OHIO ARCHAEOLOGIST VOLUME 45 NO. 3 SUMMER 1995

Published by

THE ARCHAEOLOGICAL SOCIETY OF OHIO

The Archaeological Society of Ohio

EXPIRES A.S.O. OFFICERS

1996 President Stephen J. Parker, 1859 Frank Drive, Lancaster, OH 43130, (614)653-6642

1996 Vice President Carme l Tacke t t , 906 Cha r l es ton Park, Chillicothe, OH 45601, (614) 772-5431

1996 Exec. Sect. Charles Fulk, 2122 Cottage St., Ashland, OH 44805, (419)289-8313

1996 Recording Sect. Nancy E. Morris, 901 Evening Star Avenue SE, East Canton, OH 44730, (216) 488-1640

1996 Treasurer Don F. Potter, 1391 Hootman Drive, Reynoldsburg,

OH 43068, (614) 861 -0673 1998 Editor Robert N. Converse, 199 Converse Dr., Plain City, OH

43064, (614) 873-5471 1996 Immediate Past Pres. Larry L. Morr is , 901 Evening Star

Avenue SE, East Canton, OH 44730, (216) 488-1640

BUSINESS MANAGER

Paul Wildermuth, 2505 Logan-Thomeville Road, Rushville, OH 43150, (614) 536-7855, 1 -800-736-7815

TRUSTEES

1996 Walter J . Sperry, 6910 Range Line Rd., Mt. Vernon, OH 43050, (614)393-2314

1996 James R. Hahn, 770 S. Second St., Heath, OH 43056, (614)323-2351

1996 Donald A. Casto , 138 Ann cour t , Lancaster, OH 43130 (614)653-9477

1996 S teven K ish , 3014 Clark Mi l l Rd . , N o r t o n , OH 44203 (216)753-7081

1998 Martha Otto, Ohio Historical Society, 2200 East Powell Road, Westerville, OH 43081, (614) 297-2641 (work)

1998 Carl Szafranski, 6106 Ryan Road, Medina, OH 44256, (216) 723-7122

1998 William Pickard, 1003 Carlisle Ave., Columbus, OH 43224 (614)262-9615

1998 Jeb B o w e n , 419 Sandusky Ave . , F remon t , OH 4 3 4 2 0 (419)585-2571

REGIONAL COLLABORATORS

David W. Kuhn, 2103 Grandview Ave., Portsmouth, OH 45662 Mark W. Long, Box 627, Jackson, OH 45640 Steven Kelley, Seaman, OH William Tiell, 13435 Lake Ave., Lakewood, OH James L. Murphy, Universi ty Librar ies, 1858 Neil Avenue Mal l ,

Columbus, OH 43210 Gordon Hart, 760 N. Main St., Bluffton, Indiana 46714 David J. Snyder, P.O. Box 388, Luckey, OH 43443 Dr. Phillip R. Shriver, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056 Brian Da Re, 58561 Sharon Blvd., Rayland, OH 43943 Jeff Carskadden, 960 Eastward Circle, Colony North,

Zanesville, OH 43701 Elaine Holzapfel, 104 E. Lincoln, Greenville, OH 45331

All articles, reviews, and comments regarding the Ohio Archaeologist should be sent to the Editor. Memberships, requests for back issues, changes of address, and other inquiries should be sent to the Busi­ness Manager.

PLEASE NOTIFY THE BUSINESS M A N A G E R OF A D D R E S S CHANGES IMMEDIATELY SINCE, BY POSTAL REGULATIONS, SOCIETY MAIL CANNOT BE FORWARDED.

MEMBERSHIP AND DUES

Annual dues to the Archaeological Society of Ohio are payable on the first of January as follows: Regular membership $17.50; husband and wife (one copy of publication) $18.50; Individual Life Membership $300. Husband and wife Life Membership $500. Subscription to the Ohio Archaeologist, pub­lished quarterly, is included in the membership dues. The Archaeological Society of Ohio is an incorporated non-profit organization.

BACK ISSUES

Publications and back issues of the Ohio Archaeolo, Ohio Flint Types, by Robert N. Converse $10.00 add $1.50 P-H Ohio Stone Tools, by Robert N. Converse $ 8.00 add $1.50 P-H Ohio Slate Types, by Robert N. Converse $15.00 add $1.50 P-H The Glacial Kame Indians, by Robert N. Converse.$20.00 add $1.50 P-H 1980's& 1990's $ 6.00 add $1.50 P-H 1970's $ 8.00 add $1.50 P-H

1960's $10.00 add $1.50 P-H Back issues of the Ohio Archaeologist printed prior to 1964 are gen­

erally out of print but copies are available from time to time. Write to business office for prices and availability.

ASO CHAPTERS

Alum Creek Chapter President: Dennis Buehler, 1736 Kenny Road, Columbus, OH

Aboriginal Explorers Club President: Richard Gertz, 1094 Millersburg Rd SW, Massilon, OH

Beau Fleuve Chapter President: John McKendry, 5545 Truscott Terrace, Lakeview, NY

Blue Jacket Chapter President: Jon M. Anspaugh, 210 E Silver St., Wapakoneta, OH

Chippewa Valley Archaeological Society President: Carl Szafranski, 6106 Ryan Rd, Medina, OH

Cuyahoga Valley Chapter President: Gary J. Kapusta, 3294 Herriff Rd., Ravenna, OH

Flint Ridge Chapter President: Bob Williams, 138 Margery Drive NE, Newark, OH

Fort Salem Chapter President: Brent Weber, 1455 Bethel New Richmond Rd., New Richmond, OH

Fulton Creek Chapter President: Mike Coyle, 18000 SR4, Marysville, OH

Johnny Appleseed Chapter President: Randy Hancock, 1202 ST RT 302 RD#5, Ashland, OH

King Beaver Chapter President: Judith Storti, R.D. #2, Box 1519, 1519 Herrick St., New Castle, PA

Kyger Creek Chapter President: Ruth A. Warden, 20 Evans Heights, Gallipolis, OH

Lake County Chapter President: Douglas Divish, 35900 Chardon Rd, Willoughby Hills, OH

Lower Ohio River Valley Basin Chapter President: Sherry Peck, 598 Harvey Rd., Patriot, OH

Miamiville Archaeological Conservation Chapter President: Raymond Lovins, Box 86, Miamiville, OH

Mound City Chapter President: Carmel "Bud" Tackett, 906 Charleston Pk., Chillicothe, OH

Painted Post Chapter President: Norman Fox, 810 Coolidge St, New Castle, PA

Sandusky Bay Chapter President: George DeMuth, 4303 Nash Rd.. Wakeman, OH

Sandusky Valley Chapter President: Jeb Bowen, 11891 E County, Rd 24, Republic, OH

Seneca Arrow Hunters President: Donald Weller, Jr., 3232 S. State Rt. 53, Tiffin, OH

Six Rivers Valley Chapter President: Dr. Brian G. Foltz, 6566 Charles Rd., Westerville, OH

Standing Stone Chapter President: Jeb Bowen, 11891 E County. Rd 24, Republic, OH

Sugarcreek Valley Chapter President: Steven Kish, 3014 Clark Mill Rd, Norton, OH

NEW BUSINESS OFFICE PHONE NUMBER 1-800-736-7815

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TABLE OF CONTENTS Ohio Pipestone by Elaine Holzapfel 4

A Curved Pick Bannerstone From Butler County by Teresa and Tony Putty 7

Two Engraved Slate Pieces From Northern Ohio by Robert Burns 8

Some Examples of the Miami River Axe by Charles F. Henderson 9

Trophy-Type Axe Found at a Depth of 20 Inches in Van Wert County, Ohio in the Early 1970's

by Claude Britt, Jr. 10

Towards Cupstone Classification: An Experimental Approach

by Roger Rowe 11

The Word is Respect by Fred Elchinger 18

Indians Looking to Ohio for Possible Casino Operations 18 Mineralogy of a "Chlorite" Pick Bannerstone From North Carolina byJamesL. Murphy 19

The John W. "Red" Stalder Collection

by David W. Kuhn 20

Two Iroquois Pipes by Steve Fuller 22

Flint Ridge Flint by Ron Helman 23

A Comparison of Ohio and Minnesota Pipestones by Claude Britt, Jr. 24

A History of Archaeological Investigations of the Earthworks at Mounds State Park in Madison County, Indiana

by Chet Green 27

A Bifurcate Site in Wayne County by Jeff Zemrock 34

A Miami County Cache by Ed Levan, Jr. 36

A Miami County Cache by JimStephan 36

Strange Point No. 2 by John R. Heath 37

Artifacts Found by Joe Witzman by Bob Burns 37

Prehistoric Pipes - How Were They Manufactured

by D.R. Gehlbach 38

Necrology, Colonel Raymond C. Vietzen 39

Necrology, Charles Smith 39 Scenes from the Fourth Annual Native American Artifact Exhibit

by Brian DaRe and Robert A. Kersten 40

A New Threat to Archaeology and Collecting 42

Mercer County Historical Society 43

Errata 43

NPS Announces New Publication on First Americans 43

PRESIDENT'S PAGE

It was with deep sorrow that I learned of the death of S. A. (Joe) Redick. Joe certainly was one of the stalwarts of our Society, serving as Business Manager and trustee for several years. Joe will be missed by all and we extend our deepest sym­pathies to Joe's wife and family.

I strongly urge everyone to read the article in the last issue of The Ohio Archaeologist written by Martha Potter Otto concerning NAGPRA. NAGPRA is the common acronym for Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act. This act has serious ramifications on archaeology, museums and private collectors. It will behoove each of us to keep abreast of this act (and any sim­ilar act) and of any changes and/or consideration of changes to it. I hate to think that the ASO will become a political force, but we just might have to. We will have to join together to fight any legislation or regulatory powers which will have the potential to ultimately destroy archaeology as a science.

Every couple of years or so, it seems that we have to reiterate the guidelines to be used for determining what the Society will allow to be displayed and sold at our meetings. We try our best to avoid a "Flea Market or Yard Sale" atmosphere. This can best be attained by the continued efforts and cooperat ion of any member selling or displaying artifacts.

Items should be of an archaeological nature. I will not attempt to list every thing that will or will not be allowed, but I can offer the following guidelines. Acceptable items include genuine arti­facts, pottery, baskets, beadwork, display cases, books and related publications or literature, and other educational material consistent with the objectives of the Society. Prohibited items include fraudulent artifacts of any kind, unauthorized trading cards, sweatshirts and tee shirts, mugs, jewelry, swords, knives, guns, marbles, watches and watch fobs, clocks, bric-a-brac, etc. Although these lists are not all-inclusive, they should give you the gist of what will and what will not be allowed. I'll let your good common sense guide you from here on out.

I realize there are some grey areas which will have to be han­dled on a case by case, meeting by meeting basis. If you are asked to remove an item(s), for what ever reason, please do so without any hassle. It is not an easy or fun task for any officer or committee member to ask someone to remove items from their tables. I know our requests for removal are judgmental and con­troversial, but they have to be made for the benefit of our Society and our membership. Therefore, please abide by the wishes of any officer or member of the fraudulent artifact committee. You may bring any complaint to me, if you wish, but I assure you I will support the decisions of the officers and members of the fraudu­lent artifact committee to the fullest.

Thanks, and take care!

^j^JlXoLAhl^

Steve Parker

Cover Figure: This coffin-shaped Glacial Kame gorget is made of red banded slate. It was found before May 13, 1888, on the Isaac Devore farm in Putnam County, Ohio.

OHIO PIPESTONE by

Elaine Holzapfel 415 Memorial Drive

Greenville, OH 45331

This spring David Kuhn, an attorney from Portsmouth, and Skip Bower, man­ager of a Cadillac agency, took Bob Converse and me to an Ohio pipestone quarry in Scioto County. Known as Feurt Hill, the quarry is on the knob of a wooded ridge north of Portsmouth in Clay township. Our goal was to dig a rep­resentative chunk of pipestone. Although we used shovels, picks, and an axe, chopping through surface layers of shale and weathered pipestone was difficult, and the pipestone procured was often of low quality. After several hours of working four pits, a good sample of the raw material was obtained. Our specimen (Fig. 4) had a greasy feel, and rubbing it in one spot soon produced a shiny smooth surface.

