Wars and Rumors of War: Empire and its Consequences

Mercantilism, continued…It all starts here.

Basic principle: country that accumulates the most bullion ($$) wins: positive balance of trade a must

Method: Colonies as markets for manufactured goods, source of raw materials the home country lacks

Government control of economy through monopolies and trading companies

Duties on manufactured imports for government revenue and protection of own businesses

Thomas Mun (Britain, 1571-1641)

One of first mercantilists -- 1600’sAs a merchant in Mediterranean, made a great fortune; one of directors of E. India CompanyWrote about economics: England's Treasure by Foreign Trade

Trade is valuable; merchants should be high in social position All ag land should be productiveTake advantage of natural resources, even lowly fisheriesReduce imports, especially of luxury goods; high duties help Export goods with greatest demand—can charge higher pricesTransport in own ships; all trade for colonies go through mother country.

“Make the most we can of our own” First clear definition of balance of trade

England subscribes

Navigation Acts (1651-1673)Protective tariffs and import prohibitions

Limitations on the export of raw materials

Colonial market exclusively for England

Monopoly trading companies

Later Navigation Acts: following Mun; aim = cripple Netherlands merchants participating in British trade

All foreign trade with colonies must go through England

All trade with England and colonies must go on British ships

British thinkers pro mercantilismBalance of trade surplus leads to more gold that means more money that keeps domestic prices highLocke—process is circular (more money = more trade = more money, etc)Hume—Adds to the circle: positive balance of trade brings more money into country, thus increases domestic prices, leading to lower exports and higher imports, lowering prices and causing more money to go out of the country until a balance of trade is reestablished (assumes full employment)

British Critics of MercantilismMercantilism is self defeating: LESS not more David Hume: bullion flow emphasis on state control of trade restricts competition, creativity, innovationAdam Smith

Artificial stimulation of manufacturing and trade (misallocation of resources)Governments that hoard gold make their countries worse off. International specialization and mutual gains from trade

British East India CompanyCharter from Eliz. I in 1600 gave monopoly of trade in IndiaIn 1717, the Bengal Emperor exempted the Company from the payment of custom duties = trade advantage. Seven Years’ War’

Sir Robert Clive’s victory over French at Plassy showed British East India Company’s military power.

Consequences of war = French driven out of India, with the exception of a few trading posts on the coast

The company also achievedShipyards were the model for Peter the Great in St. PetersburgMost successful early joint stock company, with some of administration structure still in Indian government. Greed of officers contributed tragically to the Bengal famine which killed millions in 1770-73Other Trade areas

Occupied and ruled St Helena (held Napoleon there).Established Hong Kong and Singapore Employed Captain Kidd against pirates Encouraged cultivation of tea in India and pushed in England (and America = Boston Tea Party from attempt at monopoly)

Plantation SystemWest Indies colonial rivalry: jewels of empire

New World crops: tobacco, cotton, indigo, coffee, sugarStrong European markets: sugar becomes a staple, not a luxury (in coffee, tea, candy, fruit preserving, brewing

Why slavery was looked upon as okExistence in Europe since ancient times with no moral, religious stigmaOttoman Empire: forbade exportation of white slaves = Portuguese began importing African slaves; rarely through N Europe as personal servants, novelties in court and aristocratic homes

Why plantations?Particular crops = plantations

Large plantations demanded by some crops (sugar: expensive in land and equipment) to be profitableLabor intensive crops (rice requiring much care to grow; tobacco, coffee, sugar requiring extensive processing)Class system: Fr and Eng settlers had no intention of manual labor in W Indies

Rural spread of plantation system; extensive spread of tradePlantations produced agricultural products for exportOwners of plantations imported manufactured goods from mother country; traded with other colonies (New England traded fish and timber for sugar from W. Indies)

