Water Quality and Quantity, Climate Change and Public

Health

Water Quality & QuantityClimate Change Training Module

Minnesota Climate and Health ProgramMinnesota Department of Health

Environmental Impacts Analysis UnitOctober 2012

625 Robert Street NorthPO Box 64975

St. Paul, MN 55164-0975

Notice

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MDH developed this presentation based on scientific research published in peer-reviewed journals. References for information can be found in the relevant slides and/or at the end of the presentation.

Learning Objectives

Importance of water in Minnesota Climate changes in Minnesota Public health issues related to:

1. Increases in water2. Decreases in water3. Increases in water temperature

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IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN MINNESOTA

Water SourcesWater Sources Water CycleWater Cycle Water UsesWater Uses

Minnesota: A Land of Water

Surface water: 11,842 lakes greater than 10 acres and 63,000 miles of rivers and streams

(NCDC 2006, University of Minnesota Water Resources Center 2011)

Groundwater: several aquifers across the state and approx-imately 400,000 drinking water wells

(DNR, 2010; MDH, 2012)

Source: University of Minnesota Water Resources Center 2011

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Minnesota: A Land of Water

Has the most freshwater among the 48 lower states

(University of Minnesota Water Resources Center, 2011)

At the head of four continental watersheds and is the headwaters and origin of three of the watersheds

(DNR, 2000)

Source: DNR, 2000

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Water in Minnesota

99% of the water that comes into Minnesota is in the form of precipitation

(University of Minnesota Water Resources Center 2011)

We control the quality & quantity of water we use and discard

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Three main air masses affect Minnesota’s weather:

1. Cold, dry, polar continental from the north

2. Dry, tropical continental westerlies

3. Warm, moist tropical maritime from the Gulf of Mexico

Major air masses converging to MN

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Water in Minnesota

Hydrologic Cycle

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http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/watershed_tool/hydrology.html

The hydrologic cycle describes the continuous movement of water: Evaporation to the atmosphere Precipitation to the land Infiltration to groundwater Discharge to surface water

Changes in climate can alter the hydrologic cycle Temperature affects water

vapor which affects precipitation

Water Use 19% water use comes from ground water and the remaining

comes from surface waterTotal water use in MN from 1985 to 2010

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Water Use

Minnesota Drinking Water

78% of Minnesotans rely on public drinking water which is largely from groundwater (~70%)

One million Minnesotans (22%) rely on private wells, which all use groundwater

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Water is Key

Minnesota is rich in water resources High quality, abundant water is essential to

Minnesota economy, culture, future Understanding the basic properties of the

water cycle and the atmosphere is fundamental to understanding impacts of climate change on water

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CLIMATE CHANGES IN MINNESOTA Temperature Dew point Precipitation

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Weather versus Climate

Weather: conditions of the atmosphere over a short period of time

Climate: conditions of the atmosphere over long periods of time (30-year standard averaging period)

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Climate Changes in Minnesota

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There have been three recent significant observed climate trends in Minnesota:

The average temperature is increasing The average number of days with a high

dew point may be increasing The character of precipitation is changing

Temperature Changes

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Temperature has been rising in Minnesota.

Temperature Changes

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Three significant observations in this overall warming:

Winter temperatures have been rising about twice as fast as annual average temperatures

Minimum or 'overnight low' temperatures have been rising faster than the maximum temperature, or ‘daytime high’

Since the early 1980s, the temperature has risen slightly over 1°F in southern Minnesota to a little over 2°F in much of the northern part of the state

Lake Superior

Temperature and Ice Cover

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Dew Point Changes

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Dew point is a measure of water vapor in the air

The higher the dew point, the more difficult it is for people's sweat to evaporate, which is how they cool themselves

The number of days with high dew point temperatures (≥ 70 °F) may be increasing in Minnesota

Dew Point Changes

21Source: Dr. Mark Seeley, Climatologist, University of Minnesota

Precipitation Changes

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On average, the total precipitation in the state has increased since the Dust Bowl era of the 1930s.