PREHISTORIC USE Prehistoric people mined pipestone as

early as 3,000 years ago. The earliest pipes were tubular pipes made during the Late Archaic Glacial Kame and early Adena period. The later Adena and Hopewell cultures both made pipestone pipes, as did the Ft. Ancient people, who fashioned a variety of pipes including vasiform, pebble, keeled, and effigy types. Few prehistoric artifacts other than pipes were made of Ohio pipestone. Some artifacts identified as pipestone are actually polished limestone, which can resemble pipestone.

HISTORIC USE Quarries of Ohio pipestone were

scenes of vigorous mining activities for sixty years, from the 1860s through the 1920s. The use of pipestone by prehis­toric man was miniscule in comparison. Pipestone was mined extensively for the manufacture of fire brick for use in lime kilns, ceramic kilns, boilers, locomotive blocks, coke ovens, and steel furnaces. Half a dozen companies in Scioto County mined tons of pipestone daily. The

Portsmouth Fire Brick Company had the capacity to produce 40,000 bricks per day. The Buckeye Fire Brick and Clay Company in Bloom township had an output of 40 tons daily. Shafts were sunk into the ground, sometimes up to 80 feet, and explosives loosened the pipestone, which was hauled to the front of the shaft by mules. The deposits worked commer­cially in Clay and Porter townships of Scioto County were exhausted by 1923.

PHYSICAL QUALITIES We soon discovered that pipestone

has many porous streaks along which it readily fractures. The clay is easily carved because it is soft and chalk-like - it can even be scratched with a fingernail. A professional archaeologist (James Addington, Portsmouth Daily Times, Aug. 18, 1993) stated that "pipestone hardens when exposed to air." This is incorrect. Pipestone does not harden with age, and prehistoric examples are for the most part as soft as the day they were quarried thousands of years ago (Converse 1995). This is an example of errors which creep into the literature by taking as fact asser­tions of others without observing the arti­facts themselves.

Pipestone is actually a hard clay, known as flint clay because of its high silica content. In the words of Stout (1923): flint clay is "compact and dense but not so hard that it can not be scratched with a knife. It breaks with a conchoidal or even splintery fracture.... and has a smooth feel and usually some luster. The color varies considerably but the most common shades are light or yel­lowish-gray. Carbon pigments, however, produce dark grays or dull blacks, and iron compounds modified pinks, greens, and blues."

GEOLOGY Many of the records of the depth and

thickness of flint clay were made during

coal mining operations, as the clay fre­quently lies beneath members of forma­tions known as Sharon coal and Quakertown coal. The pipestone layer itself is known geologically as Sciotoville clay.

The clay was deposited in the great coal-producing swamps of the Pennsylvanian period, around 300 million years ago. The Ohio area, near the equator at the time, was hot and tropical. In the warm shallow sea which sub­merged much of what is now eastern United States, lived brachiopods, crinoids, and sharks; large amphibians crawled through jungle-like forests inhab­ited by dragonflies with 3-foot wingspans. When pipestone was forming, insects, fish, and amphibians were the most advanced forms of life on earth.

Because currents created an irregular sea floor with low knobs and ridges, the clay was laid down in uneven and dis­continuous layers in isolated areas. Seams of pipestone, therefore, vary in thickness from 1 to 10 feet, with deposits in the Ohio counties of Scioto, Jackson, Pike, Vinton, Perry, Hocking, and Gallia, as well as south into Kentucky.

It is hoped that a pipestone deposit will some day be set aside to commemorate the prehistoric and historic use of this unique stone.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Many thanks to Mike Hansen of the

Ohio Geological Survey for making Stout's book available to me.

REFERENCES CITED Converse, Robert N. 1995 Personal communication.

Stout, Wilbur 1923 Coal Formation Clays of Ohio. Bulletin 26,

Geological Survey of Ohio, Columbus.

4

•^ Figure 1 (Holzapfel) David Kuhn takes a break in the pit he was working.

M Figure 2 (Holzapfel) Skip Bower tries to chisel some flint clay loose.

Figure 3 (Holzapfel) A seam of pipestone appears at last.

5

•4 Figure 4 (Holzapfel) Our hard-won spec­imen of pipestone, also known as flint clay and Sciotoville clay.

•^ Figure 5 (Holzapfel) Millions of fire bricks similar to this one were manufactured from pipestone from I860 to 1928.

M Figure 6 (Holzapfel) Three prehistoric arti­facts made of yellowish-tan Ohio pipe­stone. TOP: MicMac pipe, protohistoric, ca. 1500 A. D.

CENTER: Tubular pipe, 5 inches long. Little Darby Creek, near Buzzard's Glory, Madison Co. Glacial Kame, ca. 1000 B.C. BOTTOM: Elbow pipe, Ft. Ancient, ca. 1300-1500 A.D. From a farm collection near Portsmouth.

6

A CURVED PICK BANNERSTONE FROM BUTLER COUNTY by

Teresa and Tony Putty 6911 E. 500 N.

Shelbyville, IN 46176

The curved pick bannerstone shown in the accompanying photograph was pic­tured in Knoblock's book, Bannerstones of the North American Indians on page 497 (No. 3). It is described as being made of "slate, faintly banded". The banner­stone is three inches wide from tip to tip. It is unusually thick at the center, being almost one and a half inches in diameter. Unfinished solid stick drilling is evident for a depth of one-half inch.

The bannerstone was owned by L.C. Snyder of Lacona, New York when it was pictured by Knoblock in 1939. Snyder

assigned his catalogue number 2822 to the piece after he purchased it from P. Slack and Sons Sportings Goods Store in Springfield, Ohio. Frank Burdett, Mr. Slack's brother-in-law, worked at the store. Information provided by Duane Johnson and the archives of Gordon Hart enabled us to trace this artifact from L.C. Snyder through the W.O. Wardner, B.W. Stephens (catalogue #B-96), Gene Johns and Garret Zuber collections.

When examining the faded ink markings on the bottom of the bannerstone under ultraviolet light, a date of June 1925

became legible. Presumably, this is the date the bannerstone was found in Butler County, Ohio.

References Hart, Gordon 9/1/95 Bluffton, IN.

Personal Communication. Johnson, Duane. 8/21/95 Morristown, IN.

Personal Communication. Knoblock, Byron. 1939 Bannerstones of the North American

Indian. Published by Author. LaGrange, IL.

Figure 1 (Putty) Pick Bannerstone found in Butler County in 1925.

7

TWO ENGRAVED SLATE PIECES FROM NORTHERN OHIO by

Robert Burns 8415 Upton

San Antonio, Texas 78250

Shown in Figures 1 and 2 are two engraved slate pieces found by the late Joe Witzman.

Figure 1 (Burns) Red mudstone two hole rec­tangular gorget with block line engraving. A surface find by Joe Witzman in one of his favorite corn fields in Wayne County, Ohio in 1984. Size 2%" x 1%".

Figure 2 (Burns) Engraved slate tablet found by Joe Witzman in the Cuyahoga Valley. One side has three snake like figures with a closed flat bottom chevron above and below the snake symbols. Similar snake figures have appeared on a Glacial Kame two-hole gorget found on the Zimmerman site, Hardin County, Ohio. (Converse, Glacial Kame Indians, p.40, fig. 16). A small geometric design appears in the lower right corner. There may be other slate tablets to complete this design. The reverse face of this tablet is covered with chevron like designs, one over the other. It appears one engraving may have been placed over the other to mask the principle engraving beneath. Size 3" x2'A".

8

SOME EXAMPLES OF THE MIAMI RIVER AXE by

Charles F. Henderson 1244 N. Union

Salem, Ohio 44460

The Miami River Axe, so named by Dr. G. Meuser because of the number of such axes found in the Miami River drainage areas of western Ohio, is a somewhat scarce prehistoric stone tool (Converse 1973:20).

Also called the "Ohio Axe", this type of axe has certain characteristics in shape that make it appear very different from other types of axes.

The poll is sometimes well-made, rounded and symmetrical (figure 1, both examples). The poll can also be some­what squat and irregular in appearance (figure 2, both examples).

The blade tapers to a bit that is smaller than the rest of the blade. The taper can be slight as exhibited in the left example in figure 1 or it can be very pronounced as exhibited in the right example in figure 2.

Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the fact that the axes are always full grooved, and have pronounced ridges around the grooves.

Those of you that have a Miami River Axe in your collection should consider yourselves fortunate, because it is truly a unique stone tool used by prehistoric man.

REFERENCES Converse, Robert N. 1973 Ohio Stone Tools, Archaeological

Society of Ohio, Columbus

Figure 1 (Henderson) Miami River axes from the author's collection. The axe on the left was found near Thornville in Perry County, Ohio. The axe on the right is from Ohio (locality unknown).

Figure 2 (Henderson) Miami River axes from the author's collection. The axe on the left is from Champaign County, Ohio. The provenience of the axe on the right is unknown.

9

TROPHY-TYPE AXE FOUND AT A DEPTH OF 20 INCHES IN VAN WERT COUNTY, OHIO IN THE EARLY 1970'S

by Claude Britt, Jr.

P.O. Box 131 Rockville, Indiana 47872-0131

Converse (1994:20) has recently illus­t r a ted four n ice Oh io t r ophy axes . Because I just recent ly pub l ished an article on a grooved-hammerstone found at a d e p t h of th ree feet in Aug la ize County (Britt, 1995:17), I decided to illus­trate an axe, very similar to the trophy type, which was also found at a depth beneath the plow zone (Fig. 1).

The axe shown here (Fig. 1) was dis­covered by accident about 1970 by a worker digging a house foundation about 4 miles from Van Wert, Ohio. The original finder stated that it was found at a depth of 20 inches. Because this artifact was never on or near the surface, it was never struck by farm machinery. Also, because it was beneath the plow zone, it did not show much wea the r ing as wou ld be expected f rom a surface site. The axe exhibi ted little patina and appeared in pristine condition. This piece was given to me by my father in 1973 when I lived in Arizona. He had gotten it from the orig­inal finder at Van Wert.

In the early 1970's I showed this axe to severa l p r o m i n e n t m e m b e r s of the Archaeological Society of Ohio. Until I told those people of the circumstances of its d iscovery and the fact that it was never near the s u r f a c e , because it appeared so "fresh-looking", some even quest ioned its authentici ty. This piece was fash ioned f rom b lack and wh i te speckled granite and was highly polished all over.

This axe is approximately five inches long. It is shaped a little different on the pol l end than c lass i c t r o p h y axes . However, because it was obviously never used, and probably never meant to be, along with the fine workmanship and high degree of polish, I think that it should be classed as a trophy axe. An old friend, Dudley Bravard, and also other members of the society upon examining it several years ago stated that it was unquestion­ably a t rophy axe and was p robab ly made for display only. All persons exam­ining it were amazed with the "mint" con­dition and general lack of weathering.

As seen in Fig. 1, the axe bears my old Cat. No. 0910. I no longer own this axe or any other prehistoric Indian art i facts. I

once had a very valuable and completely documented teaching/research collection, much of which came from old Ohio farm auctions. Due to living for years in extreme poverty and hardship trying to work as a seasonal ranger, the entire collection was sold many years ago so I didn't starve to death on NPS GSM salary.

As has often been stated, and I have heard the late Hubert Wachtel make this statement many times, the finest prehis­toric Indian artifacts in Ohio are still to be found (beneath the p low zone). This trophy-type axe reported here which was found at a depth of 20 inches, as well as

the previously reported hammerstone f o u n d at a d e p t h of th ree fee t at Wapakoneta (Britt, 1995:17), certainly adds credence to these statements.

References Britt, Claude Jr. 1995 Grooved Hammerstone

Recently found at a depth of three feet near Wapakoneta, Ohio. Ohio Archaeologist, Vol.45,No. 1.

Converse, Robert N. 1994 Trophy Axes. Ohio Archaeologist,

Vol. 44, No. 4, p. 20.

Figure 1 (Britt) Trophy-type axe found at a depth of 20 inches in Van Wert County, Ohio in the 1970's.

