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S T R I x G E D I:\' S T R U .\1 E x T S

T HROCGHOUT the comparatively brief history of orchestration thestring group-e-violin s. violas, 'cellos, and double-basses-e-lmsmaintained its position as dominant element of the symphonyorchestra: Countless scores from all periods bear evidence that theircomposers regarded woodwind and brass rather as accessories and werehesitant to entrust much of their essential musical material to any burstrin ged instru ments.

Such an att itude is partly justifi able because of the superiority of thestrin gs in so many important respects. Strin gs arc tirel ess and em playvirtuall y any kind of music. They have a greater dyn amic range thanwind instruments and far more expressive capacity. T he tone colorof the string group is fairly homogeneous from top to bottom, varia-tions in the different registers being much more subtle than in the winds.At th e same time, stringed instruments arc the most versatile in produc-ing different kinds of sound. As string tone is rich in overtones allmanner of close and open spacing is practical. One docs not tire of hear-ing string tone as soon as one tires of wind tone; in fact, there existsa sizable literature of compositions written for str ing orchestra withoutwind instruments.

The string section of a typi cal symphony orchestra usually consistsof sixteen first violins, fourteen second violins, twelve violas, tenvioloncellos, and eight double-basses. \ .ariations in these propo rtionsmay be found. reflecting the predilectio ns of individual conductors, orperhaps determined by some such circu mstance as the size of the CO ll-een stage.

In th e d iagram, note tha t th e sounding length of the string. to be setin moti on by the bow, is th at between th e sto pping finger and thebridge. T he remainder of th e string will of course be silent.

Since halving the st ring length raises the pitch an oc tave. the pointat which a string is stopped co sound the octave above its open. or un-stopped. pitch will be exactly one-half the distance from nu t to bridge.If we wish to raise the pitch another oc tave we w ill find th e point ofstopping one-half th e distance from this middle point to the br idge. orthree-fourths th e total string length from the nut.

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The act ion of the left-hand finge rs stopping the string firmly againstthe fingerb oard shortens the sounding .lcngt h of th e string, therebyraising th e pitch.

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T he four strings of each of the se instruments arc tuned as follows.

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In th e case of the do uble-bass th e actual sound is an octave lower thanthe writte n notes.

The pit ch of a vibrat ing string can be expressed in terms of ~hefreq uency. or rapidit y . of its vibrations. For instan~e. the upper 5t Tlngof the viola sounds th e :\ which in present -day tumng has a frequencyof .HOvibrations per second. ..

A stretched string can be varied in pitch by \':1.rymg the tensl?".Stri nge d instrument s arc tuned hy tu rn ing th e tlltlmg pegs to whichthe strings arc attached . T ightenin g a stri ng increases th e frequencyof its vibr ation; hence raises its pitch.

The weight of the string has an important influence 0I1the frequencyof its vibration. Thus the four strings on the same instrument may beidentical in length, but may differ widely in pitch becau~e t~ey" arcmade to di ffer in weight. Furthermore, by making usc of thi s pnncII~le,th e strings can be tu ned to their various pitches without .th e nece~Sltyof toO great a difference in th eir tensions. T he lower-pitched srrmgsare not only thicker, but they arc made still heavier by winding the gutor steel with fine wire of copper. silver. aluminum. or other metals.

Variation in the length of the string produces proportional variationin pitch . A longer string vibra tes more slow ly th an a shor~e r one, ot~erconditions being equal. It is fou nd, for example, that halvin g the stflnglength doubles the frequency and raises the pitch an octave .

7S T R 1:-1 G E D 1 ;-; S T R U .\ 1 E;-; T S

Fig. 6. Violin Bowpoint halr.s

VIBRATO

A division of a sect ion into more than two parts would be markeddiv . in J (Fr., diu. .i3; Gcr., dreiiecb geteilt ). necessitating indicationsin the ind ividua l players' music to show wh ich part each is to play.Sometimes the divided pans are ginn separate lines in the score, forlegibility. If the parts arc complex. better result s may be obtained bydividing by desks {lt ., da leggii; Fr., psr pupitres; Ger., pultuieise}, theodd-numbered desks taking the upper part.

If only half th e members of a section arc to play, the part is markedbalf ( Ir., la nms; Fr., 1.1 moitie; Ger. die H iilfte ) , T he players on theleft at each desk will then remain silent until given the indication all(Ir., tutti ;Fr., tollS; Ger., olJJe) ,

BOWIS'G

In the playing of stringed instruments the tone is given life andwarmth through the use of vibrato of the left hand. This is a combina-tion of impulses involving the muscles of the hand . wrist, and arm. andits effect at the fingertip is an almost imperceptible osci llation in pitchof the note. The vibrato is employed on all stopped tones except thoseof short du ration and needs no indication for its usc. H owever, thereare times when one prefers the peculiar tone quality obtainable onlyby suppressing the vibrato, in which case the direction senza vibratoshould be ginn,

The bow-stick is of fine, light wood. generally Pernambuco, whichis rem arkable for its elastic qua lity . T he stick is cu rved inward towardthe hair , and , when the hair is tigh ten ed by means of the screw at theheel of the bow, the resu lting tens ion brings int o play the resilience ofth e stick, an important facto r in the various bow strokes. T he hair ishorsehair. although in recent times other materials, such as nylon. have

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It is possible to srop notes on two adjacent strings in such a way thatrhe bow can sound bot h nores at once. This is called double-stopping.T riple- and quadruple-stops (chords) are also feasible, although itwi ll presen tly be seen that the simultaneous sound of three or four notescannot be prolonged by the bow.

DI\'IDED STRlSGS

position is ident ified by a number derived from the number of diatonicsteps between the first finger and the open string. In string technique ,and also in the fingering of wind instr uments, the index finge r. not thethumb, iscalled first finger.

Detailed description of the fingering systems of the several stringedinstruments will be given in succeeding chapters.

OOUBLE-STOPS

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In the orchestra, double notes are customarily divided between thetWO players read ing from the same desk. The part should be markeddivisi, Italian for divided (F r., dhises; Ger., geteilt) , most often ab-breviared to div. The right-hand player at each desk takes the uppernote. W hen the part returns to single notes it should be marked unisoni{Fr., unis; G er ., nicbt geteilt ), usually abb reviated unit , If dou ble noresarc written, and the composer wishes each player to play all the notes,using double-stops, he writes a pre cautionary non div. (in Germansco res usually Doppelgriff ) . This ind ication is used only when thereismore than one note, to prc\'ent dividing.

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Perhaps the commonest bow stroke is that which changes directionfor each note. As mentioned above. the change can be nude withoutbreak in the tone. But this stroke, known by the Fr ench term ditscbe,is usually performed so that one hears the articulation of th e bowch anges. T he notes are not so detached from one another that th e effectco uld be called staccato. The der.:lcbe can be described as nonlegato.O rdinarily it is played in the middle or upper third of the bow.

as to the best W:lY to bow a given phrase. and are seen even now mark-ing changes in the bowing of such well-established classics as theBeethoven symphonies.

EX. 5. Schubert-Sy1llphony no. 8

T his noalegarc bow stroke is sometimes used at the point of the bowto take advantage of its extreme lightness there , and at the heel for theadded weight occasionally want ed.

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A mo re even tone will be ach ieved by a bowing which resto res thebalance of up and down, both in quantity and rate of motion.

Fig. 8

There is a natural tendency towards crescendo in the up-bow, due tothe increasing leverage of the length of bov..' to the left of the string.and likewise a tendency towards diminuendo in the down-bow. \,"hilcthese tendencies arc guarded against by the player. it is advisable [0recognize them when planning the bowing of a passage.

It is evident that the bow must move up as much as it moves down.But if the up and down motions arc of un equ al rime value it means th atthe Low must man at:1T1 u neve n spee d. thus nuk ing it difficult to main-tain an even dynamic level. T he bowing indicated in Fig. 7 will in-cvirably cause the third and sixth beats to sound louder than the others,since th e same length of bow must be used to play two sixteenth no tesin up-bow as was used to play fo ur sixteenths in down-bow.

In a legato phrase th e changes in direction of the bow are determinedby combined factors of intensi ty. dynamic level, tempo, the length ofthe bow. fingering, etc. Any melody can be bowed effectively in ~anydifferent ways. and it is no wonder that concertmasters often disagree

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EX. 10. Becrhoven.-sympbony no. 1

Staccato playin g in fast tempo does not call for a lifting of the bow,but the shorr, qu ick dow n- and up-bows made by the wrist alone, inthe middle of the bow, cause the stick to bounce. and this in rum causesthe hair to spring off th e string with each stro ke.

EX. II. Rossini-O..-erture to Willinn T e//

An other type of bouncing bow is usually called by the French jete(thrown ). It is played near the point, and the how is not thrown butdropped upon the string with a slight down-bow motion, and allowedto boun ce of irs own accord. Groups of two to six not es can be playedin this way, the indication being dots under a slur, sometimes with theword sstmndo, or saluuo, to make sure of the bouncing effect .

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EX. 13 . Bruckner-Sy111pbony no. 9v

EX. '4. Mahler-Sympbony no. 4

\ Vhen several notes under a slur arc marked with dots, the intendedstaccato may be accomplished with a bouncing bow, usually up-bow.as in Ex. 14. or with the bow held firml y on the string, sharp stop sbeing made by the wrist. as in Ex. IS. The latter bowing is known asslurre d staccato.

