water quality standards testing policy
TRANSCRIPT
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Protocal
Water quality standards andtesting policy
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Cover picture:
Top and middle:WaterAids partner organisation Centre for Integrated Urban Development (CIUD)s colleagues
teaching the water users community to test water quality in the training.
ENPHO
Bottom:WaterAids partner organisation Nepal Water for Health (NEWAH) staff testing water in rural Nepal.
NEWAH
WaterAid transforms lives by improving access to safe water, hygiene
and sanitation in the worlds poorest communities. We work with
partners and influence decision makers to maximise our impact.
This document provides a framework to support improved access to safe water for low-incomecommunities through the enhancement of water facilities. It is intended to help WaterAidspartner organisations in Nepal deliver safe water facilities to the communities they work with.
This document will reinforce WaterAids initiatives for ensuring the quality and sustainabilityof water supplies for millions of users. It is also hoped that this document will be of valueto other organisations involved in improving safe water access, particularly for poor people.This document was prepared with reference to the Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality(WHO, 2004), National Drinking Water Quality Standards(MPPW, 2005) and ImplementationDirectives for National Drinking Water Quality Standards(MPPW, 2005).
The production of this document was led by Kabir Das Rajbhandari from WaterAid in Nepal .Colleagues from WaterAids partners in Nepal , and Vincent Casey from the Technical SupportUnit in WaterAids office in London undertook reviews of the document, providing valuableinput. Colleagues from the Advocacy team in Nepal also reviewed the document.
This document should be cited as WaterAid in Nepal (2011) Protocol - Water quality standardsand testing policy.
The document can be found in the documents section of the WaterAid in Nepal countryprogramme website www.nepal.wateraid.org
A WaterAid in Nepal publication
September 2011
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Abbreviation ii
1. Background 1 1.1 Physical setting 1
1.2 Social setting 2
1.3 Economic setting 3
1.4 Geology 3
1.5 Water resources 3
1.5.1 Surface water resources 4
1.5.2 Groundwater 5
1.5.3 Rain water resources: 7
2. Policy on water quality management 9
2.1 WaterAids principles and objectives 9
2.2 In the context of WaterAid in Nepal 9
2.3 Objectives of water quality standards and testing policy 10
2.4 Standards 10
2.5 Scope of water quality standards and testing policy 12
3. Key sector stakeholders / organisations 13
3.1 Institutional arrangement 13 3.1.1 Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW) 13
3.1.2 Ministry of Local Development (MLD) 15
3.1.3 Ministry of Health (MoH) 16
3.1.4 Local authorities and water users committee 16
3.1.5 Donors, INGOs, NGOs, and private sector 17
3.1.6 Consultation with the stakeholders 17
4. Roles and responsibilities for water quality testing 19
Contents
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5. High risk (principal) contaminants 21
5.1 Water resources 21 5.1.1 Surface water 21
5.1.2 Groundwater sources 23
5.2 Principal (high risk) contaminants of water and risks
to human health 25
5.2.1 Microbiological contamination 26
5.2.2 Arsenic contamination 27
5.2.3 Nitrate 31
5.2.4 Fluoride 32
5.2.5 Nuisance constituents: aesthetic parameters 33 5.2.6 Other aesthetic parameters 34
6. Appropriate water quality standards 35
6.1 Selection of parameters 36
6.2 WaterAid in Nepal recommended drinking water
quality standards 38
7. Frequency of testing, sampling and analysis regime based
on risk of contamination 45 7.1 Sampling and frequency of testing 46
7.1.1 Arsenic 48
7.1.2 Microbiological contamination 51
7.1.3 Nitrate 53
7.1.4 Iron 54
7.1.5 Free residual and total chlorine 55
7.1.6 Turbidity 55
7.1.7 pH 56
7.1.8 Colour, odour and taste 56
8. Information, record keeping, reporting and dissemination
of results 59
8.1 Background 59
8.2 Reporting and communicating 59
8.3 Interaction with community and consumers 60
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9. Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) 63
9.1 Background 63 9.2 Significance of Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) 64
9.3 Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) components 64
9.4 Points to be considered in a sanitary inspection survey 64
9.5 Risk assessment in Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) 65
9.6 Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) activities 65
9.7 Frequency of Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) of
water supply system 66
9.8 Limitations of SIS in terms of available resources 67
9.9 Alternative sources 68
10. Resources 69
10.1 Human resources 69
10.2 Physical resources 70
10.3 Financial resources 70
10.4 Others 73
11. Follow- up arrangements 75
11.1 Others 75 11.2 Points to be considered while developing plan of action in
the event when standards are failed to meet by the test results 76
10.3 Regular revising and updating the WANs water Quality
Testing Policy 78
12. References 81
13. Annexes 83
Annex 1: River Network of Nepal 83 Annex 2: Comparative water quality parameters and its
guideline/standard values 84
Annex 3: Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) information assessment 86
Annex 4: Water point monitoring form 89
Annex 5: Water quality monitoring and testing form 90
Annex 6: Sanitary Inspection Survey (SIS) form 94
Annex 7: Summary of risk (Sanitary Inspection Survey) scoring 109
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AAS - Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer
ADB - Asian Development Bank
BCHIMES - Between Census Household Information, Monitoringand Evaluation System
BCM - Billion Cubic Metre
BGS - British Geological Survey
BSF - Bio Sand Filter
CBS - Central Bureau of Statistics
CIUD - Centre for Integrated Urban Development
CSP - Country Strategy Paper
Cumec - Cubic Metre
CWRM - Community Based Water Resource ManagementDDCs - District Development Committees
DEO - District Education Office
DOLIDAR - Department of Local Infrastructure Development for
Agriculture Road
DPHO - District Public Health Office
DTO - District Technical Office
DTWs - Deep Tube wells
DWSS - Department of Water Supply and Sewerage
ENPHO - Environment and Public Health OrganizationFEDWASUN - Federation of Water and Sanitation Users of Nepal
FINNIDA - Finland International Development Agency
FRC - Free Residual Chlorine
GDP - Gross Development Product
GoN - Government of Nepal (The then HMG)
GW - Ground Water
HDI - Human Development Index
HMG - His Majestys Government
IDA - International Development Agency
Abbreviation
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IEC - Information, Education and Communication
INGO - International Non-Government OrganizationIRP - Iron Removal Plant
IWRM - Integrated Water Resource Management
KAF - Kanchan Arsenic Filter
Km - Kilometre
m - Metre
mld - Million Litres per Day
MCM - Million Cubic Metre
MF - Membrane Filtration
g/lit - Microgram per litremg/lit (mg/l) - Milligram per litre
MoH - Ministry of Health
ML - Million Litre
ml - Millilitre
MLD - Ministry of Local Development
MOE - Ministry of Environment (Previously it is Ministry of
Population and Environment)
MOU - Memorandum of Understanding
MPPW - Ministry of Physical Planning and WorksNBSM - Nepal Bureau of Standards and Metrology
NDWQS - National Drinking Water and Quality Standards
NESS - Nepal Environment and Scientific Services
NEWAH - Nepal Water for Health
NGO - Non Government Organization
NGOFUWS - NGO Forum for Urban Water and Sanitation
NPC - National Planning Commission
NRCS - Nepal Red Cross Society
NTU - Nephelometer Turbidity UnitNWP - National Water Plan
NWSC - Nepal Water Supply Corporation
PoU - Point of Use
ppb - Parts per billion
ppm - Parts per million
RCS - Rapid Convenient Survey
RW - Rain Water
RWSSFDB - Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Fund Development
Board
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RWSSP - Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Programme
SIS - Sanitary Inspection SurveySq. Km. - Square Kilometre
STWs - Shallow Tubewells
SW - Surface Water
TCU - Total Colour Unit
TON - Threshold Number
UCs - Users Committees
UEMS - Urban Environment and Management Society
UMN - United Mission to Nepal
UNICEF - United Nations Childrens FundUSAID - US Agency for International Development
VDCs - Village Development Committees
WA - WaterAid in London
WAN - WaterAid in Nepal
WATSAN - Water and Sanitation
WB - World Bank
WECS - Water and Energy Commission Secretariat
WHO - World Health Organization
WQ - Water Quality
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Background
Although Nepal is rich in water resources, its history of supplied drinkingwater is not very old as planned development of water supply andsanitation started since Fourth Plan (1970 75) of the country whenthe national coverage of the water supply system was only about 4%. Aseparate institution named Department of Drinking Water Supply andSewerage (DWSS) was established during that period.
By the end of the UN water supply and Sanitation Decade (1981-1990),the coverage substantially increased to 36% of the total population with33% and 67% coverage in rural and urban areas respectively. The recentreport produced by NMIIP, GWSS, 2009 indicates that national watercoverage is to 80%.