10

TOWARDS CUPSTONE CLASSIFICATION: AN EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

Abstract The cups tone , an ar t i fact to wh ich

much speculation has been given as to funct ion, is examined through exper i ­mental replication. A comparison is also made with excavated examples.

"It is a remarkable fact that archaeolo­gists still remain in total ignorance as to the functions of the objects commonly known as cupstones." (Fowke 1902:539-540)

Introduction Almost as much confusion abounds in

the literature as to the term cupstone as do the suggest ions to the funct ion of these artifacts. While some like to clas­sify cupstones under the name of pitted stones others, such as Brennan (1975) pre fer to separa te t h e m . Conve rse (1966:103-104) also notes the distinction in the type of material from which the artifact is made, cupstones usually of sandstone and pitted stones usually of "g ray g ran i t i c s t o n e " . A m o n g o ther names are nutting stones, "nut hullers and nut c rackers " (Deishler 1939:11) "footrests for spindles" (Read 1892:39), anvil s tones and sockets . As wi th so many descript ive names, these names imply funct ion. Other suggested func­t ions for these art i facts include "bead holders" (Britt 1973:26) and paint cups (Dragoo 1963:106).

C u p s t o n e s have been very poor l y reported in the literature. More often than not only their presence, at sites, are noted in reports. Sometimes they are weighed and number of pits reported. Few seem concerned with pit descr ipt ion. Yet pit description can suggest function.

Pub l i shed c o m p a r a t i v e resu l t s of experimental replication of this artifact type are at best scat tered and some­times difficult to obtain. Spears (1975) reports on the results of using chert and sandstone as nutt ing and lithic anvils. Among other observations reported are that cracking nuts on a sandstone anvil will produce shallow " U " shaped pits." Cracking rounded cobbles on sandstone anvi ls also result in " U " shaped pi ts . Cracking angular cobbles will produce a "V" shaped pit. A combination " U " and "V" s h a p e d pi t w i l l f o rm w h e n bo th smooth and angular cobbles are cracked.

Kalin (1981) reports producing an arti­f ac t s im i la r to a " n u t t i n g s t o n e " in describing the type of wear which occurs on hammerstones used in bipolar flaking. In compar ison he descr ibes a granite h a m m e r s t o n e as d i sp l ay i ng "on ly a

by Roger Rowe

755 Western Dr. Wooster, Ohio 44691

pecked sur face" after extensive use, while a sandstone hammerstone displays a "deep pi t ted groove" . In d iscussing anvils he reports that a schist anvil devel­oped "a layered pitted area, with small f lat sec t ions" whi le "a quar tz i te anvil developed a pitted surface".

The scope of this paper is to report on the results of research conducted by the author on experimental replication of this ar t i fact type, the sands tone ar t i fac ts commonly known as cupstones.

Experimental Procedures The experiments were designed to pro­

duce three types: nutt ing anvils, l ithic anvils and sockets. In all cases sandstone was used as anv i ls and s o c k e t s . Hardness of the s a n d s t o n e c o b b l e s varied from 4-6 on Moh's scale (table 1). The same quartzite hammerstone was used in all experiments involving anvils. In anvil experiments, anvils were placed on a concrete floor, which had been covered with a white cloth. The area was closed on three sides to maximize recovery of nut shell and flint debitage.

Pit growth was measured at various intervals as will be described. Pit mea­surements taken include maximum width of pit rim and pit dep th . Mic roscop ic observations were made using a Wolf K-Series stereomicroscope with 20x and 40x magnification. In many cases the 20x magnification was preferred over the 40x because a bet ter overal l observat ion could be made of the pit area.

Nut Processing Experiment 1

100 f resh nuts f rom the Shagbark Hickory (Carya ovata) were used in this experiment. The nuts were gathered ran­domly, at different locations, and husked prior to the experiment. The husking of Hickory nuts is relatively easy as the husks split into four sections when the nu ts are r ipe . The nu ts were then weighed and measured. Measurements taken include length (proximal to distal), middle diameter (maximum diameter), lower diameter (this measurement was taken 2mm up f rom the distal end to assist in determining rate of growth of the pit), and length of the small pin-like pro­tuberance (nipple) which occurs at the distal (flower) end of the nut. The sample of Hickory nuts, which weighed 418 gm., provided the following data:

Average weight per 100: 418/100 = 4.18gm.

Average length per 100: 217.5/100 = 2.175cm.

Average midd le d iameter per 100: 222.3/100 = 2.223cm.

Ave rage lower d i ame te r per 100 : 180.6/100 = 1.806cm.

Average n ipp le leng th per 100 : 21.1/100 = .211cm.

Because the experiment was designed, in part , to check max imum nut meat (kernel) recovery, it was decided that the nut in this experiment should be cracked on end, proximal (stem) end up and distal (nipple) end against the anvil. Pit growth in this experiment was measured at 20 nut intervals. The number of hits per nut were also recorded.

The sandstone anvil used in this experi­ment (Anvil A) weighed 554.9gm. and had a hardness of 5. It 's d imensions were 11cm. x 8 .8cm. and 5 c m . th ick . The hammer used was a rounded cobble of quartzite weighing 509.5gm. with a max­imum diameter of 7.2cm. and a hardness of 7.

After 20 nuts had been cracked (59 hits) a small depression .2cm. deep and .5cm. wide had formed. As the experi­ment proceeded to 40 nuts cracked (93 hits) the depress ion grew in w id th to 1.3cm. whi le the depth remained the same at .2cm. After 100 nuts had been c r a c k e d (247 hits) a " U " or c u p p e d s h a p e d d e p r e s s i o n r e m a i n e d . The depress ion had a max imum w id th of 2.1cm. and was .4cm. deep. The cupped shaped depression had an oval shaped rim. In the center of the bottom of the depression was a distinct small impres­sion left by the "nipple" on the distal end of the nut. Size, shape, and presence of the "n ipp le " depress ion in this pit all reflect the nut that was cracked.

M ic roscop ic examinat ion of the pit before cleaning revealed much nut fiber adhering to the pit. After c leaning,the depression appeared coarse, but not bat­tered, through the microscope. The nipple depress ion itself was cy l indr ica l , the bottom of which was somewhat uneven.

After each nut was cracked the shell and kernel material was gathered and separated. Total weight of recovered shel l was 2 5 6 . 7 g m . To ta l we igh t of recovered nut meat was 158.1gm. The sample of Hickory nuts that were cracked provided the following data:

Average weight of recovered shell per 100: 256.7/100 = 2.567gm.

Average weight of recovered nut meat per 100: 158.1/100 = 1.581gm.

11

Experiment 2 100 fresh nuts from the Black Walnut

(Juglans nigra) were used in this experi­ment. The nuts were gathered at different locations and the husks allowed to rot prior to the experiment. The nuts were measured using the same procedures as in Experiment 1. As with Hickory, the Black Walnut also exhibits a small nipple at the distal end of the nut. The sample of Black Walnut, which weighed 1,554.7gm., provided the following data:

Average weight per 100: 1554.7/100 = 15.547gm.

Average length per 100: 324.9/100 = 3.249cm.

Average middle diameter per 100: 355.7/100 = 3.557cm.

Average lower diameter per 100: 168.9/100 = 1.689cm.

Average nipple length per 100: 120/100 = 1.2cm.

Like Experiment 1, this experiment was also designed to check maximum nut meat recovery. The nuts in this experi­ment were cracked on end, proximal (stem) end up and distal (nipple) end against the anvil. Pit growth was again measured at 20 nut intervals and the number of hits per nut were recorded. The sandstone anvil used (Anvil B) weighed 1.3kg. and had a hardness of 6. It's dimensions were 12.6cm. x 11.5cm. and 7cm. thick. The hammer used was the same quartzite cobble used in Experiment 1.

As the experiment proceeded it was noted that simply cracking the nuts on end, which split into halves, did not allow for maximum kernel recovery. The solu­tion to this was to place the section halves, one at a time, over the pit, flat side down on the anvil and again crack them with the hammerstone. After 20 nuts had been cracked (129 hits) a slight depression .1cm. deep was noted. It's maximum width, which was based on stain from the nut on the stone was 1.3cm. No change was noted in the depression until 60 nuts had been cracked (453 hits). At that time, though the maximum width of the depression remained 1.3cm., the depth had achieved .2cm. in depth. At the end of this experi­ment, after 100 nuts had been cracked (805 hits), the depression had a maximum width of 1.3cm. and was .3cm. deep.

The remaining depression had a slightly oval shaped rim. At first glance the pit appeared to be "U" to "V" shaped. A slight nipple depression was present, but hard to detect without a microscope. Microscopic examination before cleaning revealed the depression to be more "V" shaped, with the bottom of the "V" being the nipple depression. Much nut meat fiber was also noted in the depression. After cleaning, the depression appeared coarse but not battered, however some surface batter was noted on the surface

of the stone around the depression. After each nut was cracked to recover max­imum nut meat, the shell and kernel material were gathered and separated. The total weight of recovered shell was 1167.8gm. and the total weight of recov­ered nut meat was 357gm. The sample of 100 Black Walnuts which were cracked provided the following data:

Average weight of recovered shell per 100: 1167.8/100 = 11.67gm.

Average weight of recovered nut meat per 100: 357/100 = 3.57gm.

Experiment 6 In this experiment 50 Black Walnuts

and 50 Shagbark Hickory nuts were used, alternately cracked on end (prox­imal end up and distal end against the anvil). The nuts were cracked until all usable nut meat could be extracted. Pit measurements were taken at 20 nut intervals. The sandstone anvil used (Anvil F) weighed 1.2kg. and had a hardness of 6. It's dimensions were 13.4cm. x 11cm. and was 7cm. thick.

Due to the very granular nature of this anvil the depression formed rapidly. After 10 nuts were cracked (54 hits) a depres­sion formed which would enable the nuts to stand on their own. A depression with a maximum width of 1.6cm. and .4cm. deep formed after 20 nuts had been cracked (111 hits). After 60 nuts had been cracked (304 hits) the depression mea­sured a maximum width of 2.7cm. and was .8cm. deep. At the end of the experi­ment, after 100 nuts had been cracked (510 hits) the remaining depression had a maximum width of 3.6cm. and was 1.5cm. deep. Visual examination revealed a conical or "V" shaped depression with an oval shaped rim. At the bottom of this depression was a small nipple depres­sion. Microscopic examination showed the sides of the pit to be smooth but not ground, with much nut fiber present. The bottom of the nipple depression appeared coarse and battered. Though both Hickory and Walnut were cracked in this depression, the pit clearly reflects the larger Walnut. Also noted was the begin­ning of a "stress crack" which ran across just off center of the depression.

Experiment 7 Unlike the previous experiments in nut

cracking, the nuts in this experiment were cracked on their sides, that is, the proximal to distal axis of the nut was laid parallel with the anvil. The sandstone anvil used (Anvil G) weighed 1.0kg. It measured 17.8cm. x 9.5cm. and was 5.5cm. thick, with a hardness of 6. Nuts of both Black Walnut and Hickory were used in this experiment, the two types being alternately cracked.

After 20 nuts had been cracked (42 hits), a battered area, measuring 2.2cm. x 2.2cm. appeared. The anvil broke across

the center of the battered area after a total of 37 nuts had been cracked (108 hits), terminating the experiment. At this time the battered area measured 2.2cm. x 2.2cm. and was .1cm. deep. Microscopic examination before cleaning revealed much nut fiber present in this uneven and battered area.

Experiment 8 In order to complete the process started

in Experiment 7 a new experiment was set up. The sandstone anvil used, Anvil H, measured 12.5cm. x 12.0cm. and was 6.2cm. thick. The anvil weighed 1.0kg. and had a hardness of 5. Nuts of both Black Walnut and Shagbark Hickory were alternately cracked on their sides, prox­imal to distal axis parallel with the anvil.

After 20 nuts had been cracked (64 hits), a battered area measuring 2.7cm. x 2.7cm. was present. As the experiment proceeded to 60 nuts cracked (256 hits), the battered area remained 2.7cm. x 2.7cm. but now had a maximum depth of .2cm. After 100 nuts had been cracked (441 hits) a some­what oblong, "U" shaped slight depression remained. The maximum width dimension was 2.9cm. and maximum depth was .3cm. Microscopic examination after cleaning showed the bottom of the depression to be uneven and battered. Related surface batter was also noted on the surface of the stone around the rim of the depression.

