal situations for example in

business situations. Many subjects do not use 自分 as a first person pronoun and

うち is used by females in informal situations. Lastly, their own name is

sometimes used by females when they talk with close acquaintances.

37

This question asked the subjects to supply their gender.


This question for females asked the subjects to “imagine the situation where you

are having dinner with 6 males in a restaurant. You are the only girl. Which of

these first person pronouns do you use? Please check the ones that apply.“

38

The data show that most females use わたし in this situation. うち, 自分 and

their own name were common but the others were mostly “Never."

This question asked the subjects to “imagine the situation where you are having

dinner with only females. Which of these first person pronouns would you use?

Please check the ones that apply.”

41

The data show that most females use わたし in this situation. It is almost the

same answer as the previous situation.

This question was for males. It asked the subjects to “imagine the situation where

you are having dinner with 6 females in a restaurant. You are the only boy.

Which of these first person pronouns do you use? Please check the pronoun that

applies most to you.”

44

The data show that most males use 俺 or 僕 in this situation but 俺 is more than

僕. In addition some subjects use 自分.

This question asked the subjects to “imagine the situation where you are having

dinner with only males. Which of these first person pronouns do you use? Please

check the pronoun that applies.”

47

The data show that most males use 俺 or 僕 in this situation but 僕 is more

frequent than 僕 and some subjects use 自分. It is similar to the previous answer

but a percentage of the subjects who definitely use 俺 is little higher compared

with the previous situation.

This question asked the subjects to arrange these first person pronouns in

descending order of politeness.

51

Most subjects recognize that わたくし is the most polite and わたし is second

and, ぼく is third. Many subjects say using “my own name” and 吾輩 are the

least polite but 吾輩 was common. Noone chose “own name” for the most polite

one but five subjects chose 吾輩 for the most polite one.

53

2.3 Summary

In this chapter we looked at the data from the questionnaire. In the next chapter,

we will review the data from Chapter Two and discuss it in detail and compare it

with the previous research in Chapter One.

Chapter 3: The Analysis

3.1 Introduction

In Chapter One we looked at the definition of categorization. Then we discussed

the features and differences of categorization between Japanese and other

languages focusing on color, numeral classifiers and first person pronouns. In

Chapter Two, we looked at the way of categorization of nouns and the

relationships between categorization and subjects thought, by asking university

students to answer the questionnaire. In this chapter we will summarize the data

and look at it in detail by comparing it to the data observed in Chapter One. We

will then answer the research questions, look at the limitations to the study and

suggest some implications for teacher and learning in general.

3.2 Summary of the results from Chapter Two

In Chapter Two, we looked at the data of the questionnaire. Section One of the

questionnaires was about each subject's color perception. In Section Two and

Three of the questionnaire, we researched numeral classifiers. Section Four of

the questionnaire was about the personal pronoun for themselves. Section Five

of the questionnaire was about the recognition of the personal pronoun for

someone. In the last section, we researched the politeness ranking of personal

pronouns.

The results from Section One showed that many Japanese subjects recognize

the colors in the same way but there are little differences even if we are in the

same culture. The result from Sections Two and Three confirmed that each

54

animal or object has a numeral classifier that should be used. My data showed

that some animals and objects have more than two numeral classifiers. Based on

Section Four, we could find the differences about how to use personal pronouns

between males and females. Males use different first person pronouns in some

situations more often than females. In Section Five, we could find the differences

in the way of using the first person pronouns by gender and age. In the final

Section, we looked at the politeness ranking about personal pronouns. Japanese

subjects are aware of the politeness of each personal pronoun. The result shows

that the correct use of personal pronouns are really important in Japanese

conversation. From these results, we can say that there are little differences

about recognition of nouns even if we are in the same culture but almost we can

share this sense. In addition, Japanese have a lot of categorizations and it is

really important in Japanese conversation.

3.3 Comparing previous research and these data

This section will compare the data in Chapter Two with the previous research.

We mentioned a few previous studies above. Kuriki (2017) said that 水色

(mizuiro) has become established as a basic color. Furthermore, he showed the

importance of 紺色 (koniro) and the obsolete 草色 (kusairo). In our research,

subjects divided the color scale and described many expressions of blue. 5

subjects described 藍色 (aiiro), 9 subjects used 紺色, one subject used 青紫

(aomurasaki), 群青 (gunjyou), 108 subjects identified 青色 (aoiro) and 106

subjects identified 水色. Our results proved that Kuriki’s data seems to be

correct. 水色 is used as a base color as 青色 but 草色 is not common in modern

Japanese language.