1.1 Physical setting
Nepal is predominantly a mountainous country formed due to the upliftof the Indian tectonic plate following a collision with the Asian Plate.The country is a land locked in South Asia, between China and India witha total geographical area of 141,800 sq. Km. Topographic variations isextreme and the terrain has a general southward slope. The topographyranges from rugged High Himalayan in the North, to the central hillregion, to the lower-lying Siwalik range (south central) and down to theTerai or Flat River Plain in the south. Thus, the country can be dividedinto five physiographic regions viz:a. High Himalayas (High Mountains)b. Lesser Himalayas (High Mountains)c. Middle Mountains (Mahabharat Range)d. Siwaliks (Churiya Range)e. Terai Plains
Due to orographic features, Nepal experiences a wide range of climatesvarying from the sub-tropical to the alpine type as the elevation variesfrom 64 m above sea level (Kanchan kalan, Terai region in the south) to
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8848 m (Worlds highest peak - Mount
Everest on the north border with China)within a span of less than 200 km. Theselarge topographic variations give riseto a variable climate, ranging from coolsummers with severe winter in the north tosub-tropical summers and mild winters inthe south.
The country also experiences heavy rainsduring June to September due to thesouth-westerly monsoon, which accountsfor 80% of the total rainfall, and winterrains, during November to January,accounting for the rest of the rainfall.The climatic conditions of Nepal aresummarized in Table 1.1.
The average annual rainfall of the countryis about 1530 mm whereas of Kathmanduvalley alone is 1300 mm (Jacobson, 1996).But there is a sharp spatial and temporal
variation in rainfall. The pattern of rainfalldistribution varies in both north southand east west directions. The monsoonrain is more intense in the east and goeson declining westwards, while the winterrain falls heavily in the west and goes ondeclining to the east. The rainfall patternand the existing rugged and mountainoustopography have resulted in the existenceof a rich natural bio-diversity in Nepal,
Table 1.1: Climatic Conditions of Nepal
Ecological Belt Climate Average Annual Precipitation Mean AnnualTemperature
Mountain Arctic / Alpine Snow/150 mm 200 mm < 30C 100C
Hill Cool/Warm Temperate 275 mm 2300 mm 100C 200C
Terai Sub - Tropical 1100 mm 3000 mm 200C 250C
the importance of which is yet to be
adequately realized.
1.2 Social setting
Nepal is inhabited by more than sixty casteand ethnic groups of people belonging toIndo-Aryan and Tibeto-Mongoloid stocks.The majority of people practice Hinduismwhereas Buddhism is the second largestreligion. The population of Nepal was23.15 million in 2001 (CBS 2001) and withthe assumed growth rate of 2.25%, thepopulation in 2006/07 is estimated at25.9 million with 21.5 million rural and 4.4million urban population (NWP, 2005). Thedensity of population has now reached 164per sq. km.
Poverty in Nepal has persisted for decadesand is widespread with around 38% of the
population living below the prescribedpoverty line. The Human DevelopmentIndex (HDI) of Nepal has been computedat 0.504.
Agriculture is an important part ofNepalese Economy, with over 80% ofthe population being employed in theagriculture sector, generally on smalland dispersed plots of low quality land.
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The demand for such agriculture labor,
however, is highly seasonal, and theopportunity for non-farm employment islow. As a result, there is insufficient workand underemployment lingers around50%. Around 34% of the land is givenover to arable or permanent pasture andaround 42% of the land area is forested,although deforestation is widespread andresultant soil erosion has become a majorenvironmental issue.
1.3 Economic setting
Agriculture is the main source of livelihoodfor a majority of the population of Nepal.More than 80% of the population isengaged in agriculture, which is stillthe dominant and largest sector of theeconomy, having a share of around 40% ofthe GDP. Agriculture sector is thus broad-
based and any development in this sectorwill have balanced geographical spread.Agriculture sector in Nepal is, however,characterized by a subsistence orientation,low input use and low productivity.
1.4Geology
Geology controls the topographicvariations in Nepal. High mountains ofthe Himalaya and central hill regionsare dominated by ancient crystallinerocks. These have variable compositions,including metamorphic rocks, granites andold indurate sediments and have beenstrongly contorted and faulted as a resultof the uplift of the Himalayan Mountains.
Young sediments (of Mesozoic toQuaternary age) are largely restricted
to the southern, lower - laying parts
of Nepal and to isolated intermountain
basins in the hill regions (e.g. KathmanduValley, Mugu Karnali Valley). Sediments ofTertiary age (mixed sandstone and shale)outcrop the length of southern Nepal inthe Siwalik range. To the south of thesedeposits, unconsolidated recent alluvialsediments form the low laying Terai plainalong the Indian border. The Kathmanduvalley is a down faulted intermountainbasin is filled with young sediments (ofPliocene-Quaternary age) up to 500 m. thick(Khadka, 1993; Jacobson 1996). The MuguKarnali Valley is also infilled with recentalluvial deposits.
Mineral veins are present in some areas ofthe crystalline rocks. veins of sulphide ores(including pyrite, chalcopyrite, arsenopyrite,galena) occur in several areas, includingWapsa, Siddhi Khani, the Mrkhu-Kulekhani-Arkhaule area, Baaiis Khani (Baglung),
Nangre Bhorle area, Gyazi Sikpasor andJantar Khani. Pyrite (iron sulphide) has alsobeen recorded in black shale deposits in theAndhi Mohan Ghat area, Gandaki Anchal(Zone) (Khan and Tater, 1969).
1.5 Water resources
High rainfall totals generally give riseto abundant water supplies, at leastseasonally and both surface water andgroundwater are important sources fordomestic, industrial and agricultural use.
Water is Nepals largest known naturalresource. Nepal has more than 6,000 rivers,which provide a dense network of rivers withsteep topographic conditions. All the riversystem drain from north to south towardsthe Ganges. The major sources of water are
rainfall, glaciers, rivers and groundwater.
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Out of 6,000 rivers in Nepal, 33 rivershave a catchment area exceeding 1000sq. km (CBS). The total average annualrunoff from all these river systems isestimated at about 225 billion cubicmetres (BCM). Thus, these rivers arethe most important running surfacewater in terms of water volume and theirpotential development. High rainfall(average 1530 mm/year) generally gives
rise to abundant water supplies, at leastseasonally, and both surface water andground water are important sources fordomestic, industrial and agriculture use.
1.5.1 Surface water resourcesa. The major river systems of Nepal,
which originate in the Himalayas, areKoshi, Narayani (Gandaki), Karnaliand Mahakali and are presented in
the following Table 1.2.
Figure 1:River network of Nepal (Refer Annex 1 for enlarged version)
b. There are five medium river basins, viz:Kankai, Kamala, Bagmati, West Rapti andBabai. Each of them are primary, rain-fed and originate in Mahabharat Range.These rivers are also perennial, withgroundwater and springs sustaining theriver-flow during the dry period. The totalcatchment area of these rivers that lieinside Nepal is computed at around 17,000sq. km. while the average combined runoff
(at various gauging stations) is estimatedat 461 cumec (14.5 BCM per annum).
c. The southern rivers, also called Siwalikrivers, originate in the Siwalik hills,are shallow in depth and mostly dryup during the dry season. The totalcatchment area of these rivers isestimated at around 23,150 sq. km. withaverage combined runoff estimated at
1,682 cumec (53 BCM per annum).
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a. Surface water availability and its use inNepalThe following table shows the availabilityof surface water in Nepal and its annualwithdrawal trend for five years.
1.5.2 GroundwaterGroundwater is abundant in the aquifers ofthe Terai and Kathmandu valley; howevergroundwater availability is more limited inthe populated hill regions because of thelower permeability of the indurated andcrystalline rock types. Despite abundantrainfall, agricultural development is restricted
by the limited development of irrigation.
Table 1.2: Major river systems of Nepal
River Basin Catchment area (sq. km.) Main Tributaries Annual AverageRunoff Discharge(cumec)
Total Within Nepal
Koshi 60,400 46% Sunkoshi, Arun and Tamur 1,409 (45 BCM)
Narayani
(Gandaki)
34,960 90% Trishuli, Budhi Gandaki, Marsyangdi, Seti
and Kaligandaki
1,600 (50 BCM)
Karnali 43,679 94% West Seti, Bheri, Humla Karnali, Mugu
Karnali, Singa Tila, Lahore and Thuli Gad
1,397 (44 BCM)
Mahakali 15,260 34% Not Available
Table 1.3:Availability of surface water and annual withdrawal trend for 5 Years
1994 1995 1996 1997 1998
Total annual renewable surface water (kmn/year) 224 224 224 224 224
Per capita renewable surface water (000 mn/year) 11.20 11.00 10.60 10.50 10.30
Total annual withdrawal (kmn/yr) 12.95 13.97 15.10 16.00 16.70
Per capita annual withdrawal (000mn/yr) 0.65 0.69 0.71 0.75 0.76
Sectoral withdrawal as % of total water withdrawal
a. Domestic 3.97 3.83 3.68 3.50 3.43b. Industry 0.34 0.31 0.30 0.28 0.27
c. Agriculture 95.68 95.86 96.02 96.22 96.30
Source: WECS (1999); Yogacharya (1996,1998); Bhusal (1999)
a. Groundwater in TeraiThe hydro-geological mapping indicatesthat the Terai has tremendous potentialof groundwater resources. The Terai, witha thick sequence of saturated detritalsediments of alluvial and colluvial origin,is one of the most productive aquifers inthe sub-continent.