Precipitation Changes

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The character of precipitation in Minnesota is changing More localized, heavy precipitation events Potential to cause both increased flooding and

drought

Public health issues related to:

Increases in water Decreases in water Increases in water temperature

Precipitation Changes Flooding Humidity & Dew Point

Highway 169 between St. Peter and LeSueur

Increases in Water

More wintertime precipitation falls as rain rather than snow This trend may increase risks of runoff and floodsReduced snowpack may lead to lower water levels and drought in late summer

(Karl et al. 2009)26

Precipitation Changes

Changes in Snowfall Contributions to Wintertime Precipitation(1949 to 2005)

Precipitation Changes

Greatest increase in very heavy precipitation in the past 50 years occurred in the Northeast and the Midwest

(Karl et al. 2009)

Total precipitation in the Midwest and Northeast is expected to increase the most with the largest increases in heavy precipitation events

(Karl et al. 2009)

27Very heavy precipitation is defined as the heaviest 1 percent of all daily events from 1958 to 2007 for each region.

Public Health Issues - Precipitation

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Extreme Precipitation

Increased runoff: sediment,

contaminants, nitrate, etc.

Sewage overflows

Contamination of surface and groundwater

Waterborne disease outbreaks from drinking water or recreational contact (beachgoers): Giardiasis, E coli, Cryptosporidium

Physical injuries and destruction of property

Flooding

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Flooding results from a combination of Land use changes that reduce infiltration Undersized sewer/stormwater pipes Extreme precipitation and/or rapid snowmelt

Flood magnitude and frequency are likely to increase in most regions, and volumes of low flows are likely to decrease in many regions

(Field et al, 2007)

2012 Duluth/northeastern Minnesota 500-year flood event

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Flooding

Photo credits: Rachel Agurkis (top), Derek Montgomery for MPR (right)

Potential increases of: physical injuries

(including drowning) allergies (mold) food and water-borne

illnesses food security displacement mental health issues interruption of

emergency services (WHO, 2010)

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Public Health Issues - Flooding

Oslo, MN, May 14, 200935 days after the Red River flooded

Public Health Issues - Flooding

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Foodborne illnesses (e.g. Salmonellosis) Increased risk from contamination of certain food crops

with feces from nearby livestock or wild animals following heavy rain and flooding

(Ebi et al, 2008; CCSP, 2008)

Waterborne illnesses Caused by pathogens (e.g. Cryptosporidium and Giardia) which may increase following downpours Can also be transmitted in drinking water and through recreational use (Ebi et al, 2008; CCSP, 2008)

Public Health Issues - Flooding

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1.61 M people were affected; over 400,000 w/ significant symptoms; 100 people died

Median duration of illness was 9 days (range, 1 to 55)

Clinical manifestations included watery diarrhea (93%), abdominal cramps (84%), fever (57%), vomiting (48%)

$31.7 million in total medical costs and $64.6 million in total lost productivity

1993 Milwaukee Cryptosporidium Outbreak

Mental health: anxiety disorders, depression, psychological effects

(Ebi et al. 2008)

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Public Health Issues - Flooding

Humidity/Dew Point Increase

Greater frequency of tropical-like atmospheric water vapor

(Mark Seeley, 2012)35

July 19, 2011: highest dew point temperature recorded ever in Minnesota 88°F dew point in Moorhead (combined with 93°F air temperature, it felt like 130°F)

(State Climatology Office)

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Humidity/Dew Point Increase

Heat Index

37(Source: NWS, 2011b)

The Heat Index (HI): calculation that describes how the air temperature and dew point are perceived the human body

Public Health Issues – Humidity & Heat

Human health issues: heat rash, heat exhaustion, heatstroke, death

Stressed livestock: reduced milk production, reproduction problems, death

Algae blooms Mold Increased vector and microorganism populations

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Decrease in Water

Drought Lower water levels

Drought

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Water Levels: Great Lakes

Average Great Lakes levels depends on the balance between precipitation and evaporation (Hayhoe et al. 2010)

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Public Health Issues – Drought & Lower Water Levels