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The bowing called nrartellato (hammered) is an on-the-string stac-cato (Fr., martele}, The bow is not permitted to leave the string andthe stroke is very swift, with abrupt start and stop. The sound of thenote, whether in piano or forte, might be imagined in the shape of anoblong block with square ends. Although it is usually played with theupper part of the bow, the martellato stroke may be used at the heel,where the added weight of the bow contributes to the vigor of thestaccato.

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Accents arc made pr incipa lly wit h the Low, but an accent may alsobe imparted by the left hand, by means of a sudden quic kening of thevibrato, by a more forceful finger stroke, or by both. It depends onwhether the accented note is made by lifting the finger (Fig. 9a) , or bydropping it on the str ing (Fig. 9b). T his left-hand accent is nearly al-ways combined with the bow accent in vigorous and rhy thmic passages.

ACCENTS

EX. 17. \ \'ehcr- Eur.v

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EX. 19 . Strauss--Symphonia DomesticaP' 67. cd. Associated Music Publishers

In this bowing, care must be taken that too much pressure is not putupon the bow , lest it strike more than one string. Playing over thefingerboard is impractical on the E-string of the violin, since the curveof the body of the instrument interferes with the proper placing of thebow. It isoften indicated, nevertheless, for passages running up to highpositions on the E-string; although the directive cannot be followedliterally. it serves to suggest the tone quality desired.

Playing with the bow vcry close to the bridge, or even upon it (Fr.,au cbeoalet; Ic., sui ponticello; Ger., am St eg) , produces a special kindof sound, due to the bringing out of upper partials not usually heard.The sound has been called glassy and metallic. T his effect is generallycombined with the bowed tremolo.

WIth ..uth or iu tion of th e original pu blishea Ed . Bote & G. Bock, Bu lin , Wie,baden.

\Vhen sulia tastiera or sui ponticello is no longer wanted, the part ismarked modo ordinaria, or naturale.

T he bow may be tu rned over, so that the strings are struck with thewood instead of the hair ( Ir., col legno) , T his is a bowing used for drystaccato effects, the bow-stick tapping with a kind of off-the-stringstaccato.

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T he return to arco after pizzicato is slightly more inconvenient, asit involves the quick adjustment of the bow into playing position. Ac-tivity like that in the following example is not uncommon, however.

EX. 12 . Debussy-Pe/leas et Afelisande

PIZZICATO

The strings are frequ ently plucked, instead of bowed. The directionpizzicato (abbreviated pizz.) indicates that this manner of playing is tobe continued until the word areo signifies that playing with the bow isto be resumed.

The right first finger plucks the string, over the fingerboard, and theother three fingers hold the bow against the palm of the hand. Thethumb may rest on the edge of the fingerboard to steady the hand , al-though this position is not always necessary or practical. The playingposition of 'cello and bass permits pizzicato also with the thumb, es-pecially for chords arpeggiared from the bottom not e upw ard.

Changing from arco to pizzicato requires an appreciable amount oftime, varying according to the position of the bow at the instant. Alarger interval must be allow ed if the pizzicato follows a down-bow atthe point, whereas after an up-bow at the heel the change can bepractically instantaneous. -

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These effects, although not common, are much better known today.Some composers write col legno bsttuta (Ger., geschlagen) for the tap-ping, and col /egno tratto (Ger., gestrichen) to indicate that the woo d

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Obviously, one can expect little sound to come from drawing thewood across the string. since the amount of fr iction is vcry small. T hereare, neverth eless, some instances in scores of tremolo and legato bowingcollegno. It is interesting that Gustav Mahler felt it necessary to add afootnote in the score of his First Symphony to explain that the indica-tion collegno and the bowing marked were no error.

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The rapidity of passages in pizzicato is necessarily limited by thedifficulty of continued plucking by one finger. The trick of alterna tingfirst and second fingers in fast pizzicato, acquired by somc players. isby no mcans universal. Factors affect ing the practicability of fast piz-zicato playing include the size of the instrument, the dynamic level ufthe music. the amount of continuous pizzicato demanded, and the com-plications in the passage from the standpoint of changes from one stringto another. T he following is an example of successful pizzicato writingat a rapid tempo.

EX. 24- Ravel-D.tphnis et Chloe

T he pizzicato is by its nature a form of staccato. The sound diesaway qu ite promptly. Differences are to be noted in this respect be-(ween small and large instruments, violin and double-bass, for instance.The longer and heavier strings sustain the tone mu ch better than theshorter ones. Open str ings arc more resonant than those stopped by thefingers. T he sound of the fingered notes can be prolonged a littl e byvibrato.

The quality of tone in pizzicato can be varied by pluck ing at dif-ferent points on the string, and by the manner of plucking, from agentle st roking with the fleshy part of the fingertip to a twanging ofsuch violence that the string strikes against the fingerboa rd. There isalso a difference acco rding to the position of the left hand. In higher

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The arpcggiared effect can be held to a minimum by a sharp, sud-den finger stroke, T w o notes can be plucked simultaneously with twofingers. A straight bracket is the accepted indication for this,

EX. 27. Ravcl- L'Enfanl ct Ies Sortiliges

Chords of three and four no tes in pizzicato arc arpeggiatcd from thebottom up. unle ss otherwise marked. A serie s of quickly repeatedchords may be more effectively played by alternating back -and -forthmovements, using one or several finge rs. The direction of the strokesmay be shown by perpendicular arrows, or by the usual signs for up-and down-bow. Sometimes quasi guitara is added.

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Pizzicato may also be performed with the fingers of the left handwhen the notes are so arranged that a finger is free to pluck the str ing,or when a finger is so placed that it can pluck as it is raised after stoppinga note, Left-hand pizzicato is indicated by a cross over or under thenotes.

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T he vibration of a string is a composite of a number of separate.simultaneous vibrations. wh ose frequencies vary in th e ratio I , 2 , 3, 4. 5.ere. These vibrations arc represented in the following diag rams. Pointsmarked n arc called nodes.

Let us assume t he string to be the G-string of a violin . Fig. I I couldth en be translated into musical sounds, thus:

Fig. 12

It will be noticed that the ratio of the divisions of the string shownin Fig. I I is the same as that of the frequencies shown in Fig. 12.

These sounds present in a single tone are called harmo nics. Numberone is th e first harmonic, or fundamental to ne. The others are calledseco nd, thi rd, fourth, and fift h harmonics, overtones, or f-Jrt ials.Higher harmonics than these arc present also, in diminishing strength.The number and comparative strength of the harmonics mak ing up atone give it irs individual tone color, or timbre, enabling us to distinguish

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Although possibilities of new sounds to be obtained by pizzicato havenor been explored by composers in general. some new effects have beenused. such as pizzicato sui pomice/lo and sul tasto; pizzicato harmonics;picking with the fingernail near the nut; and snapping the string agains tthe finge rboard. The last is indicated by the sign 6.

EX. 28 . Stravinsky-Ragtime

EX. 29. Bartok-Violin Concerto

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Composers frequent ly usc the notation (.1) fo r all harmo nics, leavingthe meth od of pr odu ction to the player, whether as artifi cial or as na-tural harmonics. The notation (b) is sometimes used when the lowertone is an open string. T his is incorrect but easily understood.

c

can also be done on the 'ce llo, using the thumb and th ird finger . Thenode which has been found th e most dependable is that of the fourthharm on ic, one-fou rth the new stri ng length, at a point represent ed innotation by the int erval of a perfect fourth above the note stoppedby the first finger. The resulting tone is therefore t wo octaves abovethe sto pped tone. T hese harmonics are called artificial harmonics, asdifferentiated from natural harmonics, wh ich have open str ings as fun-damental tones. Art ificial harmonics are indicated in no tation by (d)placing a small circle above the note to be heard as a harmonic, or (b)wr iting the fundamental ro be stop ped by the first finger as a normalnote and the node a fourth above as a diamond-shaped note (Fig, 1+).The actual pitch of the rone intended is often adde d above, as (c) .

TRILLS

Trills are performed by the motion of one finger , since the fingerstopping the lower of the two tones is held down throughout. Bothmajor and minor tri lls arc good in all range s, the only exception beingthose on the lowest note of the instrument, where the alternation ofopen str ing and stopped note docs not produce as effective a trill asthose on stop ped notes.

It should be remembered that a str ing trill in the orchestra means atrill played simultaneously by a whol e section. Sixteen first violinswill not likely agree on the rhythmic quantities of a trill on a long note,and the effect will not have the clear articu lation of the same trill givensay to the first flute, played by a single player.

Fig. 13

M) .

INSTRU~IENTS

~/G

VIOLl !'! F..

30

ARTIFIC IAL H ARMOSICS

the sound of a clarinet fro m that of a 'cello playing the same note. Wedo not hear this combination of harmonics as a chord. The fundamentaltone is so much stronger than its up per part ials that we are regularlydeceived into assuming that it alone is w hat we hear.