Groundwater is abundant in the aquifersof the Terai. It is estimated that the Terairegion has a potential of about 12 billionmnof this, with an estimated annualrecharge of 5.8 to 9.6 billion mn(the
maximum that may be extracted annually
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without any adverse effects) (WECS 1999).
Current withdrawal is about 0.52 billion mnper year. The aquifer in this region, whichconsists of sediments of alluvial origin, isvery favourable for water accumulationbeneath the surface area.
Shallow and deep aquifers are also presentin the young alluvial sediments throughoutmost of the Terai region (e.g. Jacobson,1996). The shallow aquifer appears to beunconfined and well developed in mostareas, although it is thin or absent inKapilvastu and Nawalparasi (Upadhyaya,1993). The deep aquifer of the Terai (depthunknown) is reported to be artesian ie free-flowing. (Basnyat, 2001)
b. Groundwater in Kathmandu ValleyThough Kathmandu valley has an abundantgroundwater, it is under immense pressureas it is being heavily used for drinking
and for other activities such as carpetindustries for instance.
In Kathmandu valley (area around 500sq. km.), groundwater is abstracted fromtwo main aquifers within the thick alluvialsediment sequence. A shallow unconfinedaquifer occurs at around 0-10 m depthand a deep confined aquifer occursat around 310-370 m (Khadka, 1993).Exploitation of these aquifers, especiallythe shallow aquifer, has increased rapidlyin recent years as a result of the increasingurbanization of the region. About 50% ofthe water used in the Kathmandu valley isderived from the groundwater (total supplyin dry season is 80,000 mnper day). Thishas resulted in a decline in water table.
In 1993, groundwater was abstracted fromthe aquifers of the Kathmandu valley via
22 government production wells and 334
private wells (out of which 188 were STWsand 146 were DTWs). Recent abstraction ofgroundwater from the deep aquifer has ledto a decrease in the groundwater level by 15-20m since the mid 1980s (Khadka, 1993).
The recent study conducted by Metcalf andEddy in 2000 revealed that the ground watertable for deep aquifer in Kathmandu Valleyhas declined from 9m to as much as 68 mover a few years (Metcalf and Eddy, 2000).
c. Groundwater in other areasThe erosion of Siwalik Hills and the outwashfans of rivers form the northern-mostBhabhar Zone. The aquifers are unconfinedand sediments being coarse materials havevery high permeability in the range of 100 150 m/d. The Bhabhar Zone is considered tobe the main source of recharge for the Teraigroundwater.
Groundwater recharge at specific area isestimated to be as high as 600mm perannum; however, it is assumed that overall450 mm is a recoverable recharge figurefor all of the Terai areas. Inner terai areassuch as Chitawan, Dang and Surkhet areestimated to hold good groundwaterpotential. It is, therefore, estimated thatrechargeable groundwater in the Terai isanywhere between 5.8 BCm and 11.5 BCM.
d. Groundwater use in NepalAt present, it is estimated that about 76million cubic meters (MCM) of groundwaterresources are being used for irrigationpurposes and 297 MCM for domesticuses. Hence, there is huge potential ofgroundwater use in the form of shallowtubewells (STWs) and deep tubewells(DTWs) for different uses in the terai areas.
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1.5.3 Rain water resources
This is water obtained from roofcatchments and normally stored in tanks.Rainwater is the purest form of waterunless and until it is intercepted by thecontaminants within the air and the surfaceit falls upon, otherwise it is clear. Thus,it is liable to contamination from birddroppings, dust, and bird nests found on orwithin the catchment surface it falls upon.This source of water may contain biologicalcontaminants that may impart health
risks provided the surface it falls upon is
already contaminated. Rainwater may alsocontain some dissolve contaminants (asrainwater can pick up the dust particlesnear industrial, crowded areas and dustparticles made air borne brought by highwinds) and their by products which in theatmosphere may be in the suspendedform. Though it is rare, however, some andairborne dust particles can be picked up byrain falling nearby industrial areas or dustparticles made airborne by high winds.
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Henceforth, WAN has made its commitment
to enact water quality policies adhering tothe CWRM approach put forward by WA foraddressing the issues of water depletion,source sustainability and pollution control.Similarly, WAN is committed to deliver thewater supply and sanitation services byshifting its project approaches to programmeapproaches streamlining the followingapproaches and concentrating its projectactivities in water stressed/scarce areaswhere access to safe water is still a problem:S Pro-poor approach through pro-poor
policies with affirmative actionsS Community Based Water resource
Management (WRM) approachesS Partnership and collaboration
approaches for service delivery etc.
WAN is therefore also committed to thegoal of delivering, through its partners, safeand high quality drinking water facilities
etc. by including, in its water quality policy,provisions for water quality monitoring andsurveillance in the project activities ensuringthat these activities minimise health hazardsto the consumers of the community.
Giving due consideration to the WANscommitment and to the fact of providing safeand quality water to the consumers, thiswater quality policy has been developed andis applicable to all the surface water, groundwater as well as to any other alternativewater supply technology / options.
2.3 Objectives of water qualitypolicy
The objectives of this water quality policyare to:S Outline the test procedures to be
applied in monitoring the levels of thevarious potential contaminants.
S Specify and provide information on
guideline values or standards set forphysical, chemical, and microbiologicalrequirements for safe drinking water.
S Propose appropriate practicabletreatment measures for contaminatedraw water sources having in view theprevailing environmental conditionsand available resources of the country.
S Assure that the quality of waterdelivered to the consumers for drinkingis safe and clean for their consumption
S Ensure that the working partners useand abide by the provisions made inthis policy while delivering the watersupply facilities to the communitiesboth in rural and urban poor.
S Focus on water quality managementfor enhancing water quality througheffective and efficient water qualitymonitoring and surveillanceprogrammes to reduce contaminations
caused by diffuse source and pointsource pollution to water bodies.
S Facilitate and promote WRM as per thecommitments made.
2.4 Standards
The standards to be achieved shoulddeliver safe drinking water of acceptablequality in terms of health and diseasehazards for the consumers. In thisdocument, standards means standardsappropriate to drinking water that can bemeasured quantitatively. That is to say, thestandards to be adopted for drinking waterin this document are capable of verificationby the analysis of water samples but ofcourse giving due consideration to thefollowing practical limitations:S Resources (ie financial and human)
which may be available from WAN to itspartners and
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S Imposed by water supply technology
which is sustainable in any givenenvironmental context
Considering the above limiting factorsand as mentioned in the WHO guidelinesfor Drinking Water Quality (Volume 3), incountries where economic and humanresources are limited, short and mediumterm targets should be set in establishingstandards so that the most significant risksto human health are controlled first.
The issue of water quality has been keptthroughout in a context of environmenthealth and disease burden on the poor. Forthis, an integrated approach is requiredby promoting sanitation and hygieneimprovement activities with the deliveryof water facilities and this can, no doubt,greatly improve the well being of the ruraland urban poor of the country.
Therefore, in this document, the minimumcriteria for drinking water are outlinedwithin the socio-economic context andavailability of human resources in Nepal.The various water sources and likely risksassociated with them have also beendiscussed after which recommendationson specific interventions for testing, andmitigation measures have been offered toguide programme staff, partners and otherstakeholders (users of this document).
In keeping a measurable balance betweenthe standard technical quality of water,cost of producing water of such acceptablequality, and the ability to maintain andsustain the facilities within the acceptableand affordable limits of the communitybeneficiaries, WAN has set the under-listedas the minimum criteria required for the
quality drinking water for the consumers.
Under these criteria, water shall be:
S Free from pathogens (disease causingmicro-organisms)
S Contain no chemical compoundsor by-products (even at very lowconcentrations) that may have healthhazards (short term or long term) to theconsumers
S Free from suspended solids, colour(ie water should be fairly clear withvery low turbidity and very little or nocolour), offensive odour and taste
Whatever be the technologies adoptedin delivering water services to thecommunities, the associated risksshould be examined and appropriaterecommendations for the solutionsshould be made to guide all the partnerorganisations and programme staff toensure monitoring and evaluation ofwater quality delivered to the community
beneficiaries.
Considering all the facts and discussionsmade above, water quality standards inthis policy document refer to guidelinevalues set for the various water qualityparameters to ensure delivery of drinkingwater of acceptable quality devoid ofany health and disease hazards. Inthe preparation of quality standardsoutlined in this document, the concernedstakeholders of the country wereconsulted and exclusive references werealso made to the National Drinking WaterQuality Standards, 2006). During theabsence of the water quality standards,Nepal adopted WHO guideline values andsometimes Indian Standards were alsoadopted wherever appropriate. Thus,references to these documents were alsotaken at large, particularly WHO Guidelines
for Drinking Water (Volumes I, II, and III).
