Using Metacognitive Strategies to Advance EFL Learners in EAP Context Reading

Hsiu-Chiao (Sally) Fan, Ph.D1

Abstract

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) became well established as an important and distinctive part of English Language Teaching (Dudley-Evans & StJohn, 1998b). It has been a popular issue of late in the ESL/EFL field. Many countries’ educational systems are very interested in adding it to the current educational policy and trying to transform the existing ESL/EFL programs into ESP/EAP curriculum. Thus, the development of ESP/EAP in English as second/foreign language learning is widespread and critical. One type of ESP that is widely discussed and implemented in the field of higher education is English for Academic Purposes (EAP) (Carver, 1983).

Reading research in recent years has also shed light on metacognitive awareness of reading strategies. In this study, the researcher intends to employ metacognitive strategies to improve Taiwanese students’ English levels in EAP courses so that they can adapt to their academic learning. English for academic purpose (EAP) hence plays an important role in both their content curriculum and their academic achievement.

The research question will be addressed as “Does metacognitive strategy training enable to enhance Taiwanese university students’ academic achievement in EAP context reading? The hypothesis will be addressed as “Metacognitive strategies can enhance Taiwanese university students’ academic achievement in EAP context reading.”

A One-Way ANOVA measurement will be employed to test between-group and within-group changes in the variables and see if the teaching of metacognitive strategy can enhance Taiwanese university students’ academic achievement in EAP context reading.

Keywords: transform metacognitive awareness EAP context reading________________________________1 Assistant Professor, Department of Applied English Studies, China University of Technology

1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the StudyEnglish for Specific Purposes (ESP) became well established as an important and

distinctive part of English Language Teaching (Dudley-Evans & StJohn, 1998b). John Swales (1985), one of the prominent ESP concept pioneers (Gatehouse, 2001), also states “ESP is a relatively recent development in the major worldwide industry of Teaching English as a Second/Foreign Language.” It has been a popular issue of late in the ESL/EFL field. Many countries’ educational systems around the world are very interested in adding it to the current educational policy and trying to transform the existing ESL/EFL programs into ESP/EAP curriculum. Thus, the development of ESP/EAP in English as second/foreign language learning is widespread and critical.

ESP is also a key issue for non-English speaking countries like Taiwan to be able to keep up with the rest of the world. One type of ESP that is widely discussed and implemented in the field of higher education is English for Academic Purposes (EAP) (Carver, 1983). With the inclusion of the EAP curriculum into existing EFL programs at undergraduate levels, young adults in Taiwan can improve their competence, not only in English language proficiency, but also in their area of specialty. In this way, Taiwan can advance its competitive strength in the development of economics, technology, and academics as well. The above factors arouse the researcher’s interest in doing research to facilitate the education of Taiwanese university students in EAP reading.

Statement of the Problem1. Limited Studies for the Effects of Metacognitive Strategies in EAP Reading

Given that the concept of English for Specific Purposes/English for Academic Purposes has emerged as an evolving global trend that is in great demand for ESL/EFL learning, many researchers have been engaging in the evaluation of how metacognitive strategies can improve ESL/EFL learners’ reading comprehension and exploring how EAP curriculum can affect ESL/EFL learners’ context reading. However, there were only a few research studies combining both metacognitive strategies and ESP/EAP context reading in advancing ESL/EFL learners’ effective learning. In one example, Dhieb-Henia (2003) investigates how metacognitive strategy training in an ESP context affects students’ reading comprehension. Sixty-two subjects were selected from Biology major undergraduate students to participate in this study. The researcher uses quantitative and qualitative research methods and pre-course and post-course measurements to test the reading performance. The results showed the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy

2

training was improving the students’ familiarity and proficiency in reading ESP research articles. Thus far, there is an increasing interest in the implementation and investigation of metacognitive strategies in ESP/EAP curriculum; nevertheless, they remain very limited.