If a vibrating str ing is touched "ery lighdy at one of the dividingnodes sho wn in Fig. II , it will be prevented from sounding its fun da-menta l. but it will continue to vibrate as in the diagram. according tothe node chose n. and it will sound the co rresponding note shown byFig. 12. For example, the G -stri ng is touched lightly at a point one-third of its length from the nut, w hile maintained in vibration by thebow. T he enti re string vibrates as in no. 3 of Fig . I I . T he note soun dedis that shown as no. 3 of Fig. 1 2 . T he same result is obtained by touch-ing the other node of the same number, two-thirds of the way fr omnut to br idge.

T ones produced in this manner are called by string players harmonics(Fr., sons barntoniques; Ir., armonici; Ger., Flsgeotenonev . T heir tim-bre is quite different from normal stopped tones, since only thosepart ials are sounding that have a node at the point to uche d. They areindicated in notation by (a) placing a small circl e over the note in-tended to sou nd as a harmonic. or (b) writing a diamon d-shaped noteat the pitc h where the node producing the desired note is found on thestring.

The indication sui G means that all is to be played on the G-string(Ger., G-Sait e) . Another means of designating the string to be used,preferred by the French, is that of Roman num erals, the highest stringbeing always I (e.g., IV' corde ) .

On the violin and viola it is possible to stop a tone with the firstfinger and at the same time tou ch a node wit h the fourth finger. This

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EX. 31 . BrJhms-Sympbolly 110. I

one str ing, the two notes arc held as a double-stop; and the tremoloeffect has to be nude by an undulating motion of the how. alternatelytouching the two strings. This type of tremolo is not the same as thetrue fingered trem olo, since it lacks th e clear art icu lation of the fingerstrokes.

In the preceding example some of the grou pings. such as Violin I.measure 4. can be played as fingered tremolo (measured), while ot hersrequire two st rings. like those in the first measure . On the other hand,all are possible as double-stops, with undubting bow.

The bowed tremolo is made with quick up- and down-bow str okes.the left hand holding the note or notes. It is a characteristic orchestra leffect, capable of grc:lt dynamic range and variety of accentuation.

p. : S, cd. Kalmus

TRL\IOLO

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32

EX. 30. Dcbussy-L'Aprcs-11lidi d un FsuneTJios moderefUr 13 toucbe~ ,-_........ ...... .-

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The division of the first violins in the first measure of Ex. 30 wouldseem on first glance to be only theoretical, but it is a way of makingsure that both notes of the interval sound at each change of bow.

\ Vhen the interval exceeds the limit of extension of the fingers on

A trill with a harmoni c inrerval larucr th an a majo r second is a fin-g'cred tremolo. If a real tre molo is int~nded. rather than an alternation;If two notes at a stipu lated speed (sometimes culled measured tremolo) .it is advisable to write time values fast enough ( 0 insure a real tremolo,o r to add the word tremolo, or tremotando. Slurs are ncccss:uy to showthe legato movement of the bow.

3S

MUTES

S T R I N G E D IN S T R U ,\ 1E N T S

SCORDAT L'RA

The mute is a three-pronged device made of woo d, metal, bone, orother materials, which can be fitted on ro the bridge for the purpose ofabsorbing some of the vibrations befo re they can be transmitted to theresonating body of the instrument. The tone quality of muted stringsis difficult of descrip tion. bur, once heard, its characteristic sound iseasily remembered. \V hile one of the results of muting is to reduce thedy namic power of the body of strings, the radical change in tone coloris far more important. ;\Iuting should not be regarded as the primarymeans of getting the strings to play softly. A fine pianissimo can beachieved without mutes, and, furthermore , the special effect of fortewit h muted strings mar sometimes be just what is wanted.

T ime must be allowed for putting on and taking off mutes, at leasta couple of measures in moderate tempo. T he more time the better, toavoid confusion and fisturbance. X umerous inventions to [acilirare aquick change have appearcd, such as mutes with a spring clip, or mutespermanently installed on the strings back of the bridge, to be pushedup against the bridge for muting. It cannot be said that any of thesehave met with complete acceptance by string players .

A gradual change to muted tone can be managed by directing theplayers to put on mutes one by one, or by desks, marking the point atwhich all are to be mute d.

The indication to put on the mute is the Italian can sordina, or cansardina-plural sardine, or sordini (Fr., avec sourdines; Ger., mitDampier, or gedii7llpfr).

T o call for removal of the mutes, th e passage is marked senza sordini(Fr., sans sourdines; G er., obne Dampfer), or via sordini (Fr., dtez. lessourdines;Ger., Dampfer weg ).

A change fr om the normal tuning of the strings is called scordatura.This has been employed to extend th e dow nward range of basses and'cellos on rare occasions. In Don Quixote Strauss asks the solo viola totune the C-string to B, and a similar change is asked of the 'cellos inCasella's Partita for Piano and Orchestra. T he strings do not give th eir

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EX. 33. Mozarr-Sylllphony, K. 543

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Equally idiomat ic in orchestral writing is the continued repetit ion ofbow strokes, ditacbe, on a series of notes, CO give more energy andvolume to the strin g tone.

EX. 3'. Debussy-La AlerH

36 I :-; S T R U .11 E :-; T S

best tone when altered more tha n a minor second, and the incon ven -icncc and disturbance caused by retuning during performance seem tooverbalance th e slight advanta ge gained . .

The use of scordatura fo r a change of tone color 15 ano ther matter .In Mahler's Fourtb Symphony the solo violin in the second .mon rncnthJS all fou r strimrs tuned up a whole tone, to make it sound " like a cheapfiddle." The CC~lCCrrlllaS[er prepares a second instrum ent to usc forthis moveme nt, so th at retuning is avoided.

C H AP TE R T W O

T HE V IOL IN

Fr., 'I.:iO/Ol1; Ir., 'i,,';0IiI10 ; Ge r., Violine

T il E over-all length of~c violin is 23% inc hes. -' Iinoe variationsin pro portions and size are found in different models . T hebody is 14 inches long. the neck a littl e unde r ; ~ inches , andth e sounding length of the strings-that is, from nu t to bridge-isslightly ove r 12% inch es. The length of the bow is 29 inch es.

The top. or belly. of the instrument is usually of pine or spruce. theback of map le in one or two pieces. Ebony is used for the tailpiece.fingerboard, nut. and tuning pCb"S. Inside the body. the arched belly isreinforced by a strip of wood ca lled the bass-bar, glued beneath theG -string edge of the fingerboard . A wo oden sound post is held in placeby tension between top and back at a carefully chose n spot ncar theE-string side of the br idge. having the double function of support andcommunicarion of vibrations. T he {-holes arc characteristic openingsof traditional shape at either side of the bridge (Plate on page 38) .

F1S GERLSG

The violin is supported between the ch in and the left shou lder. Achin rest attach ed at the left of the tailpiece helps hold the instrumentso that the left hand is fr ee to move up and down the fingerboard. Theneck of the violin lies between the thumb and th e palm of the lef t hand,and the left elbow is held fat to the right, enabling the fingers to fallalmost perpendicu larly upon the strings .

31

39

p. '40, cd. Eulcnburg

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P: 172 , cd. Philharmonia

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THE V IOLIN

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EX. 35. Mendelssohn-Ita/ian Symphony

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EX. 34. Schumann-SY111phony no. Z

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The manner in which the fingers are lifted or dropp~ affects theclarity. rhyt hm. and tone quality of the sounds produced. T he fingeraction varies from exceedingly energetic strokes (Ex . H ) to an ex-tremely light and fleet art iculation (Ex. 35) '

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41

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P: I H, ed. Kalmus

T ilE VI OLI N

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ACCID EXTALS

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EX. 36. \Vagncr- T annlJ.lw er: Baccbsnete

EX. 37. Brahms-S)'111phonJ no. 4

A note affected by an accide nta l is played with the same finger asthe natural norcoO n rhe G -string, the first finger plays Ab , Ab, and A~ .Also the first finger must play the sharped open string note G:. Thestudent should make a diagr am similar to that in Fig. 16, marking thelocation of the finger s on the strings for the playing of the followingpassage.

Open str ing tone s arc usually avoided in expressive melodic phrases.but they arc regularly employe d in fast scales and figures. Their soundis characteristic of stringed instruments, and mar even be exploited assuch (Ex. 37) .

Ex. 36, open G is assumed to be a satisfacto ry equivalent of F doublesharp.

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The following diagram gives the location of the fingers for all thenatural note s in the first position .

OPES STRI~GS

X ore that the first finger is drawn back close to the nut for F on theE-string. the intern I being a minor second, instead of a majo r seco ndas on the other stri ngs. T he diagram should be studi ed also for relation-ships involving more than one str ing. For example, from first finger onone string to second finger on the next higher string is a minor sixth;from first finger on one string to fou rth finger on the next higher stringis an octave; from second finger on one str ing to third finger on thenext lower string is a perfect fourth, ere. Perfect fifths lie across thestrings at right angles.