Experiment 13 This final experiment in nut cracking

was designed to assist in comparing depressions made by Hickory and Walnut. Using the same anvil (Anvil M) 65 Walnuts were cracked in one area and 65 Hickory nuts were cracked in another area on the same surface in close prox­imity The nuts were cracked on end, proximal end up and distal end against the anvil. The nuts were cracked until all usable meat could be extracted. Anvil M measured 20.3cm. x 15cm. and was 6.1cm. thick. The anvil weighed 2.0kg. and had a hardness of 5. The same quartzite hammerstone used in the pre­vious experiments was used. Pit mea­surements were recorded at 20 hit intervals rather than nut intervals.

Beginning with Walnut, after 40 hits (6 nuts) a nipple depression began to form. By the time 100 hits were made (12 nuts) a depression 1.6cm. x 1.5cm. and .3cm. deep formed. Growth of this depression continued until 435 hits were made (65 nuts), at which time the anvil split, just off center of the depression. At this time the oblong pit measured 3.7cm. x 3.2cm. and was .9cm. deep. The depression was conical shaped with the point in the bottom being the nipple depression.

Following the Walnut experiment, in an area approximately 7cm. from the center of the Walnut depression, the Hickory

12

experiment was performed. After 40 hits (10 nuts) a nipple depression measuring .8cm. x .5cm. and .1cm. deep had formed. Measurements taken after 100 hits (24 nuts) revealed this depression had grown to 1.1cm. x 1.0cm. and was .2cm. deep. Using up the sample of 65 nuts required 283 hits. At this time the depres­sion measured 2.3cm. x 2.2cm. and was .6cm. deep. This pit had an oval shaped rim. The depression was cup shaped with a nipple depression in the bottom.

Conclusion to Nut Processing In reviewing the results of the preceding

experiments certain results are evident. However, it must be remembered that of all of the various types of nuts used by the prehistoric peoples only two types were used in these experiments, Shagbark Hickory and Black Walnut.

First of all, when nuts are cracked on end, proximal end up and distal end against the anvil the pit which forms in the anvil will show certain characteristics:

1. An oval shaped rim.

2. A cupped or conical shaped depres­sion, depending upon the type of nut cracked.

3. A nipple depression, if that nipple is present on the distal end of the nut.

4. The depression should have a rough or coarse look but not ground smooth or battered.

5. Some related surface battering could be present on the surface of the stone around the pit.

6. The size of the pit will be related to the size of the nut cracked.

If the nuts are cracked on their sides the pit should show the following charac­teristics:

1. An oval or round shaped rim.

2. A cupped shaped depression.

3. The bottom of the depression will have a somewhat uneven and battered appearance.

4. Some related surface battering could be present on the surface of the stone around the rim of the pit.

In comparing the methods of cracking the nuts, the author feels that cracking the nuts on end allowed for more nut meat recovery and more ease of separa­tion of shell and kernel material. However, if separation of shell and kernel material was not important in this step of processing, cracking nuts on their sides was quicker.

Lithic Processing Two methods of lithic processing using

anvils were employed. One, bipolar, was used to attempt to split cobbles.

Faulkner (1984:322), in discussing bipolar reduction, reports that "this phenomenon accounts for many of the artifacts com­monly identified as nutting stones." The other, direct rest percussion flaking, as described by Ellis (1965:17). This process involves holding a blade edgewise on the anvil and striking it with a hammerstone. Ellis reports that this procedure is suit­able for "thinning down and roughing artifacts out from the raw material."

Experiment 3 The sandstone anvil used in this exper­

iment (Anvil C) weighed 1.0kg. and had a hardness of 5. Its dimensions were 12.2cm x 9.0cm and was 7.0cm thick. The hammerstone used was the same quartzite hammerstone used in the pre­vious experiments. The chert used was an angular core of Vanport weighing 800gm. Pit measurements were taken at 20 hit intervals. This experiment was designed to be a combination of bipolar and direct rest percussion flaking.

Within the first 20 hits the core shat­tered (bipolar flaking). The debitage pro­duced were thick, wide, short blades with no bulb of percussion present. The anvil also split at one end due to two misdi­rected blows. At that time much battering was also present on the face of the anvil, however, no depression had yet formed. After this, numerous flakes were then taken and held edgewise, resting against the anvil and chipped (direct rest percus­sion flaking edgewise on anvil).

After 100 hits a depression measuring 2.7cm. x 1.8cm. and .5cm. deep was present on the face of the anvil. The pit was irregular and uneven. The bottom of the pit and the sides were battered. There was also much gouging present throughout the depression. Some related surface battering was also present around the pit on the face of the anvil.

Experiment 9 The anvil used in this experiment (Anvil

I) was a piece of sandstone with the dimensions of 13cm x 13cm and 9cm thick. It weighed 2.2kg. and had a hard­ness of 4-5. An irregular cobble core of an indeterminate (glacial?) chert weighing 163.6gm with a maximum diameter of 7.3cm was used. The same quartzite hammerstone was employed in this experiment which was designed to pro­duce a bipolar anvil. Measurements were taken at 20 hit intervals.

After 14 hits the anvil split, not at the point of impact, but off to the side. Because the anvil was still usable the experiment continued. After 20 hits a depression measuring 1.3cm x 1.2cm and .1cm deep was present. Much battering was noticed on the anvil around the rim of the depression. The anvil cracked across the center of the depression after 33 hits, terminating the experiment.

At this time the irregular and uneven

depression measured 2.7cm x 2.3cm and had a maximum depth of .2cm. Much battering and gouging was present in the depression. Microscopic examination (20x) revealed the depression to be made up of numerous battered areas causing the bottom to be uneven and irregular.

Experiment 10 In order to complete the process

started in Experiment 9, a new anvil was selected, Anvil J. The anvil weighed 1.4kg and had a hardness of 6. Its dimensions were 14cm x 12cm and was 4.5cm thick. An irregular core of Upper Mercer chert with a maximum diameter of 6.5cm, weighing 186.2gm was selected to be flaked.

20 hits failed to split the core, however at this time, a distinct depression mea­suring 1.6cm x 1.6cm and .3cm deep had formed on the anvil. The anvil split through the depression after 57 hits ending this experiment. The remaining rough and irregular depression in the anvil measured 3.8cm x 3.5cm and was .6cm deep. The bottom and sides of the depression were very irregular and bat­tered. Some surface battering on the face of the anvil around the rim of the depres­sion was also present.

Experiment 11 This final experiment was designed to

produce a direct rest percussion anvil. A blade of Vanport chert measuring 6cm x 5cm and 2.5cm thick, weighing 75gm, was flaked along one edge in an attempt to produce a steep retouch. The sand­stone anvil used (Anvil K) measured 17cm x 11cm and was 6.3cm thick. Anvil K weighed 1 kg and had a hardness of 6. The thick flake of chert was laid with its long axis horizontal to the anvil. Light blows with the hammerstone were tapped along one edge of the flake in an attempt to detach flakes to create a steep retouch.

After 20 hits an irregular depression was visible that measured 2.1cm x 1.2cm and was .2cm deep. A battered area was also present on the face of the anvil where the hammerstone glances from the flake onto the anvil. The depression grew in size until 100 hits, at which time the experiment ended. The remaining depression measured 3.3cm x 3.1cm and had a maximum depth of .6cm. The bottom of this depression was very irreg­ular with much gouging present. Grooves radiating from the center of the pit were present up the sides of the depression where the blade had cut into the stone.

Conclusion to Lithic Processing Though the sample of anvils produced

in the preceding experiments is some­what small, the results show promise in defining certain characteristics of pits produced by certain types of lithic pro­cessing. If a sandstone anvil is used in

13

bipo lar f l ak ing , the pit wh ich resul ts should show the following characteristics:

1. An irregular shaped rim.

2. An irregular cupped or conical shaped d e p r e s s i o n , d e p e n d i n g upon the shape of the core.

3. The depression should have a battered look. Battering marks should be present in the bottom of the depression.

4. Some related surface battering could be present on the surface of the stone around the pit.

If a sandstone anvil is used as a direct percussion anvil, with the blade held on edge, the pit should show the following characteristics:

1. An irregular shaped rim.

2. A conical shaped depression.

3. The depression should have a battered and gouged look. Marks may be pre­sent where the blade cut into the stone.

4. Some related surface battering could be present on the surface of the anvil around the pit.

Sockets In order to compare what a ground in

socket type depression may look like, three experiments were set up using a bow drill as a fire-starter. In these experi­ments sandstone was used as the top socket device. Other materials used will be described. Measurements were taken at draw intervals. A "draw" was consid­ered to be the d i s t a n c e the cen te r rotating shaft takes to travel the length of the bowstring from one end to the other. This "draw" has no meaning except to be a convenient measuring interval.

Experiment 4 The sands tone cobb le used in th is

experiment, Cobble D, measured 10cm x 10cm and was 5.8cm thick. Weighing 650gm, it had a hardness of 5. The center rotating shaft, measuring 33cm in length, was made from Cherry (Prunus) which measured 1.8cm in diameter and was sharpened to a point. This pointed end would rub against the sandstone. The bow used had a working length of 81 cm.

After 20 draws a depression began to form in a natural pocket in the stone. The depression measured .7cm x .7cm and appea red to be con ica l shaped and s m o o t h , the con ica l shape p robab ly attributed to the pointed shaft. After 80 draws the depression remained .7cm x .7cm, but measured .2cm in depth. At this t ime the shaft became diff icult to control and wanted to wander away from the depression, due to the point of the shaft being ground down. Measurements taken at 100 draws showed no change in size or depth of the depress ion . The

remaining conical shaped depression had a uni formly shaped round r im. A great deal of wood fiber was present in the p i t . A f te r c l ean ing , m i c r o s c o p i c examination at 20x showed the conical shaped pit to be uniform and symmet­r i ca l . The wa l l s of the pi t a p p e a r e d smooth and ground. No battering was present in the pit or, of course, around the rim.

Experiment 5 The sandstone cobble used, Cobble E,

weighed 502.4gm and had a hardness of 5. Its dimensions were 10.5cm x 9.5cm and was 5.8cm thick. The wooden shaft used, made from Ash (Sorbus), was 36.5cm in length and had a diameter of 1.1cm. Both ends of the shaft were rounded to a diam­eter of .9cm. The same bow was used as in the previous experiment.

After several tries a slight depression had to be pecked into the face of the cobble as the shaft constantly wandered due to the very flat surface of the cobble. With the depression started by pecking, the rotating shaft quit wandering.

Examination after 100 draws revealed that a ground smooth depression had formed measuring 1.0cm x 1.0cm and .1cm deep. After 200 draws the depres­sion remained the same in w id th and diameter but had reached a depth of .2cm. The exper iment ended at 1200 draws at which time the size and depth of the ground in area remained the same as at 200 draws, which was 1.0cm x 1.0cm and .2cm deep. Much more wear appeared on the wood shaft, which had been, by this time, ground down by abra­sive act ion. The remaining depression a p p e a r e d cup s h a p e d w i t h a r o u n d bo t tom and rounded r im. Much wood f iber and res in were p resen t in and around the depression.

Microscopic examination after cleaning revealed the depression to be a "ground in" depression within the pecked area. Some battering marks from the pecking process were present around the depres­sion while those in the bottom were being worn down . The pit itself, wh ich was formed by the rotating shaft, was cup shaped wi th a rounded bo t tom and a round shaped rim.

Experiment 12 Using a bow with a working distance of

80cm and an Ash (Sorbus) shaft 36.5cm long, with a diameter of 1.0cm rounded to .9cm at the ends, this last experiment was conducted. The sandstone cobble used , Cobb le L, measured 12.6cm x 8.5cm and was 5.8cm thick. Cobble L weighed 800gm and had a hardness of 5.

After 40 draws a slight depression had to be pecked into the sur face of the sandstone cobble to prevent the rotating shaft f rom travel ing. After 60 draws a n ice c i r cu la r d e p r e s s i o n measu r i ng

1.3cm x 1.3cm and .2cm deep had formed. This depression had a smooth bo t tom. During examinat ion after 100 draws the pit appeared to be cup shaped and smooth. The pit had a round shaped rim. Much foreign material was also pre­sent , p robab ly w o o d f iber and resin. Microscopic examination, after cleaning, revealed the pit to be cup shaped with a smooth bottom and sides, rounded rim and no related battering.