2. Insufficient Research Investigating English Gap between Secondary and Higher Education Levels

The concept of ESP/EAP in Taiwan has also been recently emerging. There are many institutions interested in implementing ESP/EAP curriculum to meet their students’ specialty area needs. Even though it has been widely discussed in conferences and has begun to be implemented, there were not many universities focusing on the issued curriculum. English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is the basis of ESP curriculum to help young adults, particularly first-year students, gain entrance to and succeed at the universities. In fact, the circumstances behind the scenes are that there is a gap between the general English provided at the secondary level and the academic context at undergraduate levels. As Dhieb-Henia (2003) describes in her ESP context study in Tunisia,

“Little research has been done to investigate what type of trainingwill be most beneficial to bridge the gap between general English at secondary and undergraduate levels and disciplinary reading atgraduate level, and to help students in EFL contexts […] in their specialty area” (p. 388).

Similar to Tunisia’s situation, the Taiwanese junior and senior high general English curriculums do not provide specific context that prepares college students for academic purposes to access the English language they need at undergraduate levels and to accomplish their academic goals (Dhieb-Henia, 2003). Thus, the researcher will put emphasis on the EAP context learning, specifically on academic reading (Master & Brinton, 1998).

Statement of the PurposeThe purpose of this study is to determine the effectiveness of megacognitive

strategy training in advancing EFL learners in EAP context reading, for example, academic reading (or “reading academic textbooks”) and reading strategy skills (as cited in Ajiden, 2009, p. 162). The subjects will be provided with an intervention program for

3

training metacognitive strategy: think aloud and summarization to enhance their performance on the EAP reading comprehension. Thus, the researcher will aim to employ the effects of metacognitive strategies in elevating EFL learners’ English proficiency at university levels in EAP context reading.

Research QuestionsThe research questions posed for this study are as follows:

Does metacognitive strategy training enable to enhance Taiwanese university students’ academic achievement in EAP context reading? Is there a significant difference in the mean scores on the dependent variable between male students and female students on the EAP context reading performance?

HypothesisThe hypothesis will be addressed as follows:

Metacognitive strategies can enhance Taiwanese university students’ academic achievement in EAP context reading. There is a significant difference in the mean scores on the dependent variable between male students and female students on the EAP context reading performance.

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Theoretical FrameworkMetacognition is thinking about thinking (Ormrod, 1990). It involves planning,

monitoring and regulation of cognitive process to raise students’ consciousness to monitor their learning and thinking process. It helps students to be consciously aware of what they have learned, and recognize situations in which it would be useful (M. Pressley, Symons, Sonya, Snyder, Barbara L., and Cariglia-Bull, Teresa, 1989, Winter). Additionally, metacognition assists students to become aware of using appropriate strategies and to develop monitoring and self-evaluating processes to improve their text comprehension.

ESP/EAP is a movement based on the assertion that all language teaching programs should be tailored to the special area learning (Ajiden, 2009). It focuses on a real communication and learners’ special needs and interests. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987), language learners employ English as a language for their authentic application purposes, rather than focusing on the features of language. ESP itself is

4

divided into a set of categories that further detail the specificities (John Swales, 1985):1) English for Academic Purposes2) English for Occupational or Vocational Purposes3) English for Professional PurposesEAP mainly refers to students’ academic needs and their future professional needs

in the academic environment. It is an imperative aspect for students to advance their academic achievement at universities. EAP also provides the learner with more ways of acquiring language knowledge through different learning methodologies and strategies. Thus, applying metacognitive strategies in EAP is, “the right tool for the right task” (Balota, Paul, & Spieler, 1999).