Duplication by the fourth finger of th e open string notes A. D, andE is an advanta ge peculiar to the first position . There is. however. amarked difference in tone quality between the opcn su ing tones andthose stopped by the fingers. The former sound clearer and richer inovertones, because the string vibrates between the bridge and the hardwood of the nut rat her than the flesh of the finger tip. But without thecont rol of th e finger the open tone is susceptible to little modificationby the bow, and it tends to sound wit h undue prominence. Further-more, its pitch cannot be adjusted whi le playing (consider the note A assubdorninanr of E. and then as leading tone of fib). These discrepanciesof intonation are generally tolerated as a necessary evil, notably in theusc of natural harmonics, whose pitch is dependent on that of the ope nstring fundamental, and also in enharmonically notated passages. In

40

T wo notes in ch romatic secp relat ionship are by tradition playedwith the same finger. This requi res a more or less rapid shift of t he fin-ger on the str ing ; hence, with a legato bowing. a certa in amount ofp0rtamcnro is unavoidable.

43

Fig. '9

ISTONATION

3 4 0 I f 2"17 rs -4 0 1 -1

TH E VIOLI:-;12 3 4 012' 1 2

,"'44,

POSITIOS T EC IIS IQIJE

As the hand is moved to higher positions new groups of notes lieunder the fingers.

. G oo.d into~ation (that i.s. play.ing in tune) is a perpetual preoccupa-n on With all instrumcntalisrs. Wind as well as strin g players. It is notan absolute bur a relative value. howeve r. Observation and experimentshave demonstrated that in practi ce performers do not adhere to anv ofthe scienti fical.l)' codified standards of pitch. such as equal rcmpcrarnenr,Pythagorean, Just. or mean-tone intonation. Nor docs the player acceptthe rones he produces by using the proper fingering, crc., without sub-jecting them to constant control and correction through the car (ex-cept, of .course, in the case of instruments like the harp or the piano.

~hose pitch cannot be adjusted while pbying) . It can be said that lead-tog-tones a.nd chro.ma t i c~ lIr .rJised nores arc playe d sharp and \'ery

~Ios~ to their melodic destin ations, whereas flatted notes are played low10 pitch, and that there operates a conti nual harmonic adjustment tothe sounds of other instruments.

T~e ~eculi~r \'i?r::mc): noticeable in the tone of a group of stringsplaying 111 unison IS due In pan ro the minute differences in pitch thatoccur throughout the grou p.

1:-; S T R U ~I E :-; T S

CHRO:'\ IATIC PROGRE5SIOS

4 b. e,, : j ffi r ill jt t i", e " a 3 I a 3 " 3 1 , 3 F;g. , 8

42

Musically. the difference betw een (.J) and (b ) , in Fig. 18 is one oftonality. T he fragmen t (d) is understandable in the key of G , and ( b)in the key of Ab. to mention two possible inte rpretations. T he un -orthodox fingering shown in (c) is enti rely feasible. and the pr incipleof using a separate finger for each chromati c step has in practice par-tially superseded the time-honored one, as by this means a more distinctarticulation is obt ained, with out sliding or portamenro.

There can be no doubt of the superiority of fingering (c) for rapidpassages, but it should be recognized tha t at a slower tempo the dif -ferentiation in harmonic meaning suggested by (a) and (b) may besacrificed, not to mentio n the elimination of certai n slides firmly estab-lished in wh at we know as "v iolin sty le." It is true that harmonic de-vclopm ent s in the twenti eth cen tury often demand complete accept-ance of the enharmonic notation of the tempered scale, but the choiceof fingering should be governed by musical rather than by mechanicalconsiderations.

These two alternat ive fingerings are shown in the following scale.Obviously the sound of the finger slides is eliminated if a dbache bow-ing is used, but the lower, older fingering remains awkward even then.

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EX. 39. Stra\'insky-Apollon J /usJgete

H AL F POSITIOS

Fingering at the top of the fingerboard is difficult not only becauseof the smallness of the intervals and the extended position of the hand,but also because the strings arc spaced fart her apart at the bridge tha nat th e nut , to facilitate bowin g.

T he E m oo octaves above th e open Estring may be recommended asa good practical upper limit. exclusive of harmonics, for orchestralviolin parts.

FOURTH FI:"GER EXTES SIO:-;

In the first position the left hand is capable of a str etch of an aug-mented fou rth . and even a perfect fifth. from first to fourth finger. Inhigher positions. extension of the fourth finger beyond the range ofthe position is common procedure (Fig. 11).

T he hand is said to be in half position when the first finger is a halfstep from the nut and the second finger plavs notes usually played bythe first finger . Certain combinations of notes arc more convenientlyfingered in this rather cramped position (Ex. 39) .

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GLISSAX OO AS D PORrA:\-{ E~TO

Su ppression of th e portamenro in the following example would cer-tainly be inappro priate.

A true gl issand o is made with one finger, on one st ring, with legatobow, and when it is properly executed all intervening stages of pit chare sounded between the indicated limits.

Cgpyrlchl 1910 by Adolf FUf'lt"rr, ~",iKn"" 19H to Boovy &< lIu.-l,u, l.td l'scd by pocrm i16IOD. ( ForPon....,.l I t.a.ly, Germ~ny, Dan"L l"SSR as 01 19J3: l u ' omer , Lid . London.)

EX. 4 1. Ran l- Dapbnir et Chloe

This glissando is sco red as un ison and octaves for first and seco ndviolins, violas, half the 'cellos, and basses, all on th eir open A- strings,sliding up and down two octaves in fast tempo.

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SHIFT OF POSITIO:S

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In chan ging from one position to anothe r, a slidi ng finger acts as aguide to the interva l of change. The hand may Ol(W C to any of th epositions. but th e commonest shift is that from first to third , th ird tofifth position. erc ., involving a slide of a third, usually fo r the firstfinger (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22

T he gu iding finger is nor necessarily the sto pping finger in the newposition. Fig. 23 (a) is a cha racteristi c position shift. The first fingerslides fr om B to D, bur th e fo urt h finger stops G before D is heard.The slide can be nude so quickly as to he inaudible. bur it is oftenpermitted to sound fur expressive intensification. O ther shif ts areshown in (b) , (e) . and (d).

\ Vhen taste and the style of the mus ic allow, the finge r that is toplay th e second note may nu ke a sligh t po rtament o on the st ring justbefore reaching the note. In a desce nding shif t, th e port:unetlto onquitting the uppe r note is kep t to a minimum, the thumb acting as aguide to the lower position .

T he sliding sounds can be reduced to ncar impercepribiliry, or theycan be eliminated alt ogether, by skillful manipulation of the bow andfingers. H owever , they arc idiomatic in st ring playi ng, and sometimesa parti cular finge ring th at will produce them is deliberately ch osen.

p. 49. ed. Kalmus

P' 39. ed. Durand

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WIDE SKIPS

EX. 45. Ravel- La V alse

T o judge the degree of difficulty in fingering wide leaps one con-siders the str ings involved and the position displacement necessary . Theskip of two octaves and a major sixth in Ex. 46 passes from the G-stringto the E-string. and the hand must move from first position (third fingerC) to seventh position (fourth finger A ). This is equivalent to a slidefrom C up to B for the thi rd finger. an interva l of a major seventh onone string.

Likewise the glissando in the next example cannot be literally exe-cuted . After the open E is reached. somcrhing like a rapidly fingeredchromatic scale or parcial glissando on the lower strings must be sub-stituted.

T HE VIO LI N 49EX. 44 . .\1ahlcr-SympbollY 110. 4 p. 1 19 . ed . Ph ilharmonia

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P' I 18, ed. Philharmonia

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EX. 43. Mahler-Sy mphollY 110. 4

It is evident that composers fail to distinguish between ponementoand gliss.Jlldo, and it is unnecessary that a pedantic dist inction shouldbe made. Portamcnto seems to imply a manner of connecti ng melodictones, and one thinks of a glissando as covering a fairly wide interval,bu t these conditions are not mutua lly exclusive. Care should be taken inthe notation to show as accurately as possible the exact effect intended.

A straight line from one note to anothe r is commonly used as a signof porramento, although there is often doubt as to how complete aslide iswanted. In E-,

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p. 126, ed. Schott

P' 36, ed . Universal

CH OiCE OF F1XGERIS GS

EX. 50. Berg-Lyric Suite

EX, 51. Hindemith-Symphony ill E Flat

TH E VIO LI N

Open strings may take part in passages in which the hand remains ina high position.

right instant. It must be admitted, however, tha t keen cars arc not de-ceived.

l\fore than one fingering is possible for any succession of notes, andthe one selected is not always tha t which is most convenient for thefingers. Simplifi cation of bowing. by eliminating suing changes. issometimes a predominant consideration. Often a fingering with moreposition shifts is adop ted in orde r to presene the unity of tone colorand special quality of a single string, or to give a part icular expressivetum to a melody. The student's attention is called to the importanceof developing an appreciation of these differences in the sounds pro-duced by stringed instrum ents.

In recent years one not es a strong tendency to ward a liberation ofviolin fingering techniqu e from the traditional system of positions. Itcannot be denied that many forced and unnatural fi nger positions arethe result of "correct" fingering, and that these produce bad intonation.Accomplished and experienced players find that they prefer to discoverfingerings most suited to the shape of the hand, of th eir own individua lhand, without reference to con ventional patterns and positions, so thatthe notes to be played lie convenient ly under the fingers that are to

P' 48, ed . Bore & Bock

p. ' 9. ed, Boosey & H awkes

IN S T R U ~ 1 E N T S

l 'sed hy P

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE STRISGS

53

P' 6], ed. Kalmus

P' a, ed. Philharmonia

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The G -string is next to th e E-string in sonorous strength. It isexcel-lent for broad melodies rising as high as the seventh or eighth position,although it has a tendency to hoarseness in the extreme high rones. Acautious limit for melodies on the G- string would be an octave and afourth above the open string (Ex. 55) .