Reduced soil moisture reserves,

groundwater supplies, lake and

wetland levels, and stream flows

Potential concentration of

pollutants

Decreasing water supply for

drinking water and agriculture

Agriculture: adversely affects crop progress and soil moisture and therefore food supply

Wildfire dangers (e.g., Pagami Creek Fire, Boundary Waters Canoe Area Wilderness – started August 18th 2011; 92,682 acres as of Oct. 13th 2011): injuries, property damage, anxiety, psychological effects

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Increase in Water Temperature

Changes in fish populations & mercury Algal blooms Reduced dissolved oxygen Incomplete mixing Increased vectors Invasive species/ northern expansion of

organisms

Fish Populations & Mercury

Warmer waters could harm fish populations and biological activity of cold aquatic ecosystems

Warmer waters and rainfall intensity may be contributing to an increase in mercury concentrations in fish

44Source: Peter Jacobson, DNR Fisheries Research Supervisor

Conceptual diagram of climate warming effects on Minnesota fish communities

Harmful Algal Blooms & Reduced Dissolved Oxygen

Increased pollution and temperatures can result in blooms of harmful algae and bacteria and reduce the amount of dissolved oxygen

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Incomplete mixing

Stratification Longer periods of stratification (surface and

water bottom don’t mix) may cause dead zones (low oxygen levels) and decrease self-purification capabilities of water features

May cause fish kills, poor water quality, increased insect populations, etc.

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Increased vectors

Climate change may contribute to the breeding of insects (e.g., mosquitoes) and may increase the risk of vector-borne diseases (e.g., West Nile virus)

Invasive species & northern expansion of organisms

Invasive species Asian carp Zebra mussels Sea lamprey DNR Invasive Species website: http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/index.html

Expansion of disease-causing organisms Naegleria fowleri

Many zebra mussels attached to a native mussel.Source: MN DNR

Public Health Strategies

Green infrastructure Grey infrastructure Emergency Preparedness Individual Strategies

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Green Infrastructure

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Rely on natural processes: Evaporation

Trees and plant cover Infiltration

Rain gardens Pervious pavers Wetlands

Above: Target Center Roof in Minneapolis

Conservation Subdivision

Grey Infrastructure

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Increase capacity of stormwater pipes, storage tanks and wastewater treatment facilities to accommodate larger rain events

Green & Grey Infrastructure

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1. Protect natural drainage patterns, watersheds and water bodies

2. Infiltrate and collect water

3. Plant native, drought-resistant plants

4. Conserve water (e.g., low irrigation agriculture)

5. Reuse waterSource: DNR, 2011d

Water Management Solutions

Emergency Preparedness

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Emergency preparedness: Plan for floods and extreme weather events

Minnesota Water/Wastewater Agency Response Network (MnWARN): http://www.mnwarn.org/

Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) website on preparing for floods: http://www.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/waste/waste-and-cleanup/cleanup-programs-and-topics/cleanup-programs/emergency-response/floods-minimizing-pollution-and-health-risks.html

Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) website on protecting private wells from floods: http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/wells/waterquality/flooded.html

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) National Flood Insurance Program: http://www.fema.gov/business/nfip/

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Individual Strategies

Drink bottled water during and/or after a flood or outbreak Get your well tested

http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/wells/waterquality/index.html Treat contaminated water

http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/wells/waterquality/disinfection.html

Seek information on beaches prior to swimming and avoid visibly contaminated waters Beach info: http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/beaches/index.html Blue-green algae: http://

www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/hazardous/topics/bluegreenalgae.html

Track fish consumption advisories http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/eh/fish/

Contaminated Water

Summary

Water has always been an important and abundant resource in Minnesota

Minnesota’s climate is predicted to change in the future and will impact water quality and quantity

There are serious public health issues related to: Increases in water Decreases in water Increases in water temperature

Strategies to prevent injury and illness include infrastructure adaptation and public health planning and response

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Acknowledgements

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This work was supported by cooperative agreement 5UE1EH000738 from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention

Special thanks to the following people for their contributions to the creation of this training module:

Anita Anderson, MDHPatti Craddock, Short Elliott Hendrickson Inc. (SEH)Chris Elvrum, MDHTannie Eshenaur, MDHAnn Pierce, DNRAngela Preimesberger, MPCA Lih-in Rezania, MDHAndrew Sullivan, Eden Prairie

Thank you

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Contact the Minnesota Climate and Health Program:

651-201-4893

health.climatechange@state.mn.us

http://www.health.state.mn.us/divs/climatechange/

Questions?