The following three sections will explain this synthesis of implementing metacognitive strategies in EAP. 1. English for Academic Purposes (EAP)

As students learn English language at university levels in Taiwan, their goal is not just learning general English; they eventually will have to adapt to their academic majors like business and economics, electrical engineering, applied English/foreign language, etc. According to Grabe (1997), in academic settings, almost every major purpose is much related to reading; reading is assumed to be the vital means for learning new information and gaining access to alternative interpretations. In addition, reading is the principal means for independent learning, whether the goal is performing better on academic tasks, learning more about subject matter, or improving language abilities. English for academic purpose (EAP) curriculum should thus “account for how students learn to read for multiple purposes, including at least the reading 1) to search for information, 2) for general comprehension, 3) to learn new information, and 4) to synthesize and evaluate information (Grabe, 1997, as cited in Celce-Murcia, 2001, p. 187).” In other words, students should be understanding of academic textbooks, academic papers and journals, book reviews, literature reviews, research proposals to meet “specific needs of the learner…use of the underlying methodology and activities of the disciplines it serves”… and be related to [their] specific disciplines” (Dudley-Evans & StJohn, 1998a, as cited in Gatehouse, 2001, p. 3). Multiple purposes in reading hence play an important role in both their content curriculum and their academic achievement.

2. The Distinction between General English and Academic English (EAP)In recent decades, since there are increasing numbers of non-English speaking

students going to the U.S. or English speaking countries, like Britain, Canada, Australia

5

to pursue their studies, ESL programs are thriving both at secondary levels and undergraduate levels. Nevertheless, these ESL programs emphasize general English, which does not adequately prepare these students in their content area subject needs (Sager, n.d.). Mostly, these ESL students are having difficulties in learning “authentic lecture discourse, different genres of academic writing, extensive reading, and most fundamentally, analytical processing of subject-specific information (Sager, n.d.)”.

In a similar aspect, Taiwanese students in junior and senior high schools are also taught general English with four language skills (listening, speaking, reading and writing) in communicative contexts. According to Deller & Price (2007), in the general English class, the four language skills are the major subjects for end production and are instruments for introducing new English language and practicing its linguistic knowledge. “In the content [area] classroom, the four skills are a means for learning new [content] information and displaying an understanding of the subject being taught” (p. 6). English is a channel to a content purpose or an academic purpose (EAP), rather than an end in itself (Sager, n.d.).

3. The Advantages of Employing Metacognitive Strategies in Academic Reading (EAP)

In order to bridge the gap between students’ English proficiency at the secondary and the undergraduate levels, many institutions in the U.S. have been seeking appropriate methods to assist non-English speaking students in adapting to academic culture and curriculum (Sager, n.d.). Similarly, many universities in Taiwan have also been implementing many prominent teaching programs to help their students increase their English proficiency levels and adapt to academic studies as well. Therefore, it is appropriate to apply metacognitive strategies of key concepts—planning, monitoring and self-regulation—and extend the concept of EAP to Taiwanese educational institutions.

Academic studies require more than a basic understanding of literacy meaning and sentence structures; they also require an individual learner to be competent enough to fulfill academic expectations. With a “command of [academic] language”, students will be able to articulate their ideas concisely and thoughtfully and have fully functioning communication skills (Hughes, 1989, p. 11). Thus, EAP learning can advance Taiwanese undergraduate level students from the fundamentals to higher levels of learning. If teachers in Taiwan can modify learning strategies to fit students’ special needs and adapt these strategies to facilitate academic learning, Taiwanese students will elevate their language proficiency levels and gain a positive outcome in their academic achievement.

6

The Research Literature There are more and more research studies utilizing metacognitive strategies to

improve ESL/EFL students’ reading comprehension. For instance, Patricia L. Carrell (1989) used the metacognitive strategy of Semantic Mapping & Experience-Text-Relationship training in ESL reading to explore how reading strategies can be taught most effectively and to examine the influence of reading strategies on the process of learning to read. The results show that metacognitive strategy training is effective in enhancing second language reading when compared to nonstrategy training as in the control group. Anita L. Wenden (1998) conducted a study to determine the function of metacognitive knowledge in learning. The review has shown that metacognitive knowledge is a prerequisite for the self-regulation of learning. It informs decision-making at the outset of learning and the monitoring processes that regulate the completion of a learning task, i.e. self-observation, assessment of problems and progress. The findings supported the practice-based intuition of EFL/ESL language researchers who implicitly recognize the importance of metacognitive knowledge about language learning.