Iida (1999) researched numeral classifiers as mentioned above. He showed the

differences of using 個 (ko) and つ. 個 is used more common than つ and is used

for concrete nouns. Our research did not show data for つ but 個 is mentioned. In

our questionnaire, about 15% of the subjects choose 個 in all situations. For

55

example, 18. 7% of subjects used 個 for newspapers, 17.1% of them used it for

letters,9.8% of them used it for postcards, 20.3% of them used it for booklets and

7.3% of them used it for paper. The data shows that 個 can be used for anything

in much the same way.

Owada (2010) has found the 8 patterns of categorization about the way of using

the first person pronoun. He said that males have four patterns, using 俺 only, 俺

and 自分, mostly 俺 and mostly 僕. He also said that females have four patterns,

わたし only, あたし only, うち only and わたし and あたし. In our questionnaire,

male subjects used 俺, 僕 and 自分 properly depending on the situation.

However, most all female subjects used わたし only in the all situation. We could

not find the many examples of the use of あたし and うち.

3.4 Discussion of the results

First, we will discuss the perceptions of colors in detail. From the results of the

questionnaire, we could find that there are some differences about categorization

in Japanese even if we are in the same communities. In Table 1, almost all the

subjects divided the color scale into 7 colors, pink, purple, blue, sky blue, green,

yellow green and yellow which revealed some trends on how to divide in color.

The data showed that the subjects have a lot of expression between blue and

sky blue. In Table Two, almost all of the subjects divided the color scale for 3

colors, yellow, orange and red but there are many options between yellow to

orange.

Next, we will discuss numeral classifiers. From the questionnaire, most numeral

classifiers are decided by the noun. For instance, 匹 is used with wolf and 頭 is

used for house by almost all people. In contrast, rabbits and tigers have two

classifiers. 匹 and 羽 are used for rabbit , tiger uses 匹 and 頭. In addition, we

could find that subjects use classifiers in detail for similar objects from the

questionnaire. The objects, newspaper, letter, postcard and paper, are really

56

similar objects but they used different classifiers. Subjects decided the classifier

to use by the size or number of sheets.

Then we will discuss the association between personal pronouns and gender.

The first person pronouns connect with gender deeply. Subjects clearly used

different first person pronouns according to their gender so we can judge

someone’s gender by their pronoun choice. It means that the way of using the

first person pronoun is really important in Japanese conversation. Also, subjects

used different personal pronouns by the person talking with. It means that the

way of using the first person shows how you think of a partner. From the

questionnaire, we could find that males use many more different first personal

pronouns than females in each situation. Females use わたし for any person but

males use 俺 and 僕 according to the situation. 俺 is generally used in informal

situations. In contrast, 俺 is used in formal situations. Japanese subjects have

the sense like that so subjects recognize that using 俺 for one’s superior is

impolite. Furthermore, the result of questionnaire shows that わたし could be

used by males as a polite expression but females usually do not use 俺 or 僕 in

any situations.

Lastly, we will discuss the politeness of personal pronouns. From the

questionnaire, subjects decided the rank order clearly. Subjects recognized わた

くし is the most polite personal pronoun and わたし is the second most polite.

Almost all of the subjects thought that the next rank order was 僕, 自分 and 俺. In

contrast, 吾輩 was less commonly used. Many subjects thought that 吾輩 is not a

polite expression but few subjects stated that it is the most polite one.

From these results, we could find that the categorization of personal pronouns is

deeply related to Japanese culture. There are some differences between

Japanese subjects but they broadly share the sense of categorization.

57

3.5 Research questions

This Section will answer the research questions from Chapter One.

1. Do Japanese subjects see colors the same way?

According to the results of the questionnaire, we can say that a lot of subjects

see the color the same way because they are in the same culture but some

subjects do not because they have different ways of thinking and different

categories about colors. There are many similar color names in Japanese.

2. Do Japanese subjects count things the same way?

According to the results of the questionnaire, the way of counting using

classifiers is mostly decided by each object but some objects have two more

numeral classifiers. Japanese subjects could share the sense of using numeral

classifiers, so subjects can recognize what it is when we describe the object

unclearly.

3. Do Japanese subjects use the first person pronouns the same way?

According to the results of the questionnaire, Japanese females and males use

completely different first person pronouns. In addition, males use a wider range

of first person pronouns than females. Some males use わたし in some formal

situations. It means that わたし can be used as neutral personal pronoun.

However, 俺 and 僕 are used as male expression. Personal pronouns are really

important to show one’s character. Also they are important in Japanese

conversation.

58

3.6 Implications

We could find any categorization is really important and related to language.