Depression size is related to the size of the diameter of the rotating shaft due to some wobble.

Conclusion to Sockets Though the sample of sockets pro­

duced in these experiments is admittedly small , certain results show promise in defining the characteristics of pits pro­duced by rotating shafts. If a sandstone cobb le is used as a socke t /p ressure device for a rotating shaft it should show the following characteristics:

1. A round shaped rim.

2. A cup or conical shaped depression, depending upon the shape of the end of the rotating shaft used.

3. The depression should have a smooth, look. Some battering may be present, if the depress ion f i rst needed to be pecked, however, this "in pit battering" may appear ground down. The side walls of the pit produced by a rotating shaft will appear smooth, not battered, as will the bottom.

Conclusion In comparing the different types of pits

produced by different materials and actions one must keep in mind that only a small number were produced. Also other treat­ments of the same type of materials may produce slightly different results. In the socket experiments, for example, what would happen if the ends of the rotating shaft were fire-hardened? Would a deeper pit result? One would think the wear char­acteristics of the pit would be the same, however would the stone socket tend to wear more and the wood shaft less? What if a harder wood had been used? In the l i thic p rocess ing exper iments a hard hammer percussor was used. What would the pits look like if a soft hammer technique were applied? In the nut processing experi­ments only two different types of nuts were used. What would the pits look like if other types of nuts were used? What would the pits look like that are produced by cracking bone? The possibilities are numerous.

However , the au tho r fee ls the pi t reflects the type of activity that produced it. In the nut processing exper iments, where the nuts were cracked on end, the pits had an oval or round shaped rim. The oval or round shape is due to the shape of the nut. Pit size is related to nut

14

size as is pit shape. Nut processing pro­duced bo th cup shaped and con ica l shaped depressions. It is interesting to note that the Hickory depressions tended to be cupped while the Walnut depres­sions tended to be conical. When both types of nuts were cracked in the same depression, size and shape of the pit were d e t e r m i n e d by the larger nut , Walnut. Nut processing also produced both round and po in ted pit bo t toms . Another characterist ic of the pits pro­duced by cracking nuts on end was the small depress ion in the center of the bottom of the pit caused by the "nipple" on the distal end of the nut. Moorehead (1910:328) in his d i scuss ion of c u p ­stones, mentions this phenomenon, but does not believe that the cracking of nuts wou ld p roduce this ef fect, but rather attr ibutes it to a dri l l . These pits were produced on a flat surface of sandstone by the repeated cracking of nuts in the same spot, in the same position. There is no need to first peck out a depression. Once this depression has formed, the nuts will stand upright within.

While some nutting anvils, especially those created by cracking nuts on their sides, may exhibit some battering marks in the depression, lithic anvils are char­acter ized by bat ter ing. Bipolar anvi ls tend to have depressions that are irreg­ular shaped with irregular shaped rims and m u c h b a t t e r i n g p resen t in t he depression, while direct rest percussion anvils tend to have depressions which are very irregular with very irregular rims and much gouging and cutting present in the bottoms and sides. Bipolar anvils may have e i ther c u p p e d or c o n i c a l shaped depressions depending upon the shape of the core, while direct rest per­cuss ion anv i ls t e n d to have con i ca l shaped depressions. Another character­istic of anvils is the "stress crack" which appears in both the nutt ing and lithic variety. This crack, which may result in a broken anvil, usually runs close to the point of impact.

Socke ts , on the other hand, wou ld probably never exhibit a stress crack. Their pit r ims are usual ly round . The depression should have a "ground in" and symmetrical appearance. Pit shape could be cupped or conical depending upon the shape of the end of the shaft used. The sides of the depression should have a smooth appearance. Pit bottoms could be uniformly round to conical. Again, their diameter is probably somewhat related to the size of the shaft that produced them. Some batter ing may be present if the depression first needed to be pecked.

Cupstones, when found, should be ana­lyzed in conjunction with other materials recovered. However, this may be difficult on surface and disturbed sites. Weathering

may affect the pits on those exposed to the elements. On the experimently pro­duced examples, before c leaning, nut meat and shell was present in the pits of the nutting anvils as was pulverized rock in the lithic examples and wood fiber in the sockets. However, as Studer (1982:60) points out, this may not be the case in archaeologically recovered examples.

One specimen recovered from Blain Village (Prufer and Shane 1970:121) was found with charred nuts and corn kernels adhering to both the cupped face and ins ide of the d e p r e s s i o n . S tude r (1982:61-62) feels that the pitted stones recovered from the Icy Eye site are lithic anvils. On at least two occasions cup­stones have been found associated with red ochre. Dragoo (1963:105-106) in his d iscussion of the cupstones f rom the Cresap Mound mentions their associa­tion with red ochre and faceted pieces of hemat i te thus ind icat ing their use as paint cups . Carskadden and Mor ton (1970:90) recovered two examples with red ochre stains in the cups f rom the Richards site. This may indicate another "type" of cupstone or multipurpose use.

Analysis of Cupstones From 33-CS-76 A total of 14 cupstones were examined

from the excavations at 33-CS-76, a rock shelter in Coshocton County, Ohio, exca­vated by Nigel Brush in 1982. The size of the cupstones range from one example which measures 10cm x 7.5cm and is 5cm thick to another which is 37cm x 23cm and is 12.4cm thick. Weight also varies from 400gm to 9kg. All appear to be of Massillon Sandstone. Hardness of the stone varies f rom 4 to 6 on Mohs Scale. The number of pits on these arti­facts run from 1 per stone to 9 per stone.

A total of 51 depressions were examined on these 14 artifacts. Examination included various measurements of the depressions, visual observations and low power (20x -40x) microscopic examinat ions. These observat ions were compared against observat ions made on exper imental ly made examples.

43% (N=22) of the pits examined indi­cated that they were nutting pits by size, shape, and presence of a depression within the bottom of the pit made by the point at the distal end of the nut. In addi­t ion, another 2 6 % (N=13) showed the same characteristics except that the nut point depression was only visible under low power (20x) microscopic examina­tion. Certain characteristics of the above i nc l ude ova l s h a p e d r ims (a l t hough round and irregular r ims also occur) , cupped or conical shaped depressions, and a small depression in the bottom of the pit. 2 1 % (N=11) shared the same characteristics as the above except no nut end depression was visible in the

bottom of the pit. 6% (N=3) are irregular shaped battered areas. These occur in associat ion with the nutt ing pits. One suggestion is that these are areas where the shell sections were further reduced once the nuts had been cracked and split in the nutting pits.

The final 4 % (N=2) of the pits exam­ined are different in that they are round and exhibi t smooth , g round inter iors. These, which both occur on the same artifact, are believed to be sockets.

To summarize, of the 51 pits exam­ined, 96% (N=49) indicate use in nut pro­c e s s i n g , wh i l e 4 % (N=2) show use possibly as sockets. Of the 14 cupstones examined, 93% (N=13) show use as nut­ting anvils and 7% (N=1) show possible use as a socket.

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Stackpole Books. Harrisburg, Pa. Britt, Claude 1973 Historical Evidence for a Use of

Cupstones. Ohio Archaeologist, 23 (1):26-27

Carskadden, Jeff and James Morton 1977 Trie Richards Site and the Philo Phase

of the Fort Ancient Tradition. Occasional Papers in Muskingum Valley Archaeology 1-9. Muskingum Valley Archaeological Survey, Zanesville, Ohio

Converse, Robert N. 1966 Ohio Stone Tools. The Archaeological

Society of Ohio. Columbus Deisher, Henry K. 1939 Pitted Stones or Problem of the Pitted

Stones. The Pennsylvania Archaeologist, 10(1):11-12

Dragoo, Don W. 1963 Mounds for the Dead: An Analysis of the

Adena Culture. Annals of the Carnegie Museum, Pittsburgh, Pa.

Ellis, H. Holmes 1965 Flint Working Techniques of the American

Indians: An Experimental Study. The Ohio Historical Society. Columbus

Faulkner, Alaric 1984 Examining Chipped Stone Tools. The

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Fowke, Gerard 1902 Archaeological History of Ohio. The

State Archaeological and Historical Society. Columbus

Kalin, Jeffery 1981 Stem Point Manufacture and Debitage

Recovery. Archaeology of Eastern North America, Vol.9:134-175

Moorehead, Warren K. 1910 The Stone Age in North America.

Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Co. The Riverside Press. Cambridge

Prufer, Olaf H. and Orrin C. Shane.lll 1970 Blain Village and the Fort Ancient

Tradition in Ohio. The Kent State University Press

15

Read, M. C. 1892 Archaeology of Ohio. The Western

Reserve Historical Society. Cleveland

Spears, Carol S. 1975 Hammers, Nuts and Jolts, Cobbles,

Cobbles, Cobbles: Experiments in Cobble Technologies in Search of Correlates. Arkansas Eastman Archaeological Project, by Charles M. Baker, pp.83-116. Research Report No.6, Arkansas Archaeological Survey, Fayetteville

Studer, Joseph Mark 1982 Archaic Pebble Core Reduction in East

Texas: The Icy Eye Example. Papers in Anthropology No.3, Stephen F. Austin State University, Nacogoches, Texas

HAMMER

ANVIL

ANVIL

ANVIL

COBBLE

COBBLE

ANVIL

ANVIL

ANVIL

ANVIL

ANVIL

ANVIL

COBBLE

A

A

B

C

D

E

F

G

H

I

J

K

L

ANVIL M

WEIGHT

509.5

554.9

1.3

1.0

650.0

502.4

1.2

1.0

1.0

2.2

1.4

1.0

800.0

2.0

i',™

Km

kg

kg

gin

gn

kg

kg

kg

kg

kg

kg

gm

kg

LENGTH

7.0 cm

11.0 cm

12.6 cm

12.2 cm

10.0 cm

10.5 cm

13.4 cm

17.8 cm

12.5 cm

13.0 cm

14.0 cm

17.0 cm

12.6 cm

20.3 cm

WIDTH

(7.2 cm max

8.8 cm

11.5 cm

9.0 cm

10.0 cm

9.5 cm

11.0 cm

9.5 cm

12.0 cm

13.0 cm

12.0 cm

11.0 cm

8.5 cm

15.0 cm

THICKNESS

diameter)

5.0 cm

7.0 cm

7.0 cm

5.8 cm

3.8 cm

7.0 cm

5.5 cm

6.2 cm

9.0 cm

4.5 cm

6.3 cm

5.8 cm

6.1 cm

HARDNESS

7+

5

6

5

5

5

6

6

5

4-5

6

6

i

5

MATERIAL

Quartzite

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

Sandstone

TYPE

MISC.

STRIAE

STRESS CRACK

SURFACE SCRATCH

SURFACE BATTER

NIPPLE DEPRESSION

P I T BOTTOM BATTERED

P I T BOTTOM CONICAL

P I T BOTTOM ROUND

P I T SIDES BATTERED

P I T SIDES ROUGH

P I T SIDES SMOOTH

P I T " V " SHAPED

PIT "U" SHAPED

P I T RIM IRREGULAR

P I T RIM OVAL

P I T RIM ROUND

LENGTH X WIDTH

NO. OF P ITS

ARTIFACT NO.

•4 Table 1 (Rowe)

•4 Figure 1 (Rowe) Sample chart used in recording data from examining the depres­sions on the excavated cupstones.

16

jj,t$

0> *

*^K*»3!^B

'# i

Figure 2 (Rowe) Experimentally pro­duced bipolar anvil, Anvil J. Note extreme battering and stress crack.

Figure 3 (Rowe) Experimentally produced direct rest percussion anvil, Anvil K.

Figure 4 (Rowe) Close up of Anvil K, showing a portion of the depression. Note the cutting and gouging marks pro­duced by the blade.

Figure 5 (Rowe) Experimentally produced nutting anvil, Anvil F. Note the oval shape of the rim of the depression and the dark, shadowed, spot in the center of the bottom of the pit, which is a nipple depression produced by the distal end of the nut.