There are also many research studies investigating learning strategies either in reading or writing in ESP/EAP context. For instances, Hudson (1991) evaluated the ESP project designed for and integrated with the learner’s reading comprehension strategies and motivation to learn content through the reading process for Science and Technology at the Universidad de Guadalajara in Mexico. The result showed significant and meaningful improvement by the students after the EST instructions. Henry and Roseberry (1998) conducted a study to determine to what extent genre-based instruction and ESP context improved the learners’ writing ability. Thirty-four participants were randomly assigned to two groups: the genre group and the non-genre group. The genre group used genre-based ESP materials, and the non-genre group used more traditional approach materials. The results show that the genre group had significant improvement on two measures, and the nongenre group did not show improvement. Hence, the content comprehension helped students improve their ESP/EAP reading comprehension as well as their general language reading ability.

Notwithstanding a great deal of research studies about effective learning in reading or writing either with metacognitive strategies or EAP context, there has been little research joining both concepts together. A few research studies are still being done and are delineated below:

Baker (2004) utilized Oxford’s (1990) categorization of six sets of learning strategies: memory strategies, cognitive strategies, compensation strategies, metacognitive strategies, affective strategies and social strategies to explore how these

7

learning strategies can affect Thai students’ EAP context in reading and writing. Baker used the text structure to investigate EAP related to the Thai context. The result indicated metacognitive, cognitive and compensation strategies were the most frequently used strategies overall. Evans (2007) explored two specific problems encountered by second language university students attending courses in EAP: expository texts and reading-to-write tasks. Evans used the reading reaction journal (RRJ) to activate students’ various reading strategies including metacognitive reading strategies, note taking in the content of a text, and ongoing critical reactions to improve EAP students’ reading and writing abilities. The results confirmed that the journals can indeed fulfill such a task.

Metacognitive strategies play an important role in students’ EAP context learning. However, the research literature the researcher has been reviewing and the research questions posted in these studies have not been satisfactory. Thus, there was a need for the researcher to conduct a study to explore whether the metacognitive strategies can affect Taiwanese students’ achievement in EAP context reading. Thus, the intervention procedures, experimental procedures, and data analysis in this study will be depicted in the Methods.

METHODS

ParticipantsThe participants in this study consist of about 100 subjects who are currently

studying in their third year at the China University of Technology. The subjects are recruited via already existing classes and are allocated to two groups with around 50/per group. One group’s subjects are assigned to an experimental group with metacognitive strategies training and the other group’s subjects are assigned to a control group with no strategy training.

InstrumentsThree instruments will be used in this study: pretest and posttest, and reading

strategy satisfaction survey.

1. Pretest and PosttestThe pretest and posttest use the well-established TOEIC practice tests adapted and

modified from Barron’s TOEIC Test 4/e (Lougheed, 2006) to test students’ reading comprehension on the one hand, further, to elevate their academic context reading abilities on the other. According to Grabe (1997), reading is a complex skill. Meaningful

8

EAP reading should account for the key elements of the following: “1) vocabulary development, 2) careful reading of texts, 3) awareness of text structure and discourse organization, 4) the use of graphic organizers to support comprehension 5) strategic reading, 6) fluency development, 7) extensive reading, 8) student motivation, and 9) integrated-skills tasks (Grabe, 1997, as cited in Celce-Murcia, 2001, p. 192).”The purpose of the TOEIC test is to measure non-native English speakers’ English

skills in an international workplace environment. The scores indicate “how well people can communicate in English with others in business, commerce, and industry (Trew, 2007).” It reflects global business communication styles and emphasizes authentic language contexts. Thus, using TOEIC tests can be an effective means to test students’ academic context reading and also meet the requirement of English for Academic Purposes.

In this study, the reading section from the practice tests are chosen to measure students’ ability to extract context meaning and main ideas. The pretest and posttest are different versions. There are nine passages with thirty multiple-choice questions presented in each version. The equivalence between the pretest and posttest has been moderated through the pilot study at Ching Yun University of Science and Technology at the end of 2008 (Fan, 2009).