EX. 54. Beethonn-Piano Concerto no. 4

The least powe rfu l str ing is the D-string. It has a quiet, subduedquality in contrast to the G, and is especially suited to certain calmtypes of expression (Ex . 54).

-,

EX. 5). Brahms-Symphony no. J

The A-string is fairly strong in the first position . losing some bril-liance and power as the string becomes shorter in upper positions. Fora soft, expressive phra se in that range, it is generally preferable to moveup the A-string rather than pass over to the E (Ex. 53) .

P: 69, ed. Durand

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EX. 51 . Milhaud-Second Symphonic Suire

While there is much more unity of timbre in a stringed instrumentthan in a woodwind, there exists in this respect within the homogeneityof the violin a striking variety and even contrast of colors and dynamicrange . This is largely because of the differences in sound between thefour strings. Since the pitch ranges of the strings overlap, the possibili-ties for variety are multiplied, and we cannot designate characteristics oflow, medium, and high registers, as we do for wind instruments.

The E-str ing is made of steel. T he radical change to t his material fromgut, in the interests of greater brilliance and durability, occurred inthe first quarter of the present century and was felt by many to be adisaster because of the loss of a certain silky and mellow quality.A-strings are of gut, although some orchestra players now use a metalA. The Dvsrring iseither of gut or gut wound with aluminum wire. TheGcsrring isalways a wound string, silver or copper wire over gut beingthe commonest material . D- and G-strings entirely of metal are alsoused.

T he tu ning pegs to which the st rings are attached are held in positionby the friction of a good fit. A knot or a loop attaches the other end ofthe string to the tailpiece. Metal strings require a special screw deviceon the tailpiece for tuning fine differences.

T he E-string has the most carrying power. Forceful and even stri-dent at times, it is also capable of an ethe real quality, luminous andclear, when played softly (Ex. 52).

play them. Doubtless these principles will one dar be incorporated intothe teaching of violin playing.

52

Hplayed

i f O' iN

QD

TilE VIOLl:\,

Most violin music will require the use of more than one string fora given phrase. The passing from one string to another is done in a wayto reconcile thei r di ff erences and as far as possible to presen'e con-tinuity of colo r and intensity.

DOt:nLE-sTOPS ASD CHORDS

' '/ ' / "VFig. ' ;

The above representa tion of bridge. strings, and bow shows howlittle ch ance in the elevation of the rinhr lund is ncccssarv fo r the bow~ 0 .to play on different strings. The Low can be drawn in a plane to engagetwo strings at once. whatever the posit ion of the left hand ( Fig. 2sa) ,It cannot be drawn across three str ings at once, unless enough pressureis pur upon it to depress the midd le string of the three into the sameplane with the ot her two. T his is done in three -parr chords that arcloud and of short du ration ( Fig. 2Sb ) . O therwise, in both three-partand four-parr chord s. eithe r the top note or the two to p notes are heldafter play ing the low er notes as grace note s (Fig . 2SC and d). It is theCustom ro play the lower notes before the beat. If such anticipation isnot desired, a notation like rhnr shown in ( e) should be employed.

Fig, 24

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EX. 55. hl ahlcr-SYlllpl!oIlY 110. 354

l ....d b}" prrm iu ion or l"n in rs.al Ed;! ,,," .,. G.

T he next example illust rates a way of avoidi ng loss of volu me andfo rce by using the G-string instead of the weaker D.

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EX. 56. Bartok-Concerto for Orchestra

EX. 57. ROllsscl-Sympbony in G Minor

Loud accented notes on the G-string can be forceful to the degree offerocity.

Pumlulon llrantcd by Durand rt Cie. , Paris, cop yright ownr u ; Elk Jn 'oJ:rl , Philadelphia. Pa ., a grn ts.

To signify that a passage is to be played on a certa in string, the pas-sage may be marked sui G (o r D or A ), with a dortcd line cont inuingas far as necessary. O ne should realize. however, th at a violinist selectshis finge ring acco rding to the musical and technical dema nds of themoment, and ordinarily such indications are needed only when a specialeffect is inten ded,

57

P: 11 J. cd. Guthcil

t 1 4 t--- ......... ,

T HE VIOLl:-:

EX, 59' Prokofiefl-c-Cocnr

~ r:(Jrdpos.) 2Fig. ' 7

The hand position for (.1 ), with its outward slant. is practically th atof th e relaxed hand when the fo rearm is held upwards. In (b), not onlymust the hand be forced into a twisted posit ion. hut also th e free vibra-tion of the E- and A-strings is ap t to be inter fered w ith. It is not th atthe chord is un playable but that ( a) is mu ch more cert ain and effective.Complex and awkward finger combinations need more time to set inplace than simple and convenient ones.

O pen strings arc frequently used in chords and double-stops. T heymay be combined with stopped notes in higher positions (Fig. 27).

One finger can stop two adjacent stri ngs at once (the interval of aperfect fifth), but it cannot Stop three or four.

The less awkw ard and strained the hand position the Letter the chordwill sound, and the less likely that it will be Out of tunc. One goodrul e is to try to have th e higher-numbered fingers on higher strings.The following two contrasting cases will illust rate th is.

~",S~c tr

Fig. 26

The un ison of stopped ton e and open string is very resonant , es-pecially in tremolo.

P' I, ed. Kalmus

1:-: ST R U ,\ 1E:-: T 5

Alit gro ~on boo.l " .~

," ' i

I ~""'. '""". --

rH '"-f~ I

"'* ~.~ I ~'S _ II

"'".II~ \ 'II,. ,.. \,, 'd . D

"

P

~ vcD-8, .. ..-

56

The notat ion in Fig. 25(c) makes for fussiness in the score, and com-posers generally h:1XC been content to write the phi" chord, rely ing onthe musical intelligence of performer and conductor for a properrhythmic execution. In the opening tutti chords of the Eroica, the firstviolins must sound the four strings as nea rly simultaneously as theycan, to match the staccato of the other instruments. (T he example isginn in condensed score. All inst ruments arc not ated at actu al pirch.)

EX. 58. Bccth o\'cn-SY111phouy no . 3

T he student can bcsr determine the practicability of any mu ltiplestopping by the method of making diagrams showing rhe location of rhefingers, at least until he gains enough experience to be able to picturethese positions in his imagination. T he practice of making such dia-grams will go far toward giving him that expe rience. T he followingpoints will be found useful in writing chords for the violin.

59

P: z t , ed. Heuge!

p. ' 5' . ed. Boosey & H awkes

TH E VIOLIN

EX. 64. ,\ f ilhaud-SympbollY no. 2

EX. 6). Cop land-Sympbony no. 3

The upper limit for natura l harmonics on the violin is generallyplaced at the fifth harmonic; that is, t\VO octaves and a major thi rdabove the open string. In practice. the higher harmonics would prob-ably be taken as art ificial harmonics. up to t he fourth O[ fifth positionon the E-string. although still higher harmonics have been wri tt en(Ex. 6).

Rep rod uced by pet miMion of Ile ugel el Cle., Paris, o.... ners of lhe copyright.

Examples arc nu merous of high pedal nores in harmonics, frequentlywith bowed tremolo. Their effect is enhanced by mutes; and in softnuances cho rds in harmonics for divided violins, muted, make an at-tract ive background of atmospheric color.

Artificial harmonics in quick succession, with either legato or de-tache bow , involve-continual shifting. much like playing a melody withone finger.

The glissando in natura l harmonics is effective with a body of strings.The upper half of the srring is brushed lightly wirh the third or fourrhfinger , the harmonics sound ing at the nodes. There is no sound ofportament o between the notes.

C. F. Peten Corporl-

P: 9. ed. Kalmus

P' 44. ed. ulenburg1 2,..--,0 3_p~ , ~ .F :(1 Sr i 1t If

INSTR UM ENT S

EX. 6,. Schuberr-Symphony no. 5

HARMONICS

Copyrllhl by M. P. Belli.!!"; aole Icenu Boosey & Ib..... l

6 1THE Vl OLl :"

for instance, as opposed to one player to a part in the case of woodwindor brass. The two sections of violins far outnumber any other gro up,while presenting on the printed page a look of equali ty .

T he parr for second violins, in a symphony orc hestra, differs little intechnical difficulty fro m that of the first violins. Indeed. one of thecommonest functions of the second violins is to double the firsts at theunison or octa ve. T his was necessary in the classical period because ofthe comparatively small number of violins available to balance hornsand trumpets. But also in modern times we find that over tw ice as m:lnyviolins are still not adequate to cope with the sonority of an enormouslyexpand ed brass section.

The first violin part is usually the top voice of the strings and carriesthe largest share of promi nent thematic material. Scared on the left ofthe conductor, at the edge of the stage, the first violins play with thei rinstruments in the most advan tageous position relative to the audience.If the second violins arc seated on the right , in tr aditional fashion, theirinstruments are turned away fro m the audience and some sound islost. If they are massed with the first violins. as some conductors prefer.they are still dominated by the first violins who are between them andthe listeners, and the effect of independence and antiphony oftenimagined by the composer is much reduced. This is one of th e manyacoustical probl ems standing in the way of an exact science of orches-tration.