October 10, 2012

References

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Ellison CA, Sanocki CA, Lorenz DL, Mitton GB, and Kruse GA. 2011. Floods of September 2010 in Southern Minnesota. U.S. Geological Survey Scientific Investigations Report 2011–5045, 37 p., 3 app.

Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). 2011. Federal Disaster Declarations. Available online: http://www.fema.gov/news/disasters.fema Field CB, Mortsch LD, Brklacich M, Forbes DL, Kovacs P, Patz JA, Running SW, and Scott MJ. 2007. North America. In: Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and

Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, and Hanson CE(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, pp. 617-652.Hansen J, Ruedy R, Sato M, and Lo K. 2010. Global Surface Temperature Change. Reviews of Geophysics 48: RG4004. p.12Hayhoe, K., VanDorn, J., Croley, T., Schlegal, N., & Wuebbles, D. (2010). Regional climate change projections for Chicago and the U.S. Great Lakes. Journal of Great

Lakes Research, 36, 7-21.Hondzo M, and Stefan HG. 1991: Three case studies of lake temperature and stratification response to warmer climate. Water Resources Research, 27(8), 1837-1846.Horstmeyer, SL. 2008. Relative humidity . . . Relative to what? The dew point temperature . . . a better approach. Available online: http://www.shorstmeyer.com/wxfaqs/humidity/humidity.html Karl TR, Melillo JM, and Peterson TC, (eds.) 2009. Global Climate Change Impacts in the United States. Cambridge University Press. Available online: http://downloads.globalchange.gov/usimpacts/pdfs/climate-impacts-report.pdf Keeling R. 2012. Scripps Institution of Oceanography, Available online: scrippsco2.ucsd.edu/ Kemble, et al. 2012. Fatal Naegleria fowleri infection acquired in Minnesota: possible expanded range of a deadly thermophilic organism. Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Mar;54(6):805-9. Epub 2012 Jan 11.Kessler R. 2011. Stormwater Strategies: Cities prepare aging infrastructure for climate change. Environmental Health Perspectives. Vol 119, Num 12.Kling et al. 2003. Confronting Climate Change in the Great Lakes Region. Union of Concerned Scientists. Available online: http://www.ucsusa.org/greatlakes/Konikow, L.F., and Kendy, E., 2005, Groundwater depletion: A global problem: Hydrogeology Journal, v. 13, p. 317-320.Kundzewicz ZW, Mata LJ, Arnell NW, Döll P, Kabat P, Jiménez B, Miller KA, Oki T, Sen Z and Shiklomanov IA. 2007. Freshwater resources and their management. Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, [Parry ML, Canziani OF, Palutikof JP, van der Linden PJ, and Hanson CE(eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK, and New York, pp. 617-652.Midwestern Regional Climate Center. 2010. Climate Change & Variability in the Midwest. Temperature and Precipitation Trends 1895 – 2010. Available online:http://mcc.sws.uiuc.edu/climate_midwest/mwclimate_ change.htm# Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA). 2011a. Blue-green Algae and Harmful Algal Blooms. Available online: http://www.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/water/water-types-and-programs/surface-water/lakes/lake-water-quality/blue-green-algae-and-harmful-algal-blooms.html ___________. 2011b. Floods: Minimizing Pollution and Health Risks. Available online: http://www.pca.state.mn.us/index.php/waste/waste-and-cleanup/cleanup-programs-and-topics/cleanup-programs/emergency-response/floods-minimizing-pollution-and-health-risks.html