2. Reading Strategies Satisfaction SurveyA reading strategies training satisfaction survey was designed to measure students’

satisfaction with the strategies that were taught and to determine if the instructional training was effectively delivered (Graner, 2007). The survey consisted of 12 items and used a five-point Likert-scale. Each item had a scale value of 1 to 5. The value of 1 indicated “Completely dissatisfied” and the value of 5 indicated “Completely satisfied”. All subjects will be provided with the Chinese version of the reading strategies satisfaction survey.

Intervention Instructional MaterialsThe textbooks, Technology: Oxford English for Careers, Student’s Book

9

(Glendinning, 2009) and Barron’s TOEIC Test 4/e (Lougheed, 2006), are adopted in the study. The topics cover a wide range of fields, including studying technology, design, health, business, information technology, and the green environment, of which students can gain thorough knowledge to create innovative ideas and convey insightful academic competence. In the session of intervention training, the students will be instructed corresponding to the metacognitive strategies with think aloud and summarization training.

Procedures1. Overall Procedures

1) The pretest is provided via the modified Barron’s TOEIC Test 4/e (Lougheed, 2006) practice test at the beginning of the program.

2) The training program period extended to 8 weeks of class sessions (100 minutes per week, 800 minutes in total).

3) The posttest following the training program will be administered after the training program with the modified Barron’s TOEIC Test 4/e (Lougheed, 2006) practice test.

4) The experimental class will be taught with think-aloud and summarization. .

2. Metacognitive Strategy Training Procedures (A) Think Aloud Three basic steps are provided according to Davey (1983)

as follows:(1) Teacher modeling.

(a) Making predictions Students make predictions by using the title or subheadings in the text. For example,

“From the title I predict that this section will tell how airplane pilots adjust for winds;” “In this next part I think we’ll find out what caused these plane crashes;” “I think this is a description of flight simulators.”

(b) Developing visual images Students create mental images of the information from the text. For

example, “I have a picture of this man in my mind. He looks like a mild mannered,

well-dressed business man;” “I can see the horse kicking down the stable door as the flames come closer;” “I can feel the heat of the fire and pressure of the moment.”

10

(c) Sharing analogies Students use analogies to link new information to prior knowledge. For example,

“This is like a time when I was late for school and a thunderstorm was coming.”

(d) Monitoring understanding Students think about their confusion over difficult information in the text.

For example, “This is not what I expected;” “I am not sure how this fits in;” “This seems to be confusing.”

(e) Regulating comprehensionStudents read ahead of a difficult section and see if the information that

comes next will clarify their confusion. For example, “I need to check this out. I’ll read further for a short time;” “I need to think about this. Let me rethink what was happening;” “Maybe I’ll reread this;” “Perhaps I better change my picture of what is happening.”

(2) Student practices with one partnerThe teacher pairs up two students and asks them to work together to

practice think-alouds. Each student takes a turn reading and thinking aloud with short passages. The partner listens and gives his or her thoughts.

(3) Integration with other materials After the above practice with modeling, the teacher needs to give further

amounts of practice with school text materials and to integrate the use of think-alouds with other content reading. In addition, the teacher can demonstrate his or her thinking prior to reading a content book and show how, why, and when to use certain strategies. For example, “Before I read this passage, let me think about what this story is like and try to get a feel for what the story will be about and look over the headings as well.”

(B) Summarization The main components for summarizing information are the abilities to (1) sift through a large amount of text, (2) distinguish important ideas from unimportant ideas, (3) synthesize those ideas and create a new coherent text that stands for the original ideas(Dole, 1991). There are at least two well- grounded approaches for summarization. One is the rule-governed approach that is drawn from the work of Brown, Compione and Day (1981) and Kintsch and Van Dijk (1978) (McNeil & Donant, 1982, as cited in Farstrup, 2002); the other is the set of gist procedures (Cunningham, 1982, as cited in Farstrup, 2002).

11

The rule-governed approaches:1) Delete unnecessary material.2) Delete redundant material.3) Compose a word to replace a list of items.4) Compose a word to replace individual parts of an action.5) Select a topic sentence.6) Make up a topic sentence if there is not one in the passage.