The second violins may have a secondary melodic part, or they may,for variety, be substituted for the first violins. They may engage in ac-companiment figures of e\'cry sort, either by themselves or associatedwith first violins or other strings. In Ex. 68, in the first and third mcas-ures, the two sections alternately play figures from a single line, givingit more secu rity and energy thro ugh the simplification of each part andthe overlapp ing unisons at the joints.

p. 12 I , ed. D urand

P' J I, ed. Philharmonia

P' 1 2 , ed. Broude Bros.

,

r x ST R U ,\ 1EN T S

p

Moho moderato 0co.n n/nl . kg.uo o...o ~glm. nU D ..o~0 _

",1'1 . I~"

EX. 67. Bartok-Dance Suite

"Pc rm ia.sion p-I nt! b)' Du rand (1 Cir . PiUi~. copy ri~1 o..ners; E!kan \'ogt'l. Ph l1" delphia . PI , .~nu..

Cop yrilht 1924 by u e tve..... l Ed ition. Cop yr igh t aigned 1939 to 800s

63T HE VI O LI N

Repr i n l ~d ".-ith the permiss ion of th e sole agen ts for Eulcn l> urg l>l: nlature Scores: C, F , Pe ters Corpo ra-li on, :-;.w \ 'o r l

music style. and the solo style. Playing in an orchestra , the ind ividualallows himself to be absorbed in the mass. In chamber music style. theperformer retains his individuality wh ile sh:u ing it on an equal basiswith his associates. The soloist is properly assertive and aggressive.striving to project rhe music vvirh all the vigor and authori ty at hiscommand . T his atti tude contributes to the distinction of the solo violinpact.

64 I :-.: 5 T R U ~I EN T 5

C HAPTER THREE

TH E V IO LA

Fr., a/to,' It., ....';0/'1; C er., Brssscbe

T H E prop ortions of the viola cannot be as nearly defin ed as th oseof the violin. which can be said to h J \ 'C a standard size withinquite small limits of variation. Fin e violas exist , and are beingplayed. whose measurements show variations of I ;~ to 2 inches in bodylength, and comparable differences in sounding string lengrhs. It seemsthat every imaginable combination of measurements has been tried inthe as yer unfinished evolutionary process. the goal of wh ich is toachieve an instrumental design that will answer to a common ideal ofthe viola's sound and capabilities. T his common ideal is being delayedin its crystallizing by an unusual diverge nce of opinion among per-formers, composers. and listeners, borh as to what kind of tone rhe violashould produce and what kind of music it should be expected to play.The viola presents an especially marked example of the con tinuity ofthe evoluti onary process, w hich we canno t assume to be complered inthe case of any of our instruments.

A hypothetical norm or average may be given for the principalmeasurements: length of body 16% inches; length of neck 6Yt 6 inches;over-all length 27~ inches; sounding length of strings 15'Y4 inches.Even the largest violas are not big enough in comparison wit h the violinto correspond to the pitch a perfect fifth lower, and this discrepancy 15doubtless responsible in large part for the unique tone qua lity of th eviola. The larger the instru ment the more difficult it is to handle, es-pecially when playing in upper positions.

The bow issomewhat rhicker than the violin bow, and hence heavier. 5

67

p. 97, cd. Kalmus

T HE VIO L A

EX. 7 1. Brahms-Symphony no. 2

Adjectives used to describe the tone of the viola, or of any otherinstrument, cannot do more than direct the-stu dent' s attention to cer-tain admitt edly general and " ague attributes. There is no way other

CHAR..\CTERISTICS OF THE STRI~GS

EX. 7 0 . Prokofi eff- ChoU! p. 53, ed. Gutheil

V4~~'/ l' / - 1' /

Allegro con spirirc

V4~rJ~J1P Z .fo 8 2 1 Z .fo 2 1 2 8 2 I ==--

HALF POSITlOS

Copyri l!:hl 1924 b)" Br(itkopf t: Hirtd ( A Cuth.il). Cop) ri&bl assi&ll~ 19047 10 ~)" .. U.~Ir. ... Cltdb)" pumiaioft.

CLEFS

Because of the wider spaces between fingers. the half position ismoreco nvenient on the viola than on the violin and is more frequent ly used.

The normal clef for the viola is the alto clef (middle C on the thirdline) . The treble def (G def) is employed when the part lies sub-stanti ally above the range of the alto clef for a length of time. Toomany clef changes shou ld be avoided. A violist is quite accustomedto reading two or three leger lines above the staff, and he would preferto do so rather tha n change clef for just a few notes.

The harmonic obtainable by extension of the fourth finger in theseventh position is shown in the diagram. as it represents a pr act icalupper Jimit for orchestral writing . Except as harmonics, notes highertha n this are rarely written, and nearly always they are doubled byviolins.

1:-; S T R U .\ 1E:-; T S

o

-

~-

, 2

,0 2

, 2 I

0

-

0 I 2 a I 2 a I 2,

-,. ~0 I 2 , I 2

, I 2

,

0

-

66

D-string

PO SITIOSS

lim posirioI\~ .

Cstring

The viola 's heavier strings speak with more reluct ance. and tone pro-du ction requires a certain amount of "digging in." Light and airy typesof bowi ng arc t herefore less natural to the viola than [0 t he violin.Thev are nor to be shunne d. but one should realize that on ly skillfulplayers with good instruments can make them sound effect ively.

The two lower strings arc wound with wire, the others being plaingut. Some players usc wound strings for all four, and metal A-stringsare also used.

FI:"GF:RISG

C-~tring

The fingering system of the viola is identical with that of the violin .Since there is a difference of some 2 % inches in the two str ing lengths,the ma jor and minor seco nd intervals between the finge rs arc propor-tionately large r. Playing the viola requires a Luge lund and strong fin-gers. particularly the fourth finger. whi ch is held in a more extendedposition than on the violin . The extension of the left forearm in the firstposition prons tiring after long pl

69

P' 10, cd. j obcrr

P' 89, cd. Booscy & H awk es

T HE V IO LA

PrestoIV -

\ A_

\'N . I

H ~.

"

\ N. II

H ==-'

While th e G-string is subd ued in comparison with the A- andC-strings. it gives a riche r and warmer tone than the violin's G.

The Osrring is also capab le of soft. delicate tones, as m this ac-companiment figure for divided violas.

EX. 75.Bart(',k- COl1certo for Orcbestm

EX. 74. Debussy- N oct1lrJIes: N uages

Perml q lon for .., print Ilran ted b~' Edition< J ean Jobert, Pa ris. France, cop yriliht owners " Elkan-VogelCo.. Inc" Philade:phia. Pa . agent. .

The C-st ring of the viola is the only one bevo nd the ranvc of theviolin. It is powerful and distinctive i~ timbre: Although c~incidingwith part of the range of the 'cello, its tones arc in sharp contrast tothe sound of th e D-string of the 'cello. Those who look for subjectivequalities find it foreb oding and menacing . III the following examp le,with vigorous detachc bowing, in the lower half of the how , it givesmu ch solidity and encrgy to rho string unison.

p. 9, cd. Kalmu s

P: 12 , ed. n..Iusicus

I N S T R U ~I EN T S

EX. 73. Brahms-SY1Jlphony no. 3Allegro

11/n:u f)ou. --=--. -.~,. 'H~ l t a ~!!i~I!!J~f'~~r~I' grazioso

EX. 72. Shostakovich-Sympl.lOuy no. 5

~--~-Fr IPl'~

Copyright 1945 by Lre ds Music Corporation. :\ew York . Card by perm i, sion.

T he D -string is unobtrusive and gentle, although it has more rone-weight than the D of the violin. It is, with the G -string, the best partof the viola for the many kinds of accompaniment figure commonlyallotted to it, and it is excellent fo r melodies like the following. H erethe violas play in octaves with the oboe for two measures, and with theflut e for the rest of the phrase.

tha n actua l hear ing to store up the memory imp ressions that make pos-sible t he mental hearing abi lity indispensable for the practice of the artof orchestration. One must develop the capacity to call to mind thesound of each instrument, comparing it to other instruments, but itis also important to distinguish differences in tone qual ity present ineach sing le instr ument.

The top string of the viola presents a striking contrast to the otherthree strings. Its timbre has been described as nasal, piercing, penetrat-ing. and sandy. It has a tendency to sound unduly prominent, but itgoes without say ing that a goo d performer keeps a smooth balance inpassing from the D~srring to the A. The Acsmng's individuality is wellexhibited in the following example.

68

MELOD IC lJSES

71

P' 8, cd. Eulcnburg

p. 'j, cd. Eulenburg

TH E VIOLA

Allegro rna non troppo

EX. 79. Wagner-Prelude to Parrifal

EX. 78. Beethoven-Violin Concerto

D"

Rep ri nted ..dth the per mission of the sole agents for Eul enburg Min ia.ture Scores: C. F. Peters Co rpora-lIon . New York.

tremolo on the lower strings. H eld chords fo r winds are omitted fromthe example.