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2.5 Scope of water quality
policy
This policy note applies to all WAN fundedprogrammes in Nepal. Typically this willcover household and community basedwater supply for domestic drinking waterincluding ground water supplies throughhand pumps, tube-wells, bore-holes etc.,surface (piped) water supplies throughgravity flow schemes and small scale
alternative water supply technologicaloptions such as water points facilities bypossible rain water harvesting system. Thispolicy is not intended to cover larger watersupply schemes such as town/city suppliesbeyond the reach of WAN. For such
schemes, an individual assessment would
be required confirming with standard criteriaand procedures as depicted in the NationalDrinking Water Quality Standards, 2006.
WaterAid is currently implementing itsprogrammes in partnership with a numberof rural and urban focused national NGOs,including NEWAH, LUMANTI, ENPHO,CIUD, UEMS, NGOFUWS, FEDWASUN etc,all of whom are required to adhere to the
standards and testing procedures definedwithin this policy document. And otherorganisations who will be working withWaterAid in Nepal in future will also requireto adhere the protocal.
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Key sector stakeholders /
organisations
National Policy on Drinking Water Quality Standards (NDWQS) andprogrammes for water quality monitoring was published by DrinkingWater Supply and Sewerage (DWSS) / Ministry of Physical Planningand Works (MPPW) /Government of Nepal (GoN). While preparing thisdocument, GoN, the then HMG/N constituted a steering committeeincluding representatives from different government departments, I/NGOs and research institutes.
3.1 Institutional arrangement
In this Chapter, Institutional roles and responsibilities are defined for theimplementation and monitoring of as this involves various authorities
from central to local levels. This is very important, as there are manystakeholders involved in Water Quality related policies, strategies,monitoring, surveillance and implementation of water systems. Theagencies concerned with drinking water and their roles, rights andresponsibilities are assigned by NDWQS as follows:
3.1.1 Ministry of Physical Planning and Works (MPPW)The Ministry has the overall responsibility of planning, implementingand coordinating and monitoring the water supply and sanitation sectordevelopment activities in the country to its other sectoral responsibilitiessuch as roads and transportation, housing and urban development.The Ministry is responsible for the formulation of sector policy andstrategies, its implementation and monitoring the sector performance.As the sector line ministry of the Government, this ministry will beresponsible for updating the Guideline every five years and determinefrom time to time the community, district, and municipality where thewater quality standard shall be imposed.
Most of the water supply and sanitation projects in rural and urbanareas are implemented through the following three agencies under this
Ministry. They are:
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3.1.1.1 Department of Water Supply and
Sewerage (DWSS)This is the largest sector agency of thegovernment entrusted with the task ofimplementing water supply and sanitationfacilities in the rural and urban areas. TheDepartment provides technical, financialand institutional support to communitiesconstructs new facilities and rehabilitatesand augments existing facilities (includingwater quality improvement works) andhands over the completed facilitiesto communities, Nepal Water SupplyCorporation, and municipalities forsubsequent operation and maintenance andsupplying drinking water to the consumers.
The DWSS has the Water Quality Sectionin its head office at Kathmandu andsub-division and division offices in eachof the 75 district head quarters. TheWater Quality Section of the department
will be mainly responsible to plan thedevelopment of water quality monitoringand surveillance programme in the countrywith the cooperation and coordination ofthe sector related agencies and donors. TheWater Quality Section carries out researchon water quality testing and treatmentappropriate to national conditions anddisseminates the research work among theimplementing agencies, service providersand regulators.
The DWSS is responsible for collectinginformation on technological developmentin the area of water quality testing andepidemiological know-how and examinesand interprets in the national context. TheDWSS provides technical and professionalsupport to the MPPW to update the
guidelines every five-year and advises the
Ministry where to implement the waterquality guidelines in any given area.
The DWSS, as the lead sector agency,will establish a water quality monitoringsection, with appropriate number of trainedpersonnel, in each of its sub-division anddivision offices in phased manner. It willalso establish a water-testing laboratory,with facilities adequate to test parametersprescribed for monitoring and surveillance forthe district concerned, stocks replacementparts for testing equipment and chemicals, ineach of its district-based offices. Tentatively,such facilities will be established.
The sub division and division offices whenprovided with qualified technicians and labfacilities will commence its own in-housewater quality monitoring and surveillanceprogramme. It will also provide its technical
services to other agencies that wish toestablish water quality monitoring andsurveillance programme on a cost basis.The sub-division and division offices ofthe DWSS will forward its water qualitymonitoring report to the District HealthOffice. As per NDWQS, the time span for thisto happen is 10 yrs which is divided into twophases; first phase has 5 years span andsecond phase has next 5 years.
3.1.1.2 Nepal Water Supply Corporation(NWSC)1The Corporation was established with theobjective of improving the services in urbanareas and operates them on a commercialbasis. Initially Kathmandu MetropolitanCity and four other municipalities in theKathmandu valley were included among
1 In Kathmandu Valley, NWSC is now replaced by Kathmandu Upatyaka Khanepani Limited (KUKL) once the
utility reform process was in place
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the towns and cities then operated
by the Department of Water Supplyand Sewerage. Presently, the NWSC isoperating water systems in 24 cities andtowns. In the context of implementationof the Melamchi Water Supply Project toalleviate the rapidly deteriorating watersupply situation in the Kathmandu valleyand the need to substantially improvethe management of the utility, HMG(presently GoN) has plans to establisha water authority to own the assets anda water utility company to operate thewater services in the Kathmandu valley.Under the new arrangement, NWSC willtransfer the ownership of the assets tothe authority and transfer the operationresponsibility to the company. Forthe initial 5-year period the companyis envisaged to hire the services ofa performance based managementcontactor. The Government will also
establish an independent committeeto determine appropriate tariffs on aperiodical basis.
Various other options of institutionalarrangement for inside and outsideKathmandu towns are under considerationat present. The options include: 1) abolitionof the NWSC and creation of a urban waterauthority to own the assets and plan andinvest in the development of the urbanwater and sanitation sector in all thetowns and cities under the of NWSC. Eachtown and city or their group need to havea separate company for operation and2) NWSC to continue functioning outsideKathmandu valley towns.
The NWSC has moderately equippedcentral water quality laboratory andqualified manpower, for in-house water
quality monitoring and surveillance
purposes, at its Head Office in Kathmandu.
The NWSC or its successor will update itscentral laboratory equipment and facilitiesto fully comply with the requirementsof this guideline. It will also establish awater-testing laboratory, with facilitiesadequate to test parameters prescribedfor monitoring and surveillance for thedistrict concerned, replacement parts andchemicals, in each of its town-based offices.The town water supply offices of NWSC willforward its water quality monitoring reportto the District Health Office.
3.1.1.3 Rural Water Supply and SanitationFund Development Board (RWSSFDB)Most water supply schemes taken up byRWSSFDB and other agencies in rural areasare aimed to bring water to consumerhousehold/or near-by to reduce the timeand effort spent by local people particularly,women in fetching water from distant
sources. Naturally, quality aspect takesonly secondary position. In this connection,RWSSFDB, is implementing a demanddriven Rural Water Supply and SanitationProject funded by IDA. Under this project,a large number of rural schemes have beenidentified and presently, are in variousphases of development.
3.1.2 Ministry of Local Development (MLD)The Ministry of Local Development ismainly responsible for providing technical,institutional and financial support to localbodies, namely, District Developmentcommittees (DDCs), Village DevelopmentCommittees (VDCs), and Municipalities.The funds received through MLD combinedwith their own funds generated locallyare invested for local infrastructuredevelopment. Most of the local levelinvestment made by the local bodies goes
to the water supply sector. The HMG has
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Protocal - Water quality standards and testing: Instructions for partner organisation16
created technical section with manpower
in each DDC to improve upon thetechnical capabilities of the local bodiesto implement infrastructure developmentprojects.
3.1.2.1 Department of Local InfrastructureDevelopment and Agricultural Reform(DoLIDAR)It is the only technical department underthe Ministry of Local Development. It isinvolved in planning and implementationmanagement of the rural infrastructuredevelopment programmes by DistrictTechnical Offices especially under LocalBodies (office DDC). Major focus ofDoLIDAR is planning and managementof rural infrastructures, promotion ofsuitable and local technology (Labour-based Environment Friendly), providingguidelines and technical backup to LocalGovernment Institutions for sustainable
development of rural infrastructure andsearch for probable resources (Local,Internal, External as from Donors).
The responsibility of DOLIDAR throughDistrict Technical Office (DTO) alsolies to monitor the water quality of thesystem built by the government agenciesand other non-government agenciesafter handing over to the water userscommittees at respective districts. TheDTOs also needed to be equipped withnecessary manpower and training for theservices.
3.1.3 Ministry of Health (MoH)The Ministry of Health and Populationis responsible for providing health careservices to the population through itsnetwork of sub health posts, healthposts, health care centers and district,
zonal, regional and national hospitals.