Triangle Trade (slaves)1440-1640, Portuguese monopoly on slaves from Africa

In 4 1/2 centuries Portugal transported over 4.5 million Africans (abt 40% of the total). But by late 17th C, slavery declined in So. Am continent, though prospered in Brazil and in Caribbean

During 18th C, slave trade of 6 million Africans;Britain worst with 2.5 million

• to Jamaica (1725 90% of pop) and to colonial America beginning 1619 (Dutch

European empires in New World lacked a work force. • Natives unreliable (dying from diseases brought from Europe; culture not conducive to

slavery) • Europeans unsuited to the climate, suffered from tropical disease, unwilling to labor manually• Africans excellent workers, often with experience of agriculture and keeping cattle, used to

climate, resistant to tropical disease • Slaves could be "worked very hard" on plantations or in mines.

First side of the triangle:

The outward passage from Europe to Africa carried manufactured goods.Slavers traded with tribal Africans for black slaves from other tribes, enemies, later even own tribes.

Middle PassageTaking slaves from Africa to the Americas = middle passage of the triangular trade. Terrible conditions:

new diseases and malnutrition killed many on the way to Americasmajority of deaths on the voyage during first weeks from forced marches and slave camps on the coast.Ironically, death rate of slaves (13%) less than crew, captain, passengers on the ships.

Last Side of the TriangleThe third side of the triangular trade = return to Europe with the produce from the slave-labor plantations: cotton, rice, sugar, tobacco, indigo, molasses and rum.

Consequences

New World societies based on slavery:Justified by racial/anti-African prejudice

16th-mid 19th C. Ended with end of slave trade (Brit outlawed last in 1807), Latin Am independence; Am. Emancipation Proclamation (1863); Brazilian emancipation (1888)

European fortunes based on slave trade or slave labor

Mid 18th C WarsWarfare to further national interestsLimited involvement of most of population

Fought with professional armies and naviesMany of these wars fought overseas or on the seas

Periods of peace viewed as preparation for further warsTwo power struggles:

Overseas empiresTerritory in central and eastern Europe

War of Jenkins’s EarW Indies trade rivalry:

Spain fighting to continue monopoly with Spanish coloniesEnglish shippers, smugglers, pirates aim—trade with Spanish colonies

Treaty of Utrecht – opened Spain’s colonies to Brit tradeAsiento privilege 30 years = furnish slaves to Spain’s coloniesOne ship each year to trading fair at Portobello in Caribbean on Panamanian coast (but ships offshore kept replenishing each night)To keep monopoly Spanish patrols boarded and searched Brit ships for contrabandClimax: in boarding fight, Spanish cut off ear of English captain; brought to Parliament as example of Spanish atrocities1739 British war with Spain

Really just opening encounter in European wars through 1815

War of Austrian SuccessionFrederick the Great (II)

Bad childhood, with father who considered him effeminate because preferred flute and writing French prose and verse to warfareReceived throne at 28; became cynical, undeceived by self/friends/enemies, expecting little from life and othersReputation as a soldier, but wrote, recorded historyFreethinker: all religions ridiculous, laughed at idea of “divine right of kings”Insisted on rights of house of Brandenburg; devoted to Prussia

Maria Theresa of AustriaCame to the throne at 23, but one of most capable rulers of HabsburgsBore 16 children, conscientious family lifeDevout and earnest; dominated her husband and grown sons, as well as her kingdomPractical and methodical “enlightened” monarchPregnant at beginning of war

“Pragmatic Sanction” prelude

General agreement (sponsored by sonless Charles VI) signed by European powers, including Prussia

All domains of the Austrian Habsburgs inherited together, not split between heirs

A woman (Maria Teresa) could inherit the throne

Universally disregarded: Bavaria and Saxony wanted Austrian territory

Spain wanted former holdings in Italy returned

France saw Austria as traditional enemy, wanted Belgium (former Spanish Netherlands)