The gist procedures:1) Students create summaries of 15 or fewer words for increasingly

large amounts of text. 2) Beginning with single sentence and working to an entire paragraph

incrementally.3) Conducted first as a whole class, then in small groups, and finally

on an individual basis. Taylor and her associate Beach (1984) use text headings, subheadings, and paragraphs to develop an outline of the text. (a) Students were taught to generate main idea statements for each paragraph, subsection, and section of text. (b) Students also developed topic headings to connect sections of the text. (c) Students were instructed to generate a key idea to summarize the entire passage (as cited in Pressley, 1989).

Rinehart, Stahl, & Erickson (1986) have also developed instruction to produce summaries that include these main ideas and key supporting details: (a) identify main information, (b) delete trivial information, (c) delete redundant information, and (d) relate main and supporting information. After that, students were taught three steps to use in summarizing multiple-paragraph essays: (a) write summaries of each paragraph in an essay, (b) create a summary of the paragraph summaries by merging them into a single paragraph, and (c) apply the four summarization rules to this paragraph. This is an approach to relate super-ordinate and subordinate ideas so that the summary can reflect the hierarchical organization of the original text content (as cited in Pressley, 1989).

In the end, to be sure students understand the content text; the teacher should ask students to “look back”, “rethink”, “check”, and “double check” to complete the final summary terms (Carrell, Gajdusek, & Wise, 1998, p. 105).

Data Analysis A one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) will be employed to test between-group

12

and within-group changes in the variables, and the independent variables’ relationships to the dependent variable. Univariate, main effects, and interaction between learner’s level of reading ability and strategy analyses will be used to follow up any significant effects indicating group differences.

In addition, if there are pre-test differences in the variables between groups, the pretest value will be used as a covariate to increase the significance of the effects in subsequent analyses. Linear Regression will also be used to predict which types of metacognitive strategy can best facilitate students’ effectiveness in ESP/EAP reading.

At the end, in order to find the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy training on the experimental group and compare the distinct improvement with the control group, two groups will participate in the posttest after completing the training program.

Educational ImplicationsThe expansion of this study can be applied to curriculum development with

metacognitive strategy in EAP context reading. In this way, it will improve Taiwanese university students’ special area reading understanding so as to increase our competition with the world in economics and technology.

Limitations of the StudyThe subjects in this study are recruited via already existing classes at the China

University of Technology. They are not randomly assigned, which would cause threats to internal validity. Thus, it will be difficult to generalize results and make inferences.

ReferencesAjideh, P. (2009). Autonomous Learning and Metacognitive Strategies Essentials in ESP

Class. English Language Teaching, 2.1, 162-168.Baker, W. (2004). Learning Strategies in Reading and Writing: EAP Contexts. Regional

Language Centre Journal, 35.3, 299-328.Balota, D. A., Paul, S. T., & Spieler, D. H. (1999). Attentional control of lexical

processing pathways during word recognition and reading. Language processing, 15-57.

Carrell, P. L. (1989). Metacognitive Awareness and Second Language Reading. The Modern Language Journal, 73(2), 121-134.

Carrell, P. L., Gajdusek, L., & Wise, T. (1998). Metacognition and EFL/ESL reading. Instructional Science, 26(1), 97-112.

Carver, D. (1983). Some Propositions about ESP. ESP Journal, 2(2), 131-137.

13

Celce-Murcia, Marianne, editor. (2001). Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. (Third Edition). Heinle & Heinle: A division of Thomson Learning, Inc.

Cunningham, J. W. (1982). Generating interactions between schemata and text. New inquiries in reading research and instruction, 42?47.

Davey, B. (1983). Think Aloud--Modeling the Cognitive Processes or Reading Comprehension. Journal of Reading, 27(1), 44-47.

Deller, S., & Price, C. (2007). Teaching Other Subjects Through English. New York: Oxford University Press.

Dhieb-Henia, N. (2003). Evaluating the effectiveness of metacognitive strategy training for reading research articles in an ESP context. English for Specific Purposes, 22(4), 387-417.