The responsibility for surveillanceof water related diseases has beengiven to the Ministry of Health andPopulation. The District Public HealthOffice (DPHO) will receive and compilethe water quality monitoring report sentby various agencies of the district andpublish a Water Quality Report for thedistrict concerned with its own findings,conclusions and recommendations
The DPHOs will observe from themonitoring report of the concernedagencies that whether or not they arecomplying with the requirements of theguidelines and issue necessary warningsand impose necessary fine. Whereprescribed, it will request the DistrictAdministrators Office to prosecute theviolator of the law. The Ministry of Health(presently as Ministry of Health and
Population) will annually publish a WaterQuality Status Report for the country withhighlights of all water systems.
3.1.4 Local authorities and water userscommitteeThe local authorities such as DDC/VDCand municipalities including water userscommittees are also implementing waterand sanitation systems mainly of smallscale level, at rural and peri-urban areas.The local water users committees maynot be equipped with or have knowledgeon water quality issues. Therefore,training and capacity building activitiesare recommended to be carried outat this level. The following Table 3.1outlines brief summary list of differentGovernment, Non government andDonor agencies with their responsibility/involvement in water quality assessment.
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3.1.5 Donors, INGOs, NGOs, and private sector
Various donor agencies such as WorldBank, Asian Development Bank, SwissDevelopment Cooperation, WHO, UNICEF, UNHABITAT etc.; INGOs like Water Aid, FINNIDA,Helvetas, SNV, Practical Action, CARE Nepal,Concern etc.; and NGOs like Nepal Water forHealth (NEWAH), Environment and PublicHealth Organisation (ENPHO), Nepal RedCross (NRC), etc. are involved in water andsanitation sector. They are either involveddirectly or with Government of Nepal (GoN)for implementation of water supply andsanitation systems. The Private SectorEntities like CEMAT, NESS etc. (these areprivate water and wastewater testing labs)and others are engaged in the domain ofwater quality issues in Nepal.
3.1.6 Consultation with the stakeholdersWhile preparing this policy, most of the
aforementioned stakeholders were
consulted directly or indirectly (formallyor informally) and tried to incorporatetheir suggestions and inputs as relevant.In addition, the comments, suggestionsand inputs that were provided in thenational workshop on dissemination ofNational Drinking Water Quality Standards(NDWQS) by different sector stakeholdersand practitioners were also consideredand taken care of while developing thispolicy. In addition, the organisations withwhom WAN partners with were consultedand sought their inputs as well as fieldexperiences while finalizing this politykeeping in mind that they are the ultimateusers of this policy. Similarly, whilepreparing this policy, Nepals NationalDrinking Water Quality Standard, 2006has been referred and consulted with thepeople involved during its preparation.
Table 3.1:Summary list of organisations involved in water quality assessment
Name of the organisation Responsibility Type of organisation Remarks
Ministry of Physical Planning
and Works (MPPW)
Policy framework Government
Ministry of Population and
Environment (MoPE)
Regulation Government
Department of Water Supply
and Sanitation (DWSS)
Setting and enforcing Drinking
Water quality policy
Government
Nepal Water Supply
Corporation (NWSC)
Maintaining the water
quality standards within thejurisdictions of its Urban water
supply network
Autonomous Public
body but requiringgovernment subsidy for
operating costs
Manages water
supply networksin 28 out of 58
Municipalities
including Kathmandu
Valley
Rural Water Supply
and Sanitation Fund
Development Board
(RWSSFDB)
Supports local NGOs for Water
and Sanitation projects.
Quasi government
Public body
Nepal Red Cross society
(NRCS)
Implements Water and
sanitation Projects
NGO
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Protocal - Water quality standards and testing: Instructions for partner organisation18
Name of the organisation Responsibility Type of organisation Remarks
Nepal Water for Health(NEWAH)
Helps local NGOs forimplementation of water and
sanitation projects
NGO
Environment and Public
Health Organisation
(ENPHO)
NGO specialized in Water
quality testing
NGO
UNICEF Working with DWSS on water
quality and sanitation
UN Organisation
UN-HABITAT Working with government
agencies like MPPW/DWSS
and DUDBC; MLD and with
other sector players in WASHsector of Nepal. Predominantly
working in urban water and
environmental sanitation
under its Water for Asian Cities
(WAC) Programme in Nepal
UN Organisation
WHO Working with DWSS on water
quality
UN Organisation
WaterAid Supports NEWAH, Lumanti,
ENPHO, CIUD, UEMS and NGO
Forum for water and sanitation
projects.
INGO
FINNIDA Working with District Authorityfor implementation of Water
and sanitation project in
Lumbini Zone.
INGO
World Bank Funding support to RWSSFDB
for implementation of 1st
Phase project
International Financial
Institution
Asian Development Bank
(ADB)
Funding support to DWSS for
rural water supply, small town
water supply and Kathmandu
Valley water supply project.
International Financial
Institution
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Roles and responsibilities for
water quality testing
The overall responsibility for water quality issues in WaterAid in Nepal (WAN)will lie with the WANs Country Representative. WAN will assist partners ontechnical and practical issues and will also support them to prepare theirown water quality testing policy, having a testing programme on a regularbasis and follow up actions. In WAN, urban programme manager, who atpresent is assigned as WANs technical focal person, will be responsible formaking partners capable to implement and deal with water quality issues inaccordance with this WQ testing policy. Similarly, WANs programme officerswill be responsible for making sure that partners are adhering to WANs WQpolicy. Whereas Partner organisations will be fully responsible for conductingWQ test for all the water points installed for delivering safe water to the poorand deprived communities both in rural and urban areas. Thus, for partnerorganisations, the head of organisations and their respective technical/
engineering division/section will be responsible for water quality issues.
The summary of the roles and responsibilities for Water Quality Testing inWaterAid in Nepal (WAN) is tabulated below:
Table 4.1:Roles and responsibilities for Water Quality Testing in WAN
S.N. Roles and responsibilities Responsible person Remarks
1 Drafting/Updating a CountryProgramme Water QualityStandards and Testing Policy
Urban ProgrammeManager
WAN assigned its urban programmemanager as a Focal person for WaterQuality and other technical endeavours
2 Implementing a Country
Programme Water QualityStandards and Testing Policy
Country
Representative
Supports will be sought from respective
programme managers and officers forimplementing the policy on the ground
3 Conducting Water QualityTesting and making sure thatpartners are adhering withWANs WQ policy
ImplementingPartners and WANsProgramme Officers
WANs programme officers will makesure that all the water points (new/rehab) installed by partners are testedfor quality of water
The partner organisations with whom WAN partners with in delivering WASHservices to the poor and deprived communities of both rural and urban areasare practicing the following formats (Format 1 and Format 2) mentionedin the subsequent pages (ie Page 20) for recording and reporting the waterquality test results.
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Fo
rmat1:Quarterlyreportingon
waterquality
Reporting
period
Constructed(Water
sourcesandpoints)
Tested(Watersources
andpoints)
Nottested(Watersources
a
ndpoints)
Remarks
Notes
New
Rehab
Exist.
New
Rehab
Exist.
New
Rehab
P
reviousyear
D
etailedWQfindingsshouldbesubmitted
asannexinAnnualReport
S
Highlightkeywaterqualityproblems
andchallenges
S
Explainanymitigationactiontaken
or
planned
S
Achievementinmitigationonwater
quality(includeinAnnualReport)
Q
1
Q
2
Q
3
Q
4
T
OTAL
Fo
rmat2:Recordingwaterquali
tytestresults
T
ested
w
ater
p
oints
No
Testedparameters
Coliform
Ammonia
Iron
Nitrate
pH
Hardness
Chloride
Within
standard
Outo
f
standard
Within
standard
Outof
standard
Within
standard
Outof
standard
Within
standard
Outof
standard
Within
standard
Outof
standard
Within
standard
Outof
standard
Within
standard
Outof
standard
T
ubewell
D
ugwell
P
ublicTap
s
tands
C
ommunity
Tapstands
K
uwa
S
tonespout
*Standardreferstopermissiblelimitm
entionedinWANsWQprotocol
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History of water quality studies in Nepal is not very old. Due to theineffective institutional capacity and poor economic condition, waterquality has not yet been prioritized compared to the focus givento increasing water supply coverage. The first water quality testinglaboratory for basic physio-chemical parameters was established inSundarijal Water Treatment Plant during 1965. Except few studiesconducted by USAID in 1971/73 on groundwater quality monitoring ofKathmandu Valley and Microbiological Quality studies of Kathmanduwater supply system by Central Public Health Laboratory of TribhuvanUniversity, there were not any significant studies carried out on drinkingwater quality sector till mid of 1980 (WHO, 1999).
Although a water quality testing programme existed in the last decade,
a water quality data management system does not exist or if it exists,it cannot be accessed easily. Till 1998, the testing of water quality waslimited mostly to microbiological quality and a few non-health relatedchemical parameters. In 1999, different agencies started to look overthe growing concerns on arsenic and started to investigate into thepossibilities of arsenic contamination in shallow ground water aquiferand finally felt the need of water quality testing programme.
Therefore, it can be said that there is a notable lack of water qualitydata for Nepal and hence the assessment of the main quality problemsis difficult. Many of the documented problems are related to pollutionof both surface waters and shallow ground waters from domesticagriculture and industrial wastes.