Hungary wanted independence

Invasion of SilesiaFrederick II thought someone would attack Maria Theresa, so it might as well be heInvaded province adjoining Prussia belonging to Bohemia (thus Austria)“reason of state” = welfare, expansion of PrussiaMaria Theresa appeared before the Magyar (Hungarian) parliament with her newborn son and eloquently appealed to their chivalry

Hungary pledged “blood and life” and supplied 100,000 troops

The WarFrance supported German princes vs Habsburg monarch to keep Europe divided and prevent union of German powers; Spain helpedOnly Britain and Holland supported Maria Theresa, and only with finances; she had inadequate armies to winFrench won Battle of Fontenoy in Belgium (largest battle in war) =, seu up a Bavaian puppet kingdom and had the king elected HRE (Charles VII); dominated Belgium and fomented Jacobite rebellion in ScotlandBUT: New Englanders and British navy drove French and Spanish shipping from the seas, blockaded the Caribbean; French government lost $$ and taxes from sugar and slave trade

ConsequencesPeace of Aix la Chapelle:

Brits and French returned what they had gained in Caribbean and India; Austria got back Belgium; Frederick got to keep Silesia Spain got a few Italian duchies;

Maria Theresa unhappy (would have preferred to lose Belgium and keep Silesia), but Holland wanted Belgium as buffer vs France

Silesia heavily populated—with ethnic GermansSilesia industrialized with natural resources of iron and coal

Prussia doubled population and more than doubled resources = Prussia becomes a “great power” to rival Austria; set up the next war

“Diplomatic Revolution” 1756OK, everyone change partners:Austrians: aim to nip growth of Prussian power

Kaunitz, MTheresa’s foreign minister, a master of diplomacyProposed alliance with France to check Prussia: support France in Belgium in return for French support to destroy PrussiaTo seal alliance, marriage of MTheresa’s daughter, Marie Antoinette, to French heir to throne (Louis XVI)Alliance opposed in France by philosophes because Catholic

Britain reconsiders its traditional alliancesAim: to protect Hanover vs both Austria and PrussiaFavorably impressed by Prussian militaryAlliance with Prussia

Seven Years’ War: set upColonial Rivalry of France and Britain

Aimed for control of growing world economy: colonies and sea powerBoth held

• parts of India (only disconnected ports on coast), • Caribbean, supported by slave trade• N American mainland: French more territory, Britain more population

Austro/French aim to partition Brandenburg /Prussia to relegate Hohenzollerns to Brandenburg

Prussia + Silesia had 6 million; Austria, France, Russia had 20 million +Prussian state and army most efficient in Europe: in 4 campaigns Frederick proves self military genius

• Fighting 3 great powers +Sweden and German states• Aid from Britain and Holland mostly $$• Odds vs made prospects for survival seem hopeless, but Frederick didn’t lose

hope: strength of character made him “great” hero, symbol for GermansBUT coalition not united: French fighting mainly Britain, Austrian alliance unpopular at home, Kaunitz wouldn’t promise them Belgium;

Seven Years’ War: AmericaFight over Ohio Valley where British settlers on French claimed territory; Nova Scotia where French settlement presided over by British

British mercantilism restricted manufacturing, sugar refining to home country; had to ship in Brit ships (--smuggling and other evasions); French colonies no such restrictions, but feudalisticBritish tried to get colonies to take responsibility to fight, but even Franklin’s “Albany plan of Union” couldn’t get them to unite vs French threat; they wanted to leave it to Britain to defend.Braddock defeat at Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg) began “Fr and Indian War”

Pitt took over military command of Britain“I know that I can save the country, and I know that no one else can.”Concentrated on Brit fight at sea and in colonies and supported Frederick II on the continentBritish took Fort Duquesne, St. Lawrence R to Quebec, and under General Wolfe fought and won on the Plains of Abraham vs Montcalm (both generals killed)British occupied Guadeloupe and Martinique, and French slave stations in Africa