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Minnesota Public Radio (MPR). 2011a. Pagami Creek Fire in BWCA now estimated at 100,000 acres. Available online:http://minnesota.publicradio.org/display/web/2011/09/13/pagami-fire-60000-acres-evacuations-underway/ __________. 2011b. Crazy record! Highest dew point ever at MSP Airport (82!). Available online:http://minnesota.publicradio.org/collections/special/columns/updraft/archive/2011/07/another_48_hours_of_relentless.shtml Monson, Bruce. 2009. Trend Reversal of Mercury Concentrations in Piscivorous Fish from Minnesota Lakes: 1982#2006. Environ. Sci. Technol., 43 (6), 1750-1755. Morel FMM, Kraepiel AML, and Amyot M. 1998: The chemical cycle and bioaccumulation of mercury. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 29, 543-566.National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). 2005. What’s the Difference Between Weather and Climate? Available online: http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/noaa/climate/climate_weather.html National Climatic Data Center (NCDC). 2006. Climate of Minnesota. Available online: http://cdo.ncdc.noaa.gov/climatenormals/clim60/states/Clim_MN_01.pdf National Parks Service. 2010. What is Climate Change? Available online: http://www.nps.gov/goga/naturescience/climate-change-causes.htm National Weather Service (NWS). 2011. Heat: A Major Killer. Available online: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/os/heat/index.shtml __________________. 2012. Climate Prediction Center Seasonal Drought Outlook. Available online: http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/expert_assessment/seasonal_drought.html National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA). 2011. National Climactic Data Center, Storm Event Database. Available online: http://www4.ncdc.noaa.gov/cgi-win/wwcgi.dll?wwEvent~Storms Noji EK. Natural disaster. Crit Care Clim 1991; 14:27-92.Ohl CA and Tapsell S. 2000. Flooding and human health. BMJ 2000;321:1167Santer BD, Thorne PW, Haimberger L, Taylor KE, Wigley TML, Lanzante JR, Solomon S, Free M, Gleckler PJ, Jones PD, Karl TR, Klein SA, Mears C, Nychka D, Schmidt

GA, Sherwood SC, and Wentz FJ. 2008. Consistency of modeled and observed temperature trends in the tropical troposphere. International Journal of Climatology, 28(13), 1703-1722.

Seeley M. 2012. Climate Trends and Climate Change in Minnesota: A Review. Minnesota State Climatology Office. Available online: http://climate.umn.edu/seeley/ Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Alley RB, Berntsen T, Bindoff NL, Chen Z, Chidthaisong A, Gregory JM, Hegerl GC, Heimann M, Hewitson B, Hoskins BJ, Joos F, Jouzel J,

Kattsov V, Lohmann U, Matsuno T, Molina M, Nicholls N, Overpeck J, Raga G, Ramaswamy V, Ren J, Rusticucci M, Somerville R, Stocker TF, Whetton P, Wood RA and Wratt D. 2007. Technical Summary. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Solomon S, Qin D, Manning M, Chen Z, Marquis M, Averyt KB, Tignor M and Miller HL (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA.

Spatial Hazard Events and Losses Database for the United States (SHELDUS). Data downloaded April 2012. Available online: http://webra.cas.sc.edu/hvri/products/sheldus.aspx State Climatology Office. Department of Natural Resources – Division of Ecological and Water Resources and the University of Minnesota – Department of Soil, Water, and Climate. Available online: http://climate.umn.edu/

Drought Information Resources (http://climate.umn.edu/doc/journal/drought_ information_resources.htm)Dew Point (http://climate.umn.edu/doc/twin_cities/mspdewpoint.htm)Dew Point July 19, 2011 Technical Analysis (http://climate.umn.edu/pdf/july_19_2011_ technical.pdf)

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State Climatology Office (cont.)Drought 1988 (http://climate.umn.edu/pdf/drought88.pdf)Drought 2011 (http://climate.umn.edu/doc/journal/drought_2011.htm)Flash Floods (http://climate.umn.edu/doc/flashflood.htm)Heavy Rainfall 2010 (http://climate.umn.edu/doc/journal/flash_floods/ff100924.htm)Historic Lake Ice-Out Dates (http://climate.umn.edu/doc/ice_out/ice_out_historical.htm)Minnesota State-Averaged Annual Precipitation Trends: 1891-2010 (http://climate.umn.edu/ doc/online_resources.htm