Categorization is different in any culture or communities and is influenced by

culture or language. People who belong to the same culture can share the rough

categorization but it is not always in the same way. Categorization is also

influenced by their life or surrounding environment. It means detailed

classification depends on the person. Categorization of color and numeral

classifiers can limit the object in the conversation. For instance, the dialogue

“pass me the red one” includes the detailed information without a clear object

and “一本ください” can show the meaning that speaker wants a long object. In

addition, personal pronouns can show the attitude toward the other party. In this

way, categorization is really important in our conversation and there are a lot of

categorizations in Japanese. When subjects learn another language, they should

learn the categorization too.

3.7 Limitations of the Questionnaire

There are several limitations with this study.

Firstly, most of the subjects were female university students and almost all of

them were English majors. Future researchers should ask various different

subjects, for example, different ages, sexes and students that major in different

subjects.

Secondly, all of the subjects were Japanese. Some of them have studied abroad

and have studied different cultures. I could not ask someone from another

country or returnee children, so we could not find exactly the difference in

categorization between Japanese and other languages. Future researchers

59

should ask anyone from languages with a similar culture and from a culture quite

different from Japanese.

3.8 Further research

In the questionnaire, we asked 125 university students including 80 females and

45 males to answer the questions. As mentioned above, the way of

categorization is influenced by culture or the surrounding environment.

Furthermore, it is related to the sexes or age and depends on the person. In this

time, the subjects were university students and overwhelmingly many females

compared to males. These results are biased this time because of deviation of

subjects, so we should widen the range of subjects next time to get more detailed

information. For instance, we should ask the questionnaire to the subjects from

other languages or in different cultures and who are of different ages from

children to senior. In addition, it may be a good idea to ask returnee children and

Japanese learners from other languages. In particular, the categorization of

personal pronouns greatly differ by sexes, so we would have detailed results by

widening the range of subjects.

3.9 Conclusion

This thesis researched categorization by focusing on color, numeral classifiers

and personal pronouns and we could find the property and role of categorization.

From the questionnaire, we could see the differences of categorization

depending on the person, but also we could know that sense of categorization is

mostly shared by subjects in the same culture and community. It means that

categorization is deeply related with culture. In addition, categorization is really

important in conversations and enriches Japanese communication.

Categorization is not only to categorize the nuns or objects but also let

conversations go smoothly. If we could use the effects of categorization well, it

would be useful in our language and daily lives. In addition, when we learn

another language or culture, we should learn categorization too.

60

References

Books

鈴木孝夫 Suzuki Takao（1973）『ことばと文化』岩波新書 pp. 129-135

須藤健一 Sudou Kenichi (2017) 『文化のちがい習慣のちがい－ペラペラことば

とものの名前』学研プラス pp. 12-15

中村桃子 Nakamura Tomoko (2007) 『“性”と日本語―ことばがつくる女と男』

(NHK ブックス) (日本語) 単行本 pp. 59-73

Web Articles

大和田智文 Owada Tomofumi『若者における一人称の使用の様相とその機能的

意味』

https://core. ac. uk/download/pdf/230296905. pdf

子ども達にも教えたい。世界の虹は７色じゃないこと。（2018）

https://tonton-animals. com/broaden-our-horizons/

中村平治 Nakamura Hiramasa『表現にさぐる性差』（2003）

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action=pages_view_main&active_action=repository_action_common_download&item_id=26

80&item_no=1&attribute_id=22&file_no=1&page_id=13&block_id=39

日本語の一人称の違いは英語に訳せるのか（2017）

http://mayme. xyz/japanese-ichininsho-in-english/

61

野島渓 Nojima Kei『現代日本の「基本色彩語」について ―バーリン・ケイ仮説

の検証をもとに―』

http://www. f. waseda. jp/uenok/ronshu/ronshu_15_nojima. pdf

【ミャンマー語】数字の単位（助数詞）読み方 unit 単語集いくつ一覧（ビルマ

語表） (2019)

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com/2019/05/31/%E3%80%90%E3%83%9F

%E3%83%A3%E3%83%B3%E3%83%9E%E3%83%BC%E8%AA%9E

%E3%80%91%E6%95%B0%E5%AD%97%E3%81%AE%E5%8D%98%E4%BD

%8D%E5%8A%A9%E6%95%B0%E8%A9%9E%E8%AA%AD%E3%81%BF

%E6%96%B9unit%E5%8D%98%E8%AA%9E/

Berlin and Kay theory (2013)

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David and Corbett (1994) https://www. researchgate.

net/publication/238337410_The_basic_color_terms_of_Russian

Khan Academy “Cultural relativism article”

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Sanseido Dual Dictionary 『個々の助数詞の用法』

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62

SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips “What Is the Rainbow Color Order?

Understanding ROYGBIV”(2019)

What Is the Rainbow Color Order? Understanding ROYGBIV (prepscholar.com)

Appendices

Appendix 1: The English questionnaire (for example)

63

Appendix 2: The Japanese questionnaire (for example)

83

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