5.1 Water resources
5.1.1 Surface waterThese are surface derived water sources and include rivers, impoundedreservoirs, lakes, streams and others. Much of the Nepalese populationuses surface water for potable supply which is most vulnerable to
pollution caused by untreated sewage, industrial wastes, agricultural
High risk (principal)
contaminants
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run-off, vegetation etc. These sources
are distributed to the consumers throughgravity flow technology without anytreatment. The available data on waterquality testing (basically of rural areas)conducted by various agencies over 128samples indicate that:S All the chemical quality of water found
within WHO guideline values.S Faecal coliform contamination found to
be widespread in majority of gravity fedsurface water schemes.
S Faecal coliform contamination situationdid not seem to improve even wherechanges in intake system were made.
S In Terai schemes, the contaminationproblem, particular due to calciumand magnesium carbonate, seemed tobe serious due to the elevated watertemperature.
S Scaling potential in gravity flow supplythough existed due to calcium and
Table 5.1:Percentage of coliform grade in gravity flow surface water supply schemes
Faecal coliform count (Per 100 ml) Faecal coliform grade Health risk % of samples
0 A No Risk 12
1 10 B Low Risk 23
11 100 C High Risk 26
101 1000 D Very High Risk 38
Note: No of Samples is 128
Source: Rural Water Supply and Water Quality Status in Nepal by Dr. R. R. Shrestha for UNICEF and HMG/ADB/CBWSS/PPTA in 2002
Table 5.2: Percentage of scaling potential grade in gravity flow surface water schemes
Scaling potential grade Risk No. of samples % of samples
A No Risk (free) 55 69
B Moderate Risk 15 18
C High Risk 10 13
Note:No of Samples is 80Source:Rural Water Supply and Water Quality Status in Nepal by Dr. R. Shrestha for UNICEF and HMG/ADB/
CBWSS/PPTA in 2002
magnesium carbonate; it is not serious
in all over the region. Out of the studyconducted over 80 schemes, only10 schemes (ie 13 % of the total 80samples) showed high scaling potential,18% of the samples showed moderatewhereas 69% of the total samples arefree from scaling problem.
Degree to health risk:Owing to thelimited resources available for testing, itis recommended that priority be accordedto the contaminants that pose significantthreat to the health of the community. Othercontaminants that confer aesthetic defectsto drinking water could cause consumers torevert to unsafe traditional sources whichshould also be tested. It is only when thereis no alternative that surface water sourcesshould be considered, as surface water hashigh probability of pathogenic (coliform)micro-organisms and chemical by-products.
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High risk (principal) contaminants:
The principal contaminants of surfacewater sources include pathogenicmicro-organisms; In addition, iron andmanganese and nitrates along with othernaturally occurring trace elements alsocontribute to surface water contamination.
Requirements for distribution systems:Piped gravity-flow surface water suppliesfrom head works to the consumers draw-off should be disinfected and shouldhave a residual chlorine of 0.5 to 1.0 mg.Water should be conditioned at the headworks to attain a ph value within therange of 8 to 8.5 to prevent corrosion ofthe distribution pipelines. It is thereforerecommended that surface water sourcesderived for mass distribution be subjectedto conventional treatment processes atthe head works before feeding into thedistribution network for consumption.
5.1.2 Groundwater sourcesThese are derived from aquifers occurringwithin pervious strata from water whichnormally originates from the precipitationthat percolates through the soil and is
confined by an impervious stratum. The
water may pick up considerable amountsof dissolved mineral compounds, organicmatter, soil particles and mirco-organisms.Fertilizers and pesticides may also befound in dissolved form. Filtration andabsorption take place naturally and mayresult in the removal of bacteria, muchof the suspended matter and possiblydissolved minerals as well. Ground waterresources include hand dug wells, tubewells and bore holes. Hand pumps on thetube wells and hand dug wells (with orwithout hand pumps) are common in theTerai regions of the country. Water qualitystudy of groundwater (shallow well anddug well) was started in 1990 by analyzingsome physio-chemical (non-health relatedparameters) and microbiological tests.
Degree of health riskShallow groundwateris at risk from
surface contamination: pathogenicbacteria, pesticides, chemical fertilizers,nitrates, industrial (though nature ofindustrial effluents is not known indetail but the greatest sources arelikely to be from the textiles and carpet-
Table 5.3: Water quality status of sampled shallow groundwater in Terai region of Nepal
Sites (District) Chloride
(mg/l)
Ammonia
(mg/l)
Nitrate
(mg/l)
Iron
(mg/l)
Manganese
(mg/l
Coliform
(cfu/100ml)
Panchgacachi (Jhapa) 15.4 0.70 0.2 6.0 0.8 11.1
Baijnathpur (Morang) 16.4 0.50 0.2 4.5 0.5 15.9
Bayarban (Morang) 17.6 0.50 2.4 6.0 0.6 0.0
Takuwa (Morang) 21.0 1.00 1.0 10.4 0.4 45.9
ShreepurJabdi (Sunsari) 37.2 .90 0.2 8.0 0.6 25.5
Bandipur (Siraha) 195.6 0.70 3.5 0.4 0.4 0.0
Naktiraipur (Saptari) 54.5 1.20 0.3 12.0 1.3 16.0
WHO standard 250.0 1.24 10 0.3 0.5 Nil
Source: ENPHO (1990)
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manufacturing industries) and domestic
pollutants (urban, especially Kathmanduand peri-urban areas) are likely to bethe greatest problems encountered inshallow groundwater in Kathmanduvalley in particular. In Terai region, theshallow aquifer is reported to be largelyunconfined; the vulnerability to surfacepollution may be relatively high becauseof the sandy and permeable nature ofsurface sediments. The following Table 5.3 shows water quality status of shallowgroundwater for seven sites in Terai region.
Spring waterfrom Karstic limestoneaquifer at depth in the Kathmandu valleyand mid hills in western part of Nepalespecially in Lumbini zone are reported/found to be of calcium-bicarbonate typewith good inorganic chemical quality,although the amount of data is limited.
Deep groundwaterpresent in theKathmandu Valley and the Terai are lessvulnerable to surface pollution, but havea different set of potential water-qualityproblems arising from the anaerobiccondition of the aquifers. Increasedconcentration of Iron, manganese,ammonium and possibly arsenic may occurin these circumstances.
The ground water quality in the Kathmandu
Valley is also contaminated due to pollutedsurface water, leachate, and sewage. Thefollowing Table 5.4 shows that, there iscertain degree of contamination of groundwater sources. Dug wells and ponds areamong the most contaminated water source.
Principal contaminants:The principalcontaminants of ground water sources includearsenic, iron and manganese, and pathogenicmicro-organisms, In addition, nitrates andnitrites along with other trace elements alsocontribute to the ground water contamination.
Requirement for the development ofgroundwater: Wells should not be sitedin fissured rocks and Karstic formationsespecially where fissures reach out to thesurface area. Such formations can serve asan entry points for sewage, human wasteof all kinds and run-off contamination of
the aquifer. Such formations facilitatefast transmission of contaminants overdistances of several kilometres.
Wells should be sited as advised below:S Nearest well should be at least 10 m (30
ft.) away if there is 4 m of fine soil belowthe base pit of latrines, refuse dumpsetc. and up to 50 m distant if the pit is
Table 5.4: Status of microbiological contamination in groundwater in Terai region
Faecal coliform(Per 100 ml)
Value as % of sample units of 15 WHO guidelinevalueDug
wellShallow
wellDeepwell
Spring Stonespout
Pond Pipedwater
0 0 60 80 40 20 0 60 Nil
1-100 40 30 15 30 40 0 20 Nil
101-1000 30 5 5 30 40 0 20 Nil
>1000 30 5 0 0 0 100 0 Nil
Source:ENPHO (1999); NWSC (1999)
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close to the ground water level or if the
stratum is very porous or fissured rock.S The base of the pit latrines, refuse
dumps etc. should be at least 1 mabove highest recorded or expectedground water level. If otherwise, 5 m(15 ft.) clear vertical distance betweenthe base of the pit and level water tableshould be maintained at any cost.
S Wells should have a parapet extendingabout 1 m above the ground level toprevent surface water flooding backinto the well.
S WAN through its implementingpartners Will be analyzing the distanceto be maintained (both vertical andhorizontal) between source of waterand source of contamination to avoidpossible ground water contamination.
Wells should be provided with a coverand preferably a hand pump to prevent
contamination from ropes and buckets.In addition, the wells should have a watertight inner lining made of any constructionmaterials to provide protection againstcollapse and prevent crumbling groundfrom filling up the excavation.
Water from deep boreholes may containhigh level of dissolved iron and thus needpreliminary treatment like aeration andsedimentation. All newly drilled boreholesshould be disinfected and routinemonitoring of water quality performed.
5.2 Principal (high risk)contaminants of water andrisks to human health
The High Risk (Principal) contaminantsof drinking water that present risks to
human health in Nepal are discussed in
the tables- 5.1, 5.2, 5.3 and 5.4 presented.