Figure 6 (Rowe) Close up of Anvil F depression.

Figure 7 (Rowe) Excavated nutting anvil from 33-CS-76. Note the stress crack across the depression.

*I»*..

•̂m .9 ^Hp

^ ^ ^ ^

•%.

Figure 8 (Rowe) Excavated nutting anvil from 33-CS-76. These depressions exhibit nipple depressions within.

Figure 9 (Rowe) Experimentally pro­duced socket, Cobble L

m Figure 10 (Rowe) Excavated possible socket from 33-CS-76.

Figure 11 (Rowe) Close up of possible socket from 33-CS-76. Though it is diffi­cult to tell from the photograph, the rim shape is round and the depression is smooth within. The color difference is due to cleaning.

Figure 12 (Rowe) Though not included in the comparison study, this is a possible socket from the Williamson Rock Shelter #2.

17

Figure 13 (Rowe) Close up of possible socket from Williamson Rock Shelter.

THE WORD IS RESPECT by

Fred Eichinger 2628 Holtz Rd. Shelby, Ohio

In regards to president Parkers (Presidents Page) article in the Spring 1995 issue.

Websters dictionary defines the word respect as "expression of esteem; manner of treating others; expression of goodwill or regard; to honor; to have fond relations to".

In our youth and subsequent growing years, most of us were taught respect from our parents. Respect has many degrees and is one of the simplest things in life that one can do for another. It doesn't cost one cent.

I have been walking the fields of a three county area around my home for forty-one years hunting artifacts. In those forty-one years I have become acquainted with many fine people and have many fond memories.

When I got my first car, I would spend the weekends driving the county roads looking for that ideal field to hunt. Many times I would stop at the farm house while the farmer was taking a break under a cool shade tree and talk about

Native American tribes are looking at Ohio in preparation to establish reserva­tions should Ohio voters remove a consti­tutional prohibition against gambling, members of the Joint Committee on Gaming were told Wednesday. Unlike many other states, Ohio currently has no reservation land but certain tribes - most likely the Shawnee, Ottawa and Potawatamee - would only have to prove to the federal government they once inhabited the state to gain federal recognition. Land purchased could then qualify as a reser­vation and could be used for Native American casino operations by entering a compact with the governor. With the pres­ence of Indian mounds in the state, the committee was informed that such federal recognition would only be a formality.

William Johnson, vice president of the native gambling group of Carnival Hotels & Casinos, said the federal 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act has allowed tribes to work with states to develop operations beneficial to both the Indian communities and state revenue coffers. He said Carnival, which has casinos in the Caribbean and on cruise ships as part of an overall entertainment package, has been working with various tribes to assure con­trols and surveillance. He said they cur-

artifacts. I would ask if he had found many on the farm, in what locations he found the most points, and always if he had any laying around the farm. All this would take place over a cold glass of offered cider, soda pop, or cool drink of well water. Almost always, the farmer would say come over to the work shop in the barn, or come on into the house and from these places he would produce a cigar box or two of "flints" as he called them. He would tell me his dad found this one, or his grandfather found that, and always it seems ask "and just what do you think the Indians would do with a rock like this", holding up a very fine two hole gorget. When I asked if he would be interested in selling the artifacts, on most occasions he would. Sometimes he would say "go ahead and take em, ain't doing me no good, and I would like to see them go to someone who can use them". Most importantly, I was never denied walking his fields. Most of the land owners end up thanking you for being considerate enough to ask and not

Gonswer News Service, Inc. 4/5/95

rently are working with tribes in Indiana and in the Province of Ontario. "If gaming comes, it has to be controlled and placed in an atmosphere where it really is gaming," he said explaining Carnival's involvement.

Mr. Johnson said the committee studying the casino gambling issue in Ohio should put the right game plan together for the state and propose a con­stitutional amendment rather than one group going to the ballot with a plan that considers only their interests. Spitzer Great Lakes of Lorain is currently circu­lating petitions to place the question of riverboat gambling on either the 1995 or 1996 general election ballot.

He also said Ohio needs to protect its borders as Indiana will soon have riverboat gambling only minutes from Cincinnati and northern Ohio residents can get to gaming operations in Windsor, Ontario, upstate New York and probably soon in Detroit where Indians are working with the gov­ernor of Michigan to designate properties in the city as a "reservation" to qualify.

Mr. Johnson noted tribes are already operating casinos in Northern Michigan and they are coming together to have land put in trust in Detroit that would become a reservation. In lieu of taxes, casino rev­enues would then be apportioned to the

trespass without permission. In those forty-one years, I am proud to

say I have never been refused the privi­lege of hunting another man's property.

During the Christmas season I send to each property owner a combination thank you and Christmas card with an Indian logo along with a small gift as a little thank you for allowing me to enjoy my hobby by hunting your lands.

I have farmers call me at my home, and tell me which fields they will be plowing, if it's new ground, if they have bought other fields to plow, or if they have found some­thing they think I might be interested in. As many of my close farmer friends have passed on, I find it exciting to meet the new generation of farmers many of whom are themselves collectors.

All this amounts to respect, and those who trespass are missing the truly great aspect of our hobby, the ability to meet new people and create lasting friend­ships.

So my fellow collectors be courteous, always respectful and happy hunting.

state and city with the remaining revenues going to the Indian communities, he explained in anticipation of a compact between the Michigan tribes and Governor John Engler. The designated "reservation" could be in downtown Detroit, he noted.

Leonard Prescott, chairman of the Eagle Vision Gaming Group in Minnesota, said the 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act has allowed Indian communities an opportunity to regain self-sufficiency, rebuild strong tribal governments and develop economic bases. He reported that in Minnesota, where 11 tribes are operating 17 casinos, successes are being detailed by every tribe involved.

Mr. Prescott said the Mystic Lake Casino, near Minneapolis/St. Paul, has an average of over 15,000 players per weekday and over 30,000 per weekend day. He said Minnesota Indian casinos have an approximate $2 billion per year gross, creating jobs, tax revenues and future economic development. Besides direct jobs, Mr. Prescott said casino oper­ations can provide direct distribution of profits to members of some tribes while smaller reservations use the revenues for community projects such as schools, hos­pitals, roads and sewer systems, rather than make direct distributions.

INDIANS LOOKING TO OHIO FOR POSSIBLE CASINO OPERATIONS

I8

MINERALOGY OF A "CHLORITE" PICK BANNERSTONE

Although it is hazardous to attempt mineralogic or petrologic identifications of material from photographs, the excel­lent quality of the color il lustration accompanying Jim Stephan's description of a "chlorite" pick bannerstone from Moore County, North Carolina (Stephan 1995) makes it almost certain that this artifact was manufactured from the min­eral labradorite rather than from chlorite.

Labradorite is a variety of plagioclase feldspar characterized by a striking cha­toyant play of colors. Very frequently, like most plagioclases, it also displays mul­tiple twinned crystals, known as albite twinning, which appears as fine parallel lines on a cleavage face. The pick ban­nerstone found near Robbins, Moore County, North Carolina, exhibits both of these features, although a low power hand lens is necessary to discern the crystal twinning from the photograph.

Labradorite obtains its name from Labrador, where specimens exhibiting spectacular chatoyancy occur. Figure 1 is a polished specimen from the Orton Museum geological collections (Ace. No. 2197) collected by Jack DeLong on St. Paul Island, Labrador. Another specimen collected by DeLong from Iceland (Ace. No. 2028) is shown in Fig. 2 and displays the fine ruled lines characteristic of albite twinning. The brilliant play of colors shown by this specimen is typical of the material from Labrador, but examples from other locales have the chatoyancy much subdued or lacking.

Labradorite does occur in North Carolina, and Pratt (1933:158) reports it from near Charlotte, Mecklenburg County, and near Bakersville, Mitchell County. According to him, the mineral from these localities shows only a slight chatoyancy, "not nearly as beautiful as the labradorite from Labrador." This observation is true of the material as well. Mecklenburg County is only a couple of counties west of the bannerstone find, while Mitchell County lies well to the northwest, beyond the Blue Ridge Mountains.

As indicated by another specimen in the Orton Museum, labradorite can be found in the glacial moraine of Ohio, though the specimen available is a rather lack-luster example, displaying no dis­tinct play of color. It also occurs abun­dantly throughout the Adirondack region of central New York and in the Wichita Mountains of Arkansas (Dana 1922; 467).

FROM NORTH CAROLINA by

James L. Murphy Ohio State University Libraries

1858 Neil Avenue Mall Columbus, OH 43210

A simple hardness test should confirm the identification of the material used in manufacture of the pick bannerstone, as chlorite is relatively soft (2-2.5) and labradorite has a hardness of 5-6. If the bannerstone cannot be scratched by a copper penny, it is not chlorite.

Acknowledgements. Dale Gnidovec, Curator, Orton

Museum, Ohio State University, kindly located the labradorite specimens and permitted photographing them.

References Dana, Edward Salisbury 1922 A Text-book of Mineralogy . .. Third ed.,

rev. by William E. Ford. New York: Wiley & Sons.

Pratt, Joseph Hyde 1933 Gems and Gem Minerals of North

Carolina. The American Mineralogist 18(4): 148-159.

Stephan, Jim 1995 A Chlorite Pick Bannerstone. Ohio

Archaeologist 45(2): 27.

Plates 1 and 2 (Murphy) Examples of Labradorite.

19

THE JOHN W. "RED" STALDER COLLECTION

On July 4, 1995, the author acquired the artifact collection of John W. "Red" Stalder of Por tsmouth , Ohio. Born in 1907, Mr. Stalder began collecting arrow­heads as a boy in Portsmouth, and con­tinued to do so through the 1960's. The "grass roots" collection is relatively small, because this was not his only hobby. He a lso c o l l e c t e d m in ia tu re sea she l ls (dredged from the ocean floor), dated railroad tie nails, coins, lanterns, guns and cartridges, while Mrs. Stalder co l ­lected salt and pepper shakers. Sgt. Stalder served in the Signal Corps during

by David W. Kuhn

Portsmouth, Ohio

Wor ld War I I , seeing ac t ion in Nor th Africa and in Europe.

A significant portion of the artifact col­lection consists of Ft. Ancient Culture ar t i fac ts f rom the Feurt Mounds and Village Site in Scioto County and from the Hard in V i l lage Si te in G reenup County, Kentucky. Some of those arti­facts are shown in Figures 1 through 8. In addit ion,the collection contains several shell-tempered and grit-tempered pottery vessels from Southern Ohio, over 500 tri­angular points, 174 Ft. Ancient dri l ls, numerous sandstone and pottery d is-

coidals, bone beads, flakers, fish hooks, flutes (whistles), needles, hairpins, antler tip arrowheads, drilled teeth and cannel coa l , raccoon penis bones and awls made of the ulna of the deer, the tarso-metatarsus of the wild turkey and sliver bone awls.

The collection also has flint arrows and spears f r om all p reh i s to r i c cu l t u res except Paleo, some of which are shown in Figures 9 through 12. In addition, the col lect ion contains 138 birdpoints and numerous o the r larger a r rows and blades.

Figure 1 (Kuhn) Ft. Ancient Culture pipes. Top left is red sandstone and is engraved. All others are red and gray Ohio pipestone. Pipe at lower right is engraved and is 2%". All pipes were surface finds at the Feurt Village Site in Scioto County and at the Hardin Village Site in Greenup County, Kentucky.

Figure 2 (Kuhn) Ft. Ancient Culture artifacts from the Feurt Site and the Hardin Site. The granite discoidal in the center is 2%" in diameter.

-4 Figure 3 (Kuhn) Ft. Ancient Culture bone awls made of the ulna of the deer and the tarso-met-atarsus of the wild turkey. The longest is 7%". All are from the Feurt Site and the Hardin Site.

Figure 4 (Kuhn) Ft. Ancient Culture bone implements (hairpins, needles, flutes, fish hooks and drilled raccoon penis bones) from the Feurt Site and the Hardin Site. The longest hairpin is 6%".

20

•4 Figure 5 (Kuhn) Ft. Ancient Culture necklace of 22 cannel coal effigy claw pen­dants, 6 marginella shell spacers and 16 mussel shell disc spacers and 1 circular cannel coal disc bead. The longest can­nel coal claw pendant is 2".