Sehr 13 n~m

'LIl,!,'1 1 "l i I~ i ~ 1 1; g 1===8,~ >' ~f1

73

p. 236, ed . Bore & Bock

THE VIOLA

"'f, ,

, 'L+ 3 OB. /,~

"'f

VN. ,

PI'

pizz.VA.

P d~tl;(:bpiz.z.

EX. 8, . Mahler-Symphony no. 7

PI'With authoriution of the oxlainal publishers Ed. Bote &: G. Bod.., Berli n, Wies~den.

DOUBLE-STOPS AND CHORDS

A light bass situa ted in the octave below middl e C is sometimes bet-ter given to violas than to 'ce llos, in either areo or pizzicato.

VIOLA S AS BASS

It is wise to adhere to the principle that the maximum stretch fromfirst to fourth finger is the equivalent of a perfect fourth on one string,

The practice of dividing violas remains widespread to the presentday, alrhough one cannot say it is consistent eno ugh to become therule. There arc many scores (e .g., Ravel's Dapbnis et Chloe) in whichthe violas are given regularly two lines in the score. There are likewisescores in which divided violas are a rarity (e.g., Stravinsky's Symp honyin C). It is now mandato ry to mark clearly eith er div. or non diu. whenthere are double notes.

. =. .. -~p

p

INSTRUMENTS

p

" . ~p

"c.Do'.

P

EX. 80. j\ lozart-Symphony in C Afajor, K. 200 P' 3. ed . PhilharmoniaAllegro spiritOSO

72

4pip P '0 '0 ~ J , I IPermls5ion gr anted by D ur and et Cie. Paris. copyrigh t own ers ; Elkan-\'ogel, Philadelph ia. Pa. agents.

71P' 10, ed . Russe

p. )0. ed. Durand

PI ZZICATO

T HE V IOLA

An example of extreme high pizzicato is found in Alban Berg's Vio-lin Concerto, where it is emp loyed in unison with harp, two flutes,and tw o clarinets. It is interesting to note that w hereas these instrumentsare playing If, the violas arc marked {.

EX. 85. Roussel-Suite en Fa

Copyrlaht 1921 by Ed ition Ru ese de Mus iQue. r""d by pennission.

EX. 84. Stravinsky-Le Sacre du Printemps

It is not iceable between the variou s stringed instruments that thegreater the str ing length the more resonant are the tones played piz-zicato . The viola pizzicato is slightly rounder, less dry and short, thanthat of the vio lin in comparable register. H igh notes on the A-stringtend to sound hard and wooden above E or F. This quality may beturned to advantage in appropriate musical circumstances. In the nextexamp le the viola doubles the first oboe at the unison, the first fluteplayin g an octave above.

p. 40, ed. H ansen

UloI:d by perml.sion.

EX. 82 . D'Indy-Symphony on a French Mountain Airp. 5) . ed. Durand

J: H ~ ~~~ ~ ~ ~...B ! I.~JY ~~

A A A ~A'"

l!u ! , l !~, , ~

Perm imon grankd by Dur and el Cie., Par is. copy righ t own ers ; Elkan-Vogd, Philadelphia. Pa., a gents.

H ARM O'S ICS

Several notes above this D are perfectly playable as artificial har-monics, but there is little occas ion for their assignment to violas ratherthan to violins. The lower-pitched harmonics of the viola are in a moregenerally usefu l range.

For the glissando in harmonics, the longer string makes possible theextension of the natural series as far as the nimh partial. Notice theinclusion of the seventh harmonic in the follow ing example.

All harmon ics are good. as on the violin. Artificial harmonics areseldom written above the th ird position D on the A-st ring.

M INSTRUMENTSfor chords and double-stops in th e lower positions. The playability ofany combination can be judged by making diagrams similar to thoseadvised for the violin. Three-part chords will be found more generall yusefu l than four-part chords unless a fairly heavy effect is wanted, andopen-spaced chords sound better than those in close position .

In the following example of a viola passage in a full tutti, the double-stops and chords arc skillfully chosen (0 give the maximum sonority.Notice the large number of open string notes employed.

PO~TICELLO

77

P' 33. cd. Durand

P' 109, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

THE VIOLA

V~

.'"

EX. 89. Debussy-Gi!{lleSMooed

SOLO VIOLA

The bow is frequently moved near to the bridge in the course ofnormal playing, in order to obtain more bite in the tone and a crisperrhythmic attack. This is doubtless the purpose of some uses of the in-dication sul ponticelio. The mute is a practical obstacle to the properposition of the bow for a real ponticello effect.

.1.280~nJ P~ri:d_I~' :. ,- ___ ___ .:

~ "e~ ~~.'*v~BU#;i-=~~ -----===con S07d. PP . ' . .

Cop)rig ht 1910 by Adolf F" rst ner , aSlligmd 1~~3 to Boosey & Hawke s. Ltd . C!led by perm isaion ( Fo rPort"ga.l, Italy, Ge rm an y, D an, ig, USS R as of 1935: f"rstller, L td. , London.)

The solo viola is not as frequently used in the orchestra as the soloviolin, perhaps because its pitch and tone quality are such that it iseasily covered by accompanying sounds. Nevertheless, there are manyfine examples of successful writing for solo viola in symphonic scores.Example 91 is interesting for the rather lively type of melody given tothe viola, in contrast to the more usual flowing, expressive kind ofphrase, like that in Ex. 74. The very light accompaniment consistsof a held D in the strings, the rhythm marked by staccato clarinets,harp, and two solo violins.

Permbslon &ranted by Dur and et Cle. , Pa ris. copyright ownelll~ El k..n\'ogel. I'hiladelphia , Pa. , agen ts.

EX. 90. Strauss-Der Rosenlavatier

p. 70, ed. Universal

P' 14, ed. Broude Bros.

INSTRUMENTS

EX. 88. Stravinsky-L'Oiseau de Feu

The tone quality of the viola lends itself especially well to the effectof bowing close to the bridge. Examples are numerous, most often inbowed tremolo (Ex. 88) or fingered tremolo (Ex. 89)MOI

79

P: 53. cd. Philharmonic

THE VI O L.'

~PI't

~----+-----+----"PI'

1'1'1""._----+-----+----

DUll 5

DESir.: 6

DESK J

'~4

.~ ,

VA. CUJI sord. rv,

Division of the violas reaches its ult imate stage in the following ex-amp le. Parts JfC written fo r six desks, all diiisi, making twelve parts, orone for each player.

EX. 93. Strauss-Don Quixote

~

,,----------------PPRe pr in ted ,,;j l h the permi~.ion of the copyright owners C. F . I' d o," C{)rporation, .'\ ew York

p. 80, ed . Russe

p. ,6, ed. Enoch

IN STR U ,\IEN T S

molto cmr. l1lil 1l0n f

Andante con mowflo .~ ~

6VIOlEw eck, Berl in , Wiel;b..den.

p. 78, ed. Durand

P' 105, ed. Durand

BOWI:"JG

INSTR U hI ENTS

EX. 102 . Schmitt-Antoine et Cteopstre

EX . 101. Debussy-La MerAmme

$1l7 la toucb'

vc, ~t!'2~hg!j!~!~~!~ii~lq~~ , dim. molto PPP

P( rm ission grant(d by Durand et Ck. Pa ri COpytlght owne~; Elka n-Vogd . Philadelphia. Pl.., agtnls.

A fingered tremolo with an int erval larger than a major third ca~ beplayed by using the thumb position . The. amount of stretch possiblevaries according to the position on the string.

The 'cello bow is a little shorrer (2 8~ inches) than the violin andviola bows, thi cker and somewhat less springy. However , all the typesof bowing previously mentioned arc available to the 'cellist and areof excellent effect . The bow is held in the same way as for the othertwo instruments, except that it is turned so that the edge of the hairnearest the player is the first to engage the string. Another differenceto be borne in mind is that the lower-pitched strings are nearest to thebow arm, on account of the playing position of the 'cello. The termsup-bou: and do-am-bon continue to be used in the same sense as hereto-for e. although less accurately descriptive.

Bowing over the fingerboard. near the bridge, and \vith. the wo?d,are effects in common use, as are all kinds of trem olo. Special mennonshould be made of the bowed tr emolo sur fa touche on the two lowerstrings of the 'cello. It has a my sterious quality unlike any othertr emolo.

P (:"1(: .Perm is. ion grante d by D ur and et Cie,. Par i, . copyr igh t own ers: Elko.n-Vogel, Philadelphia, Pl." a genU.

88

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By perm iu ion of the copyright owners W. Bessel et Cie. Puis.

ci..in B

~ot all '~ell ists. have acquired the trick, borrowed from harp andgmtar technique, 10 which the right hand touches the node and plucksthe string simultaneously, allowing the left to stop tones other thanopen ones.

Chords in pizzicato may be arpeggiated upwards by using the thumb,or downwards with one or more fingers. The first way will be followedunless downward pizzicato is indicated by an arrow. Considerable va-riety of effect is to be had, from softly rolled four-part chords to short ,abrupt chords on the three upper strings. The following example istaken from a passage in which the entire string section joins in an evoca-tion of guit ar playing.

EX. 10 7 . Moussorgsky-A Night on Bald MountainP' 81, ed. International Music Co.

THE ' C E L L O 91Harm~ni~ s, when plucked , sound not un like those of the harp. They

are best limited to the natural harmonics of the octave and the octaveand fifth .