The most important are microbiologicalcontamination particularly in surfacewater, and naturally occurring arsenic ingroundwater particularly in the shallowaquifers. Concentrations of iron are commonin Nepal; however, the ingestion of iron isnot a major potential health problem. Taste,odour and colour are natural unacceptableand objectionable to the consumers but donot necessarily present a health risk.
Because the resources available fortesting the quality of water are likely tobe limited, prior attention should alsobe given to testing for the presenceof those contaminants, which couldconstitute significant threat to the healthof a community. It is commonly recognizedfact that the use of contaminated waterfor drinking purposes poses significanthealth risks mainly from micro-organisms
and chemical contaminants. For example,the microbial contamination should beregarded as an acute and ubiquitous threatto the safety of un-chlorinated communitywater supplies, although the importanceof chemical contamination should not beunderestimated as well.
Review of different available literatures in thecontext of Nepal including BGS risk facts/assessment sheets at present; considerationof the local or national or expert knowledgeduring consultation at different stages,forums, meetings etc.; and references of theknown national authority on water qualityand sector actors in WASH domain andexperiences of other agencies working in thefield were also undertaken while identifyingthe High Risk (Principal) Contaminants ofwater. Based on this review, the followingHigh Risk (Principal) Contaminants are
identified and discussed below:
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5.2.1 Microbiological contaminationGroundwater should be of goodmicrobiological quality at origin, butcan be contaminated due to unsanitarypractices. Microbiological quality ofshallow groundwater from tube wells wasinitially thought to be free from pathogensin the past, but this has now been foundto be uncertain. Test results showed47% out of 14394 water samples werefound to contain coliforms ie pathogenic
contamination was found in groundwatersamples taken from shallow tube wells(Dr.Shrestha, R.S., 2002; Rural Water Supplyand Water Quality Status in Nepal).
Bacterial quality control of, total coliform,particularly faecal coliforms has, therefore,become a high priority parameter from thehealth risk aspect, because of widespreadcontamination of surface and shallow
ground water indicated (Refer Table 4.4 above). Surface water sources inmany rural areas have been found to becontaminated by human feces and groundwater in many urban areas, especiallyKathmandu, has been contaminated byseepage from septic tanks and soak pits.
The BGS fact sheet referring toAdhikari,1998, indicated that faecal and total coliformcounts are often high in drinking water.
According to BGS, some groundwater
High risk (principal) contaminants Nuisance constituents: Aesthetic parameters:
Microbiological contamination Iron and Manganese
Arsenic Chlorine
Nitrate pH
Fluoride Ammonia
Turbidity
Hardness
Colour, Taste and Odour
samples from deep alluvial aquifers and thekarstic limestone aquifers of the KathmanduValley have detectable coliforms.However, these probably originate fromcontamination at the wellhead rather thancontamination of the aquifer themselves.
The protection of sources and the operationand maintenance of water treatmentfacilities has thus become a critical issue ifthe overall health status is not to suffer as
a result of microbiological contamination inboth surface and ground water sources.
5.2.1.1 Risks of microbiologicalcontamination to human healthAs mentioned previously the biologicalquality of surface water sources in Nepalis extremely poor. A test for ThermoTolerant (faecal) Coliforms (TTC) is usedas a marker for the presence of faecal
matter and hence of likely pathogens. Thefaecal coliform concentration of ponds isalso high and many are chemically andbio-chemically contaminated. Examplesof diseases which are waterborne (causedby contaminated drinking water) includecholera, typhoid, hepatitis, amoebiasis,and dracunculiasis. The causes of thehigh levels of contamination/pollution ofsurface water are often due to hanginglatrines and direct sewage discharge
(without any treatment etc.) into surface
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i) geologically young (ie sediments deposited
in the last few thousands years) and;ii) groundwater characterized by slow
flow conditions, either because of lowhydraulic gradients, low-lying areassuch as flat alluvial basins and the lowparts of deltas, or lack of active rainfalland recharge (arid areas, closed basins)
High concentrations of arsenic are foundin the groundwater from the shallow anddeltaic aquifers. Examples of anaerobicaquifers affected by arsenic include thealluvial and deltaic aquifers of Bangladeshand West Bengal (formed by erosion of theHimalaya in the last few thousand years).
Occurrence in Nepal:Initially nodocumented report existed, but there isanecdotal evidence for the presence ofarsenic in some groundwater from theTerai regions in the south. Before 1999, the
concentrations, distribution and scale of thearea affected by Arsenic are not known.
When arsenic poisoning news fromBangladesh and West Bengal (India)spread all over the region and when thealluvial sediments deposited by riversdraining from the Himalayas has beenidentified as potential sources for arsenic ingroundwater, then study on the possibilitiesof arsenic contamination in groundwater inNepal was initiated.
The deep alluvial aquifers of the Terai arepotentially at greatest risk from arseniccontamination as they are anaerobic.Shallow ground water from the Terai isalso likely to be at risk when anaerobicconditions occur in the shallow aquifers.Evidence of arsenic contamination in
groundwater was found in the southern
plains of Nepal, during the preliminarystudies conducted by DWSS/WHO, NRCS/JRCS/ENPHO and DWSS/UNICEF in 1999 toearly 2000.
By the end of 2002, more than 20, 000water samples had been tested for arsenicby different concerned agencies workingin the water and sanitation sector, out ofwhich 16,000 were tested by AAS-HG andthe remainder were tested by field test kits.Out of the total samples tested, 8% havearsenic concentration of more than 50 ppband 29% showed more than the WHO limitof 10 ppb. The districts of Nawalparasi,Rautahat and Kailali were reported as highrisk districts and many other districts arealso affected to some extent. The agenciesinvolved in the testing of the watersamples for arsenic contamination were:DWSS, UNICEF, NRCS, RWSSSP (FINNIDA),
RWSSFDB, NEWAH, PLAN International,DEO/MoE etc.). The Table 5.5 presentedbelow summarizes the result of arseniclevels at different districts of Nepal from20,240 water samples.
Similarly, a study carried out by DWSSunder Ministry of Physical Planning andWorks and ENPHO - a non- governmentalorganisation and one of WANsurban partner, has found excessiveconcentration of arsenic in ground watersamples taken from shallow tube wellsmainly in the districts of Rautahat, Parsa,Nawalparasi, Banke and Bardia.
An estimate of the number of people inTerai, Nepal who may be using water withhigh arsenic concentration from shallowwells is presented in Table 5.6 below.
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Table 5.6:Preliminary Estimate of Extent of Arsenic Problem in Nepal
Based on WHO guideline(10g/litre or higher)
Based on India and Bangladesh guideline(>50g/litre)
% exposed population % exposed Population
29 3.19 million 5 550,000
Source:ENPHO/DWSS
Table 5.5:Arsenic level in different districts of Nepal (2002)
S.N. District Arsenic concentration (ppb) % of Sample above
0 - 10 >10 - 50 >50 No. oftests
MaxmA s ProposedNepal
standard(50 ppb)
WHOguideline
value50 ppb
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1516
17
18
19
20
21
Kailali
Kanchanpur
Bardiya
Dang
Banke
Kapilbastu
Rupandehi
Nawalparasi
Chitawan
Parsa
Bara
Rauthat
Saptari
Dhanusha
SirahaSarlahi
Mahottari
Sunsari
Morang
Jhapa
Illam
Total
87
128
386
91
1216
2246
1807
1492
86
1862
1725
1011
532
157
195345
79
303
149
462
14359
66
16
125
7
474
235
225
1135
0
206
240
1191
82
43
5487
10
67
22
42
4
4331
34
9
20
1
31
91
46
953
0
52
46
211
14
9
1313
2
2
2
1
1550
187
153
531
99
1721
2572
2078
3580
86
2120
2011
2413
628
209
262445
91
372
173
505
4
20240
213
221
160
50
270
589
2620
829
456
254
324
98
106
10793
82
70
79
2620
18
6
4
1
2
4
2
27
0
2
2
9
2
4
53
2
1
1
0
8
53
16
27
8
29
13
13
58
0
12
14
58
15
25
2622
13
19
14
9
29
Source:DWSS,NRCS/ ENPHO,RWSSSP (FINNIDA), PLAN, NEWAH, RWSSFDB, DEO/ MOE, 2002
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Occurrences of arsenic, along with other
potentially toxic trace elements, may alsooccur where mineralized veins (containingsulfide minerals) occur in the crystallinebasement rocks and minor occurrencesof black shale. If contamination of waterwith arsenic has occurred in these areas,the contamination is likely to be localizedrather than of regional context.