Trenberth, K. E., J. T. Fasullo, and J. Mackaro. 2011: Atmospheric moisture transports from ocean to land and global energy flows in reanalyses. Journal of Climate, doi:10.1175/2011JCLI4171.1

University of Minnesota Water Resources Center. 2011. Minnesota Water Sustainability Framework. Available online:http://wrc.umn.edu/prod/groups/cfans/@pub/@cfans/@wrc/documents/asset/cfans_asset _292471.pdf US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). 2011. Agriculture and Food Supply. Available online: http://epa.gov/climatechange/effects/agriculture.html US Forest Service Incident Information System. 2011. Pagami Creek Fire. Available online: http://www.inciweb.org/incident/2534/ US Geological Survey (USGS). 1991. National Water Summary 1988-89: Hydrologic Events and Floods and Droughts. Available online:http://climate.umn.edu/pdf/minnesota_floods_and_drought.pdf ________. 2012. The Water Cycle, a Quick Summary. (website). Accessed online May 2012: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercyclehi.html US National Hazard Statistics. 2012. Accessed 7/30/2012. Available online: http://www.nws.noaa.gov/om/hazstats.shtml Water on the Web: http://www.waterontheweb.org/index.htmlWestern Regional Climate Center. (WRCC) 2011a. Minnesota Temperature 1890 – 2010: 12 month period ending in December. Generated online November 2011.

Available online: http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/spi/divplot1map.html ________. 2011b. Minnesota Precipitation 1890 – 2010: 12 month period ending in December. Generated online November 2011. Available online: http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/spi/divplot1map.html Williamson CE, Saros JE, and Schindler DW. 2009: Sentinels of change. Science, 323(5916), 887-888.World Health Organization (WHO). 2010. Climate change and health. Fact sheet N°266. Available online: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs266/en/Zandlo, Jim 2008. Observing the climate. Minnesota State Climatology Office. Available online: http://climate.umn.edu/climateChange/climateChangeObservedNu.htm

Photo Credits Slide 4: Photograph by Chaïna Bapikee Slide 7: Images from Microsoft Clip Art Slide 12: Images from Microsoft Clip Art Slide 15: Images from Microsoft Clip Art Slide 19: Images from Microsoft Clip Art Slide 25: KEYC Television Slide 26: Photograph by Sam Choo, available at http://

minnesota.publicradio.org/collections/special/columns/updraft/archive/2011/07/another_48_hours_of_relentless.shtml

Slide 29: Photograph by Patsy Lynch/FEMA, August 23, 2007 Stockton Slide 30: Left image from Rachel Agurkis, Right image from Derek Montgomery for MPR Slide 31: Photograph by Ed Edahl/FEMA, May 14, 2009 Oslo Slide 32: Image of salmonella from Wikipedia, available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmonella Slide 33: Photograph credit - Kathy Blair & Jeffrey P. Davis, MD Wisconsin Division of Public Health Slide 34: Photograph by Gettyimages Slide 35: Image by Tildology, available at http://tildology.com/2011/07/19/misery-index-weather-wise/ Slide 36: The Weather Channel 2011 Slide 38: Top image from AFP/Getty Images (provided by Peter Synder, UMN) Slide 39: Left photograph DNR, right photograph by Chaïna Bapikee Slide 42: Photograph by Kate Houston Slide 43: Image from Microsoft Clip Art Slide 45: Photograph of blue-green algae, Source: MPCA Slide 47: Image of mosquito from Wikipedia, available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mosquito Slide 48: Image of zebra mussels from MN DNR, available at

http://www.dnr.state.mn.us/invasives/aquaticanimals/zebramussel/index.html Slide 50: Top image from Pam Blixt, City of Minneapolis; bottom image from Microsoft Clip Art Slide 51: Image of culvert from Wikipedia, available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culvert

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