P: 80, ed. Kalmus

p. 72, ed. Musicus

[N 5 T R U xt EN T 5

Mcderaro

EX. 106. Shostakovich-Sy111phony no. 5

EX. 105. Brahms-Symphony no. 2

The 'cello pizzicato is especially sonorous and vibrant, and it findsfrequent and varied employme nt in the orchestra. It is an every daymedium for the harmonic bass. The plucked bass tones give both bodyand tra nsparency to the accompaniment. An other common use of'cello pizzicato is in accompaniment figures like the following.

For the high notes, the tone quality in pizzicato remains good wellover an octave above the open A. Then it begins to take on a ratherwooden sound, suitable for special effects. High 'cello pizzicato is usedeffectively in this example.

-P

Cop yrtlhl I9'lS by LPI Z ZICATO

fI01I dN.J'Copyriltht 1931 by \ln l~ er~ l Edi tion. Copyright "'5Sigmd 1939 to Hawkn & Son (London) Ltd. t:.edby permission.

Bowing of chords follows the convent ions of violin chords, the lowernot es being sounded first when no oth er indication isgiven. The direc-tion may be reversed, shown by an arrow placed before the chord, inorder to give emphasis to the bass.

90

EX. 104. Bart6k-Secolld R bapsody for Vi olin and Or chestraP' 6, ed. Boosey & Hawkes

P' 38, ed. Eno ch

ojP' 46, ed. Eulenburg

EX . I I I . Franck-Variations SvmpboniquesLento

THE 'C E L L O

EX. 110. W agner-Siegf ried Idyll

ACCO MPANIME NT FIGURE S

~~E~(~C E ijr tc~piu. pReprln~ed with th e permission of the ..,Ie agents for Elllenburl Miniatllle Scores: C. F. Peter. Corpora'tlon. r-;ew York .

There is litt le difference in timbre between the two lower str ings.Their tone is full and rich in overtones, th e C being slightly more pon-derous than the G, in for te . In soft nuances. melodi es lying in th is rangemust be very lightl y accompanied if they are not to be covered up.

Prope rty of Enoch et Cie. All rlgh ... reserved,

:Pali ll ? WII,j HhH j~poco crac.

'Cello parts contain much passage work either of an accornpanimenralnature or designed to contribute animation to the general orchestral

In the score the only accompaniment is a delicate figuration in thesolo piano part , marked pianissimo.

It is a regular duty of the 'cellos to play bass parts. either alone orwith the doubl e-basses. A common procedure is to write the same notesfor 'cellos and basses. Since the latter sound an octave lower than writ-ten . the result is a bass part in octaves, in w hich the 'cellos act as rein-forcement of th e octave overtone of the double-basses. The 'cellosmay occasionally be placed an oc tave lower so as to sound in unisonwith the basses. giving a more concentrated sonority.

p. 3. ed. Hengel

P: 104, ed . Durand

e:

INSTR U ,\IENTS

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Reproduced by prrmlSo'ion of Heug.! et Cie. , Par i&, owners of th e copyright.

The D-string is smooth and unobtrusive, less nasal than the A.

Assa vire,.~ ~_.-- - - - -~- - - -vc. ~i l J

.tI'f J I r.ll~ dim.

M ELODIC USE S

EX. 109. Charpentier-Impressions of Italy

The A-string of th e 'cello is characterized by much expressivewarmth and intensity, as well as dynamic power. Countless examplesshow how often the 'cellos arc given melodies in this register . The fol-lowing excerpt gives only parr of a remarkable passage for unaccom-panied 'cellos; the entire melody extends over sixty-six measures .

Perm ission gr anted by Durand et Cie., Pari" copyr ight cweers ; Elkan-Vogd, Philadelphia, Fa. , agent '.

EX. 108. Dcbussy-lberja92

95

P: 67, ed. Russe

P: Irs , ed. Universal

THE ' C ELLO

p

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, c

Cop yright 1921 by Ed it ion RI,l~ de Mus iql,le. Us~d b y pen n is.ion.

DIVID ED 'CELLOS

EX. 116. Mahler-SY1l1phony no. 4

The powerful sonority of the 'cello section and the intensity of the'cello A-st ring combine to justify the fr equent procedure of dividingthe group so thar half play the melody. The other half play the bassor a subordinate part, or t hey may even be divided further.

EX. I I S . Stravinsky- Le Ss cre du I'rintentps

It takes good players to perform figures like the following withoutscratchiness.

P' 46, ed. Durand

p. 64, ed. Kalmus

pf

IN S T R U .\ 1E N T S

p

Purnlsslon vant~d by Dl,lran d el Cle., Paris, cop yr ight o...neB; El kanVogel, Ph iladelphia, Pa. , u ent.o

EX. 113. Ravel-Rapsodie Espagnole P: 57, ed. Durand

,c~Umm

:P~lli,i~Permission en .nl ed by D urand et Cie. Pari s. copyright o...ners ; Elkan \' ogel. Ph iladelphia . Pa ., agent.o.

texture. A wide range may be covered, and elaborate figuration oftencalls for techni cal virtuosity. The student should look th rough numer-ous scores to observe the great variety in this kind of writing for the'cello. Some examples are given here.

EX. I 1+ Dukas-La Peri

EX. 1 I 2 . Becthovcn-Sym pbony 110. 8T empo di Mencen c

(Jt4~Clttf) )

94

Rapid passages in the low register, with staccato or detache bowing,are difficult to make clear because of the inertia of the lower strings.

97

P' IZ5. ed. Simrock

\irr-

SOLo 'CEL LO

THE 'CELLO

Uad by penni_ Ion of \b e ori ..in al l>\I blisher . :-0. Sim rod' . H anlburg.

EX. I 18. BrJhms-PjJ'llo Concerto 110. 2

One might descr ibe the preced ing excerpt as an instance of the useof eight solo 'ce llos. although it is the result of progressive division ofthe str ings to he noted in the scores of Strauss. In Rossini's Overtureto William T ell, the open ing is scored for five solo 'cellos in additio n[0 a regubr part for the remainder of the section. T chaikovsky. in theOuvertm e Sotennelle, / 8J2 , calls for four soli in conjunction with t wosolo violas. T he most frequent and characteristic use of the solo 'cellois that in which a single player is given an ouesranding melodic role.

p. 7. ed. Aib l

INSTRUMENTSThis Strauss example shows the division of the 'cellos carried to the

point whe re each player at the four desks has a different part, eight inall.

Repr in ted _,-jlh the pcn ni.. iOD 01 the cop)'ri gh t O"naa C. F. Pete.. Corporation, New YOrL

EX, I 17. Strauss-Also Sprach Zsrstbustm

96

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Reprinted _llh the pctmi Mion 01 the eop}"righl ownen C. F. Pele", Corptlf;ol'un. New York.

99

p. J'. ed. Aibl

TilE nOUBLE-BASS

EX. 11 9. Strauss-Also Spracb Zarubustra

There are three ways to extend the range of th e bass below E. Theseare the temporary tuning (scordatura) of the E-string ro a lower pitch,the use of the five-string bass, and the adoption of a mechanical appara-tus for extending the E-string to C. All thr ee are employed..

The first of these is rhe least satisfactory because of the disturbanceto the instru ment by the change in tuning, and even more because aproper tone cannot be produ ced with a string whose tension has beenreduced to the point of fl abbiness. It is entirel y pract~cal, howe\'~r, totune to Eb or even D. Such alterations are more easily accomphshedwith the tuning mechanism of the double-bass than with the pegs ofother stringed instru ments.

the written notes. Awareness of this fact shou ld become a habit in read-ing or writing bass parts or playing them on the piano. In the examplesof this book, all notes for doub le-basses sound an ocrave lower thanprinted. unless otherwise indicated.

N otes as low as C. below the E of the fourth string, are to be foundin the scores of practically all composers. T his is even more remarkablein the scores of Beethoven's time, when the rhree-string bass. now ob-solete, was in common usc. The lowest string of that instrum ent wastuned to A or Gabon the E of the modern four-string bass.

In performance the player simply plays an octave higher what liesbelow his range. tru sting, no doubt, that the change of oct ave matterslittle at such low pitches. Granting that the octave difference will benoticed only by attentive and discerning ears, especially when thechange iscovered by doubli ng in the 'cellos, it must be realized that ~hisprocedure sometimes results in seriou~ disfigurem~nt .of the musicalidea. Compare. for instance, the following phrase with Its shape as per-formed on the four-string bass.

Fr., contrebasse; It., c071tT.:zbbdSSO; Ger. Kontrabass

TH E DO UBLE-BASS

+ -Eo

CHAPT ER FIVE

OH l ER English names for the double-bass are bass viol, cont ra-bass, string bass. and bass.T he last is the most common.The double -bass presents a differen t appearance from theother members of the string group because of its sloping shoulderstapering into the neck. a characte ristic of its ancestor the viol. Alsonoticeable are the cogwheel tuning devices on the pcgbox. replacingth e friction-held pegs of th e othe r stringed instr uments.

The bass stands on an adjustable peg. and is supported in playingposition by th e body and left knee of the player. Bass players sometimessit on a high stool while playing.

Basses arc of different sizes. For general orchest