Figure 6 (Kuhn) Ft. Ancient Culture necklace of 26 mussel shell disc beads, 20 wolf teeth, 4 bear or mountain lion teeth and 2 cannel coal claw pendants. The longest tooth is 2".

Figure 7 (Kuhn) 33 Ft. Ancient Culture drills from the Feurt Site and the Hardin Site. The T-drill in the center is 1%".

4 V ?> v Figure 8 (Kuhn) Ft. Ancient Culture triangular points. The longest is 2%"

Figure 9 (Kuhn) Three superb spearheads from the Stalder collection. The point on the left is made of Indiana hornstone, and the two points on the right are made of Flint Ridge flint. The center point has a quartz inclusion in the center and is 5'A" long. The Hopewell point on the right is made of amber colored, translucent flint.

Figure 10 (Kuhn) Adena Culture spear made of Coshocton black flint with a slight mottle of gray. It was found in Pike County, Ohio, and is 5'A" long

•4Figure 11 (Kuhn) Five different types of bevels. The longest is 4%". The spear on the left was found at Stockdale in Pike County, Ohio, in 1917, and is made of a light brown flint with mot­tles of orange.

21

Figure 12 (Kuhn) Twelve points of various cul­tures and types. The longest point is 3A". Flint types represented are Coshocton Carter Cave, Flint Ridge and Delaware Chert.

TWO IROQUOIS PIPES by

Steve Fuller Box 891

Wooster, Ohio 44691

The two pipes in the accompanying color plates were originally collected from the Grand River Iroquois in the late 18th century. Both appear to be made from maple wood.

The rum drinker (Fig. 1) is 3'/ inches high and the bowl and stem hole are lined with tin. It would have had a remov­able ash wood stem with a lead or pewter mouthpiece.

The pipe in Figure 2, I believe, repre­sents the British Lion reaching out for, or trying to grasp, a small Indian man or boy who is looking back over his shoulder. The pipe is 33/ inches high and would have had a stem similar to the first pipe.

Many such objects were sold by early Indians to collectors.

M Figure 1 (Fuller) Indian pipe representing a rum drinker.

Figure 2 (Fuller) Effigy pipe showing the British Lion and an Indian.

22

FLINT RIDGE FLINT by

Ron Helman Sidney, Ohio

The color plate shows the wide diversity of color and quality in Flint Ridge flint. All pieces were surface found in Ohio.

23

A COMPARISON OF OHIO AND MINNESOTA PIPESTONES

Introduction In 1994 I re-visited Pipestone National

Monument in Minnesota, not having been there since a super intendent fr iend of mine left a number of years ago. I asked a lady ranger at Pipestone for some infor­mation on mineralogy of Minnesota pipe­s tone so I cou ld c o m p a r e it t o Ohio pipestone. She kindly got into their files and furnished me with a copy of a chem­ical analysis of the pipestone, as well as some information on geology.

Minnesota Pipestone The most obvious difference between

Ohio and Minnesota pipestones is the color . Minnesota p ipes tone is red or orange color, some being almost blood red. Although George Catlin was not the first white man to visit the quarries at Co teau des Pra i r ies (P ipes tone , Minnesota), he was the first to col lect samp les of the s tone for c h e m i c a l analysis. In 1836 he sent samples of it to Boston for analysis. This pipestone was named "Catl inite" in honor of him. The chemical analysis done on Minnesota pipestone for Catlin in 1836 is shown in Table 1.

Later, in 1938, samples were analyzed at the University of Minnesota (Table II). Although there are several types of clay m inera ls , all of t hem are essent ia l l y hydrated aluminum silicate, formed by the weathering or other alteration of feldspars and many other minerals of similar com­position. Except for the presence of minor amounts of magnesia in the samples, these analyses indicate that Catlinite is basically the mineral kaolinite with pos­sibly other similar species (ie., beidellite, montmorillonite) of clay minerals mixed in. The presence of Ferric oxide (see Tables I and II) is undoubted ly the compound giving Catlinite the red color.

The hardness of Catl inite (based on Moh's Scale) varies somewhat, but aver­ages about 2.5. Stud ies made at the University of Minnesota in 1938 found no dif ference in the hardness of Catl inite when first quarried or wet and after it had dried out.

As far as geo log i ca l o r ig in of the Minnesota Catl ini te, apparent ly it was

by Claude Britt, Jr.

P.O. Box 131 Rockville, Indiana 47874

originally a clay deposit which became compacted into solid stone due to the weight of the overlying Sioux Quartzite formation millions of years ago.

Ohio Pipestone Like the Catl ini te of Minnesota, the

pipestone quarried in prehistoric t imes (notably by the Hopewell) in the Scioto Valley of southern Ohio is basically an agglomeration of various clay minerals which got hardened into stone a long time ago. I have checked with some of my geologist friends in Ohio, and as far as we know, no studies on the chemical or min-eralogical composition of Ohio pipestone have ever been done. An obvious differ­ence in chemical composition of the Ohio pipestone would be a general lack of iron minerals as indicated by the buff, light tan, or cream color of Ohio pipestone, which one wou ld not expect wi th the presence of iron compounds.

A large hand specimen of Ohio pipe­stone which was given to me is shown in Fig. 1. Using Moh's Scale of Hardness, this specimen has a hardness of approxi­mately 5.0. This is not in line with the hardness of kaolinite-like minerals which average about 2.5 on Moh's scale. I have never checked the hardness of a "fresh" piece of Ohio pipestone immediately after it was quarried. It seems like I have heard it mentioned by some workers that Ohio pipestone is softer when first quarried.

I am aware of no geological reports dealing with the geologic age or mode of origin of Ohio pipestone. I believe that Ohio and Minnesota p ipes tones may have had similar geologic origins, perhaps as weathered clay deposi ts in ancient lake beds. The clay particles later were f o r ced toge the r and c o h e r e d , wh i ch forced much of the original water out.

Additional Discussion The most famous burial of fer ing of

pipes made from Ohio pipestone ever recovered was the result of Squier and Davis' (1848) excavation of the "Mound of the P ipes" at Mound City (Fig. 2). Approx ima te l y 200 p ipes made f rom Ohio pipestone were removed from that mound by Squier and Davis. Those pipes

were platform types, many being in effigy of various animals and birds. It has been speculated by some that the pipes were placed in that mound "as an offering to the Hopewell craftsman who fashioned them". One of the best-known pipes from this site is the "Ot ter p ipe" . Figure 3 s h o w s a rep l i ca of th is p i pe . Such replicas can be purchased from the OHS and the Eastern Nat iona l Parks and Monuments Association.

The Hopewell quarried Ohio pipestone 2,000 years ago. The quar r ies at Pipestone, Minnesota have been in use for slightly more than 400 years, originally by ancestors of the Oto and Iowa Indians. In historical times, Plains Indians and others sometimes traveled more than 1,000 miles on foot or by horse to quarry the sacred red pipestone. Today, Native Americans still quarry the Minnesota pipestone, both for their own personal and ceremonial use and a lso to make c ra f t s fo r t he tourist trade. Red Catlinite fertility turtles are c o m m o n l y made by the Pla ins Indians (Fig. 4). The fertility turtle shown in Figure 4 was made by a Sioux named Winona in 1970. Also shown in the same i l lustrat ion are two spec imens of raw Ca t l i n i t e w h i c h can be p u r c h a s e d th rough the P ipes tone Indian Shr ine Associat ion. (A mai l-order price list of crafts is available from the Association).

Two of the currently-active quarry pits at Pipestone, Minnesota are shown here (Figs. 5 and 6). The pipestone bed lies be low th i ck d e p o s i t s of very hard quar tz i te (wh ich is used local ly as a building stone). No photos are available of the area where Ohio pipestone was quar­ried. Small samples of Ohio pipestone are for sale at Mound City.

References Anonymous 1994 Data on Chemical Analysis of Catlinite

courtesy of a ranger at Pipestone National Monument.

Soubier, Clifford 1971 Pipestone: A Guide through the

Pipestone National Monument. 20 pages. Nicollet Press, Inc.

Squier, Ephraim G. and Edwin H. Davis 1848 Ancient Monuments of the Mississippi

Valley. Smithsonian Contributions to Knowledge, Vol. 1. Washington D.C.

24

Figure 1 (Britt) A specimen of raw Ohio pipestone. Weight of this sample is approximately 2 pounds.

Figure 2 (Britt) "Mound of the Pipes" at Mound City, Chillicothe, Ohio. Squier and Davis uncovered nearly 200 pipes made from Ohio pipestone here in 1848.

Figure 3 (Britt) Replica of the famous Hopewell Otter pipe. Figure 4 (Britt) A Sioux-made "fertility" turtle manufactured from Minnesota Catlinite in 1970 for the tourist trade. Also shown are two samples of raw Catlinite.

Figure 5 (Britt) One of the currently-active quarry pits at Pipestone, Minnesota. Rock in the foreground is very hard Sioux Quartzite. The pipestone bed lies below the quartzite.

Figure 6 (Britt) Another of the quarry pits at Pipestone, Minnesota from which Indians quarry Catlinite for their personal use and for crafts for the tourist trade.

Water

Carbonate of Lime

Oxide of Manganese

Loss (probably magnesia)

8 4 %

28 2 6 0 2.6

0.6

99.0%

1,0

100.0%

•4 Table 1 (Britt) An 1836 chemical analysis of pipestone collected in Min­nesota by George Catlin and analyzed in Boston.

Soda

Water Water

Ignition. Less total water

49 0 % 35.17

3 06 0.23 0.05 0 06 5 62 5 63 0.24 0.44

, 0.16 0.24

Q0 Q 1 %

•4 Table 2 (Britt) Chemical anal­ysis of Catlinite. Analysis done by Dr. El lest ad at University of Min­nesota in 1938.

25

Plate 1 A view (looking WSW) of the central platform of the Great Mound and its surrounding ditch and embankment.

Plate 2 A view (looking N) of the gateway leading onto the central platform of the Great Mound. (Photo by John Cleary)

26

A HISTORY OF ARCHAEOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE EARTHWORKS AT MOUNDS STATE PARK IN MADISON COUNTY, INDIANA

by Chet Green

2708 Tamara Lane Anderson, Indiana 46012

A p p r o x i m a t e l y th ree mi les east of Anderson, Madison County, Indiana, is a group of ear thworks that f rom a bluff seventy- f ive feet above, over look the meandering west fork of the upper White River. The White River flows through the state of Indiana as part the dra inage basin for the Ohio River (Mohow 1992). Protected and preserved within the con­f ines of the smal lest s tate park (254 acres) in the Hoosier State, this group of ea r thworks is one of the bet ter kept secrets of the archaeological world out­side of the east central Indiana area.

The physical propert ies of the major earthwork of Mounds State Park, more commonly known as the Great Mound, are as follows: the diameter of the earthwork is 394 feet; the surrounding embankment is nine feet high and 63 feet wide at the base; the ditch is 10 feet deep and 60 feet wide (1). During tests performed in the late 1980s it was determined that the ditch sur­rounding the central platform of the Great Mound was at one time 15 feet deep but fill from leaf and topsoil over approximately two thousand years since its construction has left the ditch in its present state. A gateway with a causeway entrance leading to the central platform is 30 feet wide (2). The central platform of the Great Mound is 138 feet in diameter and before the 1968-69 excavations had a four foot high central mound 30 feet in diameter. Unfortunately, th is smal ler capp ing mound was not restored to its original state after the com­pletion of the excavations and one may only hope that some future archaeological project might bring the Great Mound back to its original status.

Less than a half dozen excavat ions have been performed at the earthworks at Mounds State Park and only a few of the mounds have actual ly been thor­oughly examined through state and uni­versity sponsored projects. This article will briefly examine a chronological order of the archaeological investigations at the Mounds State Park ear thworks. They reveal the results of investigations that have progressively educated those inter­ested in more concise information about the mounds, the uses and meanings for those who originally constructed them and for those who wish to understand them better in the future.