Seven Years’ War-- IndiaIndia ruled by Great Moguls from 1000-1600’s, Muslim empire with invaders from N

Sikh (reform Hindu) warriors insurgency vs Moslem rulers

After civil war, many princely states originated, became autonomous, fought

Portuguese, British and French took advantage of situation to establish colonial stations on the coast ruled by BUSINESS/merchant interests, no political ambitions

During 7 Years’ War, didn’t want to take over India, just wanted to control commerce

What happened in India:

War in India conducted without help from homeIndividuals saw benefit: political power, and especially $$$$Clive moved vs French in Bengal (where French favored by Moslem ruler)

French backed Moslem ruler moved vs British in Calcutta: shut up 146 English in small room with no windows, kept them there all night, died of asphyxiation (“Black Hole of Calcutta”)British under Clive defeated French at Plassey, put own puppet on Bengal throne, extorted huge reparation payments for company and himselfBritish sea power dispatched to India to support E. India Co there; gradually cut off French posts from Europe and each other;

British sea forces defeated both France and Spain

Results of 7 Years’ WarProblems in negotiation

Though Brit dominated in war, Pitt defeated at home negotiators just a group of Parliamentary favorites of new king George III; French Choiseul skillful and single minded

Treaty of Paris 1763:France ceded all Fr territory on Am mainland E of Mississippi R (Canada =Brit)French ceded all holdings W of Mississippi and mouth to Spain for help in warFrench got back Guadeloupe, Martinique, most slave stationsFrench kept commercial installations in India

Treaty of Hubertusburg: end of war on continentPrussia stayed major powerFrench kept out of Belgium

Results of 7 Years’ War: American Revolution

Complaints of America: Navigation Acts

Complaints of Britain: help pay for the French and Indian War

Revolution: extension of the European war

Philosophical Background: English Reform Movement

English shift in values:A fundamental and momentous shift in values came from the ambitious middle class in the Midlands. A new cultural ideal was taking shape.

In an essay, "True heroism," Anna Barbauld (female English reformer who supported Wilberforce’s bills to abolish the slave trade) wrote that great men were no longer "Kings, lords, generals, and prime ministers."

New heroes were the men who instead: “invent useful arts, or discover important truths which may promote the comfort and happiness of unborn generations in the distant parts of the world. They act still an important part, and their claim to merit is generally more undoubted, than that of the former, because what they do is more certainly their own.”

French/general EnlightenmentLocke

Rousseau

Personalities that Determined Outcome

George III

The MinistersGrenville

Townshend

North

George Washington

Benjamin Franklin

What happened:1765 Stamp Act

1770 "Boston Massacre."

1773 Destruction of tea in Boston Harbor.

1774 Continental Congress, Philadelphia: Boston Port Bill.

1775 Lexington and Concord. Capture of Ticonderoga.

1775 Battle of Bunker Hill.

1776 July 4: Declaration of Independence, Battle of Long Island; December 26: Washington wins at Trenton (Delaware R)

1777 Surrender of Burgoyne; Washington encamps at Valley Forge; Howe occupies Philadelphia.

1778 French-American alliance; Naval victory--John Paul Jones.

1781 Articles of Confederation; surrender of Cornwallis at Yorktown.

1783 Peace of Paris

British ViewPiqued at evasion of Navigation Acts, Grenville calls for stamp act to raise money for a force of 10,000 British troops to “protect” the colonials from Indians, etc. He came up with the Stamp Tax, which he meant NOT to offend the colonies.

The colonies were not without friends in the Commons during the debate that preceded the passage of the Stamp Tax. In answer to the statement that the colonies were "children planted by our care, nourished by our indulgence, and protected by our arms," Colonel Barre made his famous reply: "They planted by your care! No; your oppression planted them in America. Nourished by your indulgence! They grew up by your neglect of them. They protected by your arms! Those sons of liberty have nobly taken up arms in your defense."