5.2.2.1 Risks of arsenic to human healthArsenic has long been recognized as atoxin and carcinogen and thus ingestionof any amount of arsenic posses apotential risk. Long term ingestion of highconcentrations of arsenic from drinkingwater can potentially give rise to a numberof health problems, particularly skindisorders, of which the most commonis melanosis (hyperpigmentation,depigmentation etc.) ie pigmentationchanges (dark/light skin sports),
keratosis (warty nodules, usually onpalms and feet), and gangrene. Additionalsymptoms include other more seriousdermatological problems (e.g. skin cancerand Bowenss disease), cardiovascular(black foot disease, Reynolds syndrome,hypertension, gangrene), pulmonary andperipheral vascular diseases, neurological,respiratory and hepatic disease as wellas diabetes mellitus. Such symptomshave been well documented in areas ofknown groundwater contamination suchas Bangladesh, West Bengal, Taiwan,Northern China, Mexico, Chile
A number of internal cancers have alsobeen linked with arsenic in drinking water,particularly lung, bladder, liver, prostateand kidney cancer (e.g. Smith et al., 1992-1998). Much research is being carried outto assess the risks of such cancers at the
levels of the drinking water standards.
Clinical symptoms of arsenic poisoning
and their relative prevalence seem tovary between affected regions and thereis no clear agreement on the definition ofarsenic poisoning.
Some studies have shown a clearrelationship between arsenic dose fromdrinking water and the development ofcancer and other diseases. However,the relationship may be complicatedby other factors such as nutritionaland general health status (hepatitisB may exacerbate the problems) andwater chemistry (e.g. aqueous arsenicchemistry, dissolved iron concentration).Debate also remains over whether athreshold of concentration exists belowwhich the element is effectively safe (e.g.Smith et al., 1999)
Latency periods of several years for the
development of arsenic related healthproblems have been noted in severalinvestigations. This is a factor which inpart explains why many of the problemsin developing countries have onlyrecently emerged despite several yearsof groundwater use.
Therefore, Arsenic is endemic ingroundwater sources from certain areasand causes adverse human healtheffects after prolonged exposure.There is overwhelming evidencefrom epidemiological studies thatconsumption of elevated levels ofarsenic through drinking water iscausally related to the development ofcancer through several sites, particularlyskin, bladder and lung. Arsenic is thusa high priority chemical parameter thatrequires monitoring in water sources
deemed to be at risk from contamination.
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In this regard, The WHO Guidelines for
drinking-water quality also calculatedthe general guideline value based on theconcentration associated with an excesslifetime cancer risk of 10-5 which for arsenicand skin cancer was calculated to be 0.17g/ litre (0.17 ppb). However, consideringthe practical quantification limit, WHOestablished a provisional guideline valuefor arsenic in drinking-water of 0.01 mg/litre (10 ppb). The estimated excess lifetimeskin cancer risk associated with exposureto this concentration is about 6 per 10,000populations. The Nepalese standard of 0.05mg/litre ie 50 ppb (as per NDWQS, 2006)is associated with a higher risk of about 30per 10,000 populations.
5.2.3 NitrateNitrate is the most widespread agriculturecontaminant and is a human health concernsince it can cause methemoglobinemia
in infants. Some nitrate in ground wateris due to naturally occurring sources, butlevels of nitrate (NO
3) above 3 ppm typically
indicate that pollution is seeping in fromlatrines, septic tanks, animal wastes,fertilizers, municipal landfills etc. In shallowgroundwater, the concentrations of nitratefrom agriculture pollutants from domesticand agricultural sources may be high andnitrate concentrations frequently fail WHOguideline values.
High levels of nitrate can develop in groundwaters as a result of:S Run-off from agricultural land using
nitrate fertilizersS Contamination with urine and faecesS Industrial pollution
In Nepal, few tests have been conductedin groundwater and surface water. ENPHO
tested 7 samples from shallow tube wells
from 5 eastern Terai districts in 1990. All
the test result shows far less concentrationof nitrate than the WHO limit of 10 ppm. InFebruary 2002, ENPHO tested 27 samplesfrom Eastern Terai district of Siraha, allthe tube wells have concentration of lessthan 0.1 ppm except two tube wells whichhad a concentration of 6.11 and 0.38ppm. However, the concentration in 3 dugwells out of 6 tested -- exceeds the WHOguideline value measuring 10.2, 24.87 and47 ppm. The test conducted in stone spoutsin Kathmandu and Lalitpur district have highnitrate concentration. In most of the spouts,the concentration of nitrate is up to 37 ppm.
5.2.3.1 Risks of nitrate/nitrite to humanhealthNitrate is the most widespread agriculturecontaminant but presence of nitrate/nitrite is considered to have minimaleffect on the disease burden. Unprotected
ground water sources are particularlysusceptible to contamination. High nitrateconcentration pose a significant healthrisk to bottle-fed infants as nitrate inhibitsthe ability of the bold to convey oxygenaround the body, leading to a potential fatalcondition called blue-baby syndrome ormethahaemogobinaemia. The long termexposure to Nitrate is, however, a humanhealth concern as it may increase stomachcancer. A recent study suggested thatmiscarriage might also be linked to highnitrate levels, although scientists have notconfirmed this.
The WHO guideline value for nitrate indrinking water of 50mg/litre (equivalentto 10mg/litre nitrate-nitrogen) and3mg/l for nitrite (short-term exposure)is established solely to prevent Cyanosis(methahaemoglobinaemia) in babies:
bottle-fed infants (
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5.2.4 Fluoride
Fluoride minerals are abundant in certainrock types. Igh concentrations of fluoridecan be released into ground waters throughdissolution of these fluoride minerals,especially after prolonged contact periodswithin aquifers.
In Nepal, there are limited studiesconducted on fluoride so far. Thus onlysporadic data are available for fluoridein Nepal. However, given the climaticconditions (high rainfall), the presence offluoride at high concentration is unlikely.Concentrations are likely to be below WHOguideline value (1.5 mg/lit) for fluoride indrinking water in both the hill and Terairegions of Nepal.
United Mission to Nepal (UMN) prepareda nationwide fluoride profile of Nepalsdrinking water in 2000. It tested 682 water
samples collected from all the 5 regions.The test results show great similarity in allparts of the country with the aggregated datademonstrating that 95% of samples havefluoride levels below 0.3 mg/l. More than 70%samples of sites register less than 0.1 mg/lit. At the higher end of the scale, 7 samplesenter therapeutic levels (above 0.7 mg/lit)out of them water sample from Janakpur tubewell was found to have a highest level ofconcentration ie 1.07 mg/l. 2 of the 7 samplesfrom Mid Western hot springs (both calledTatopani) found to have a high level fluorideconcentration of 3.8 and 2.9 mg/lit. The studyalso suggested for the introduction of locallyproduced, affordable fluoridated toothpastethat will benefit the dental health of millions ofchildren and adults.
5.2.4.1 Risks of fluoride to human healthLow concentrations of fluoride are beneficial
to dental health (up to 1 mg/lit) and is
known to reduce dental decay when
added to the diet. In drinking water, in aconcentration of 1 mg/lit in a temperateclimate, it is known to reduce dental cariesby up to 65%. However, high fluoride isa toxin harmful to the public health atelevated concentrations.
Regular exposure to slightly elevatedamounts of fluorides during the period oftooth formation, from birth to approximatelysix years of age, can be associated withdental fluorosis. This is characterized bywhite areas, and occasionally brown stains,on the teeth. However, excessive intakesof fluoride can result in moderate to severedental fluorosis, characterized by significantenamel erosion, tooth pain and impairmentof chewing ability.
Long-term exposure to levels of fluoridesin excess of 200 micrograms per kilogram
of body weight per day may be associatedwith skeletal fluorosis. This is a progressivebut not life-threatening condition inwhich the bones increase in density andgradually become more brittle. In mildcases, symptoms of skeletal fluorosis mayinclude pain and stiffness of the joints. Inmore severe cases, symptoms may includereduced mobility, skeletal deformities,and an increased risk of bone fractures.It is likely that individuals must consumeconsiderably higher amounts beforecrippling symptoms will develop.
Fluoride intake can originate from dustinhalation and food sources but drinkingwater containing high concentrations canalso be regarded as a primary source.Fluoride can be classified as a high prioritychemical parameter requiring surveillancein areas where it is likely to occur in ground
waters at high concentrations.
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No fluoride is found reported in Nepalese
Groundwater and data regarding fluoride isalso not available. However, given the climaticconditions (high rainfall), the presence offluoride at high concentrations is unlikely.Concentrations are likely to be much below1 mg/lit., ie less than WHO guideline valuefor fluoride in drinking water, in both the hillregions and the terai (Groundwater Quality:Nepal, BGS Survey, Natural EnvironmentalResearch Council (NERC), 2001). Hence,Fluoride, though this parameter is listedunder prinicipal contaminants, is notrequired for testing while conductingregular Water Quality testing of the waterdelivered from the newly installed orrehabilitated water points.
5.2.5 Nuisance constituents: aestheticparametersWaterAid in Nepal (WAN) recognizes thatother chemical (Inorganic) constituents
exist which could be described asNuisance Constituent: AestheticParameters. These nuisance constituentsare not directly harmful to health but mayimpact on health when exposed to it fora longer period of time. In fact, it directlyimpacts on aesthetic considerationssuch as taste, odour and appearance,and cause people to abandon safesources for traditiona