Dole, J. A., Duffy, G. G., Roehler, L. R., & Pearson, P. D. (1991). Moving From the Old to the New: Research on Reading Comprehension Instruction. Review of Educational Research, 61(2), 239-264.

Dudley-Evans, T., & StJohn, M. J. (1998a). Developments in English for Specific Purposes. Cambridge: CUP.

Dudley-Evans, T., & StJohn, M. J. (1998b). Developments in ESP: A Multi-Disciplinary Approach: Cambridge University Press.

Evans, S. (2007). Reading reaction journals in EAP courses. ELT Journal, 62, 240-247.Fan, H. C. (2009) The Effectiveness of Metacognitive Strategies in Facilitating Taiwanese

University Learners in EFL Reading Comprehension. Unpublished dissertation, The University of Kansas, Lawrence.

Farstrup, A. E. S., S. Jay. (2002). What Research Has to Say About Reading Instruction. In Third (Ed.). Delaware, USA: International Reading Association.

Gatehouse, K. (2001). Key Issues in English for Specific Purposes (ESP) Curriculum Development. The Internet TESL Journal, 7(10).

Glendinning, Eric H. 2009. Technology: Oxford English for Careers, Student’s Book. Oxford University Press.

Grabe, William, Stoller, Fredricka L. (1997). Reading for Academic Purposes: Guidelines for the ESL/EFL Teacher.

Graner, P. G. S. (2007). The Effects of Strategic Summarization Instruction on the Performance of Students with and without Disabilities in Secondary Inclusive Classes. Unpublished Dissertation, The University of Kansas.

Green, S. B., Salkind, Neil J. (2005). Using SPSS for Windows and Macintosh Analyzing and Understanding Data (Fourth ed.). Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458:

14

Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.Henry, A., & Roseberry, R. L. (1998). An evaluation of a genre-based approach to the

teaching of EAP/ESP writing. TESOL Quarterly, 32(1), 147-156.Hudson, T. (1991). A content comprehension approach to reading English for science and

technology. TESOL Quarterly, 25(1), 77-104.Hughes, A. (1989). Testing for Language Teachers. In (Second ed.): Cambridge

University Press.Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: a learning-centred

approach. Cambridge Language Teaching Library (RU).Kintsch, W. V. D., T. A. (1978). Toward a Model of Text Comprehension and Production.

Psychological Review, 85, 363-394.Lougheed, L. (2006). Barron's TOEIC Test 4/e Barron's Educational Series.Master, P. A., & Brinton, D. (1998). New ways in English for specific purposes:

Alexandria, VA: Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages, Inc.McNeil, J., & Donant, L. (1982). Summarization strategy for improving reading

comprehension. New inquiries in reading research and instruction, 215?219.Mokhtari, K., & Reichard, C. A. (2002). Assessing Students' Metacognitive Awareness of

Reading Strategies. JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY, 94(2), 249-259.

Pressley, M., Johnson, C. J., Symons, S., McGoldrick, J. A., & Kurita, J. A. (1989). Strategies That Improve Children's Memory and Comprehension of Text. The Elementary School Journal, 90(1), 3-32.

Pressley, M., Symons, Sonya, Snyder, Barbara L., and Cariglia-Bull, Teresa. (1989, Winter). Strategy Instruction Research Comes of Age. Learning Disability Quarterly, 12, No. 1.

Rinehart, S. D., Stahl, S. A., & Erickson, L. G. (1986). Effects of summarizing training on reading and studying. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 422-438.

Sager, C. (n.d.). English for Specific Academic Purposes: A Pilot Tutoring Project with Undergraduate ESL Students in A Sociology Course.

Swales, J. (1985). Episodes in ESP: A Source and Reference Book on the Development of English for Science and Technology: Pergamon.

Trew, Grant. (2007). Tactics for TOEIC Listening and Reading Test. Oxford University Press.

Wenden, A. L. (1998). Metacognitive Knowledge and Language Learning1. Applied Linguistics, 19(4), 515-537.

15

16