The first written report of the mounds was presented to General Arthur St. Clair, Governor of the Northwest Territories c. 1803 (Buehrig and Hicks 1982). There exists little information derived from the Delaware tribes that occupied the area

from the 18th century up to and during the t ime of set t lement by Europeans. They claimed only scant awareness of the ea r t hwo rks t hemse l ves and had no knowledge of their origins or use. It is interesting to note that while Moravian missionaries establ ished a set t lement near the site around 1800, no mention of the earthworks is made in their extensive diaries recorded at the time.

The earthworks were identified as such in the first land survey performed in 1821 by Bentley. The survey shows the desig­nation of a mound on the line of Sections 15 and 16 in Township 19 North, Range 8 East, 255.55 chains north on the section line, recorded on October 11, 1821 as "a mound and circular intrenchment" located 77 chains north of "a Branch 4 Iks. wide course W." (Figure 1) This was what is now known as the Great Mound. Also shown on this survey are two Delaware villages located northeast and southwest of the Great Mound. The village to the northeast was called Bucktown and the one to southeast was designated Little Munsee Town. This was the former mis­sionary settlement of the Moravians who had settled the area from Pennsylvania, which remained occupied by the Delaware after the Moravians abandoned the settle­ment. There is no historic evidence of occupat ion of the park area, al though there is some evidence of a number of Archaic campsites within the park area (Buehrig and Hicks 1982).

The land that currently comprises the southern part of the park was purchased in 1822 by Frederick Bronnenberg, a set­tler also from Pennsylvania. This land later came under the possession of Frederick B r o n n e n b e r g , Jr. w h o es tab l i shed a homestead less than 250 yards from the Great Mound site in 1853. Fortunately, Bronnenberg had a great deal of respect for the Nat ive Amer i can cu l tu re and refused to let the earthworks fall to the plow. He also refused to allow any exca­va t ions to take p lace . An a n e c d o t a l account is referred to in the September 20, 1879 edition of the Indianapolis News of B ronnenberg chas ing off persons attempting to perform a "midnight dig" as early as 1853. Those responsible for the unauthorized excavation managed to dig deep enough to reveal fire-reddened clay and charred bones.

It is quite interesting that this anony­mous article mentions the archeoastro-nomical possibilities that existed with the Great Mound and sur round ing ear th ­works in that ment ioning the physical

s t r u c t u r e of the e a r t h w o r k s - "The draught appears to be a map of Saturn. There are five of these mounds and they are all built on the same plan with open­ings toward certain now well established astronomical points. All of these open­ings are to the North and are on the pre­cise angle wi th the North Star. All of these mounds are built on the same plan and vary only as to size." The article fur­ther speculates that a network of under­g round chambe rs connec t all of the earthworks, due to the existence of a small cave that ran directly parallel to the Great Mound. Entry could be made only a few feet within the entrance of the cave because a cave-in had occurred. During subsequent years, the Bronnenbergs allowed no exploration of the cave and it was later filled in by a caretaker during the early years as a state park, due to safety concerns, after an eleven-year-old girl had wandered into the cave and was lost for 18 hours.

Another cave was extant, also along the banks of the White River. A story f rom the July 19, 1968 edi t ion of the Anderson Herald mentions that the two caves were believed to have been used by those who constructed the mounds as either tombs or storage areas. One cave, near the top of the bluff, led 60 feet back and opened into a circular room around 12 feet in diameter. Beyond this room was a passage lead ing t o w a r d s the d i r ec t i on of the Great M o u n d . Early explorers of this cave stated that it was "l i t tered with pottery, axes and arrow­heads of the type made by the Mound Builders." This same story claimed that the eleven-year-old girl retrieved "a beau­tifully chipped arrowhead." What sup­por ts the theory that the caves were cons t ruc ted rather than p roduced by nature is the fact that the local topog­raphy and geologica l make up of the White River area near Anderson is not conducive for the existence of cave sys­tems. Further investigations are neces­sary to e i ther p rove or d i sp rove the theory that a cave system exists under­neath the nor thern m o u n d c o m p l e x . However, the northern portion of the park owned by E. McClanahan was used for agricultural purposes just prior to 1880 and the ear thworks in th is area were destroyed to a great extent. The earth­works were identified by Cox in 1875 but not readi ly recogn ized unti l the early 1930s when Eli Lilly commissioned aerial pho tog raphs to be taken of the park area. It should also be noted that a small

27

mound 710 feet east of the major site was destroyed when a public road was built. (At one time it was State Road 67 now State Road 232 or more commonly known as Mounds Road.)

The first known written reference to any excavat ion at the Mounds Park site is from 1874, in Hardin's History of Madison County, Indiana where a smal l d ig is referred to and revealed fire reddened clay and half charred bones: "A few years ago a few persons made an opening in the center of the mound, for the purpose of making some discovery, as the suppo­sition had long existed that the remains of some ancient race lay buried here. The result of this undertaking seems to have confirmed the above supposition." While Hardin is not specific, it may be assumed he was speaking of the individuals per­forming the mercenary dig that Bron­nenberg interrupted.

In May of the next year, Professors Cox and Collett performed a survey of the mounds site and recorded data on the eleven earthworks known at that t ime. Out of the eleven earthworks, they paid particular attention to the Great Mound, Fiddleback Mound and a subrectangular earthwork one-half mile north of the main concentration of earthworks (see Figure 2). Cox and Collett also mention that a small mound had the State Road running through it by this time. It is ironic to note that while Cox, in his 1878 report, testifies to the excellent state of preservation the ear thworks were in at the t ime of his survey, he comments (in reference to the Great Mound): "Carriages may enter at the gateway and drive around the mound (the central platform) as the ditch termi­nates on each s ide of the ga teway . " (Forkner 1914). Cox also mentions the destruction of two small mounds at the gateway of the other panduriform mound one-half mile to the north of the main complex of earthworks: "With the excep­tion of the two mounds at the gateway, which lie in the cultivated side of a sec­tion fence, and have been cut down by the plow, the remainder of this antiquity is in as good state of preservation as when deserted by its original occupants." Cox further states valuable information con­cern ing the mounds nor theast of the second panduriform. He describes a cir­cular mound 150 feet in diameter and at that t ime lying in a cult ivated field and "fast being obli terated." He goes on to desc r i be an o b l o n g s t ruc tu re ( later described by Lilly) being 106 feet at its longest d iameter and fo r ty -e igh t feet across at each end. The wall was two feet in height and the ditch inside was fifteen feet wide. Unfortunately, the western part of this earthwork also lay in a cultivated field and the wall was nearly leveled in this section.

In 1883 F. A. Walker of Anderson and R. J o s e p h T ing ley of Asbu ry (now

DePauw) University performed a test on the Great Mound to a depth of four feet and subsequently reported the soil in the center of the mound had been baked and reddened by intense heat and that a small mound had been erected over it (Buehrig and Hicks 1982). Small animal bones were found in the f ire af fected area. In 1884 Brown reported evidence not unlike that of Cox and Collett from the large panduriform earthwork immedi­ately adjacent to the Great Mound, pos­sibly because Brown 's in format ion is derived from Walker and Tingley's work on the "Fiddleback Mound" as it is com­monly known.

Beginning in 1897, and after the death of Frederick Bronnenberg Jr., came a period in the site's history that very well could have destroyed all of the earth­works at the site. The land encompassing the earthworks were at that time already a popular area for local people to picnic and en joy " t he g rea t o u t d o o r s . " An A n d e r s o n f i r m , the Un ion T rac t i on Company, bought the property and built an interurban railroad line to the site of the earthworks. During the construction of the rail line, Union Traction was con­verting the site into an amusement park, complete with a roller coaster, skating r ink, bow l ing al ley, shoo t ing gal lery, dance pavilion, among the many ementi-t ies o f fe red to the general pub l i c . A miniature railroad was constructed to run its way around the Great Mound. It may never be k n o w n how m u c h ac tua l damage, intentional or unintentional, was caused during the nearly thirty years of this phase of the site's existence. In any event, the amusement park was closed shortly after the Stock Market Crash of 1929, at which time the state of Indiana purchased the land and converted it to a state park officially on October 7, 1930.

No w o r k had t aken p lace at the Ande rson ea r thworks for nearly f i f ty years, until Glenn A. Black, along with Warren K. Morehead, William R. Teel and E. Y. Guernsey performed tests at the site in 1931. Black reported that a test pit dug in the Great Mound revealed an ash and burned earth bed 12 inches below the surface of the platform in the center of the Great Mound, extending down to 25 inches, the lower limit of the test pit. Black also tested three other earthworks in the southern group, which are believed to be the large panduriform, the small open-ended panduriform and the second largest penannular enc losure . Unfor tunate ly , Black's diagram of these is apparent ly missing and any valuable information that was included is lost.

Unlike Brown, Black found no evidence of fire in the large panduriform, but some p o t s h e r d s were r e c o v e r e d . He also repor ted that sherds , f l int ch ips and unworked f lakes of banded slate had been found on the sur face, wh ich he

inferred "to indicate a mound of habita­tion or at least a mound built up of mate­rial removed from a village site surface." No cul tural material was found in the other two ea r thworks . Black and his associates also tested the large subrec­tangular a half mile to the north — nothing was found of note — along with the two circular mounds that flank its gateway. Black was of the opinion that the village site was located in the field just east of the earthwork location, but all efforts to prove his theory are unsubstantiated.

In 1937, Eli Lilly published Prehistoric Antiquities of Indiana making note of the fact that very little archaeological investi­g a t i o n s had been p e r f o r m e d at the Mounds State Park site. In his descrip­tion of the earthworks, Lilly mentions a stone burial vault that had been opened and was l oca ted be tween the Great Mound complex and the three northern earthworks. He states that the remnants of the mound were still extant at the time of the writing of his book but offers no further in format ion. The burial mound was rediscovered by a member of the Mounds State Park staff in December of 1988. This mound has been referred to as a New town bur ial (Dalman 1989). Lilly's better contribution to the Mound State Park site was identifying the sub-rectangular ear thwork in the northern sect ion of the park th rough an aerial reconnaissance of the site (Figure 3).

Lilly hints at an archeoastronomical connection in the earthworks in stating that the cocentric arrangement of the cir­cular mounds are suggestive of a sun symbol, but certainly his comments are unwittingly based on conjecture and not fact. Lilly does theorize that with the exis­tence of natural springs in the immediate area of the mounds complex the location was ideal for the site being chosen for ceremonial rites.

The next important excavations per­formed at the mound site were in the late 1960s and 1970 . Ind iana Un ive rs i t y archaeologists Claude White in 1968 and Kent Vickery in 1969 excavated the cen­tral mound located in the center of the mound enclosure of the Great Mound.

In their excavations White and Vickery revealed that the central plat form had two phases of construction. The first was an oval platform made up of three indi­vidual layers of burned clay and ash. A 4 foo t -h igh centra l mound 30 feet in diameter was used to cap the central platform. Evidence of rows of post holes were discovered on the east and west edges of the central platform, thought at the time to be postholes for the support of a roofed structure. A log tomb was revealed containing a bundle burial of a 50-year-old male and a redeposited cre­mation. A platform monitor pipe and mica were included with the burials. Thirteen split deer metatarsal awls were found in

28

an upright position around the tomb sug­gesting a skin covering, a trait noted in the Seip Mound in Ohio which is Hopewell (Buehrig and Hicks 1982). The platform monitor pipe is distinctively Hopewell (Dragoo 1963).

Two crematory basins were found in the central mound, but no cultural mate­rial was discovered associated with them as has been frequently noted in Adena burial mounds (Webb & Baby 1957). Four additional burials were also found in the central platform which were found to be intrusive, a practice typical of Late Woodland cultures in the Ohio Valley. The intrusive burials did not have any artifacts associated with them. Four addi­tional individuals are believed to be buried in the central platform, but these individuals are only identified in the form of scattered bone fragments, possibly from mound fill, a feature also noted in Adena earthworks.

All other artifacts were found in dis­turbed mound fill. Among the artifacts identified at the site were ten sherds that had no designs and three that were New Castle Incised with the Adena nested diamond design. Also recovered were three effigy bone pendants and three split bear canine pendants which have been noted in both Illinois and Ohio Hopewell cultures. Stone artifacts found include a rectangular slate gorget, ham-merstones, scrapers, knives, points, flakes, calcined bone and shell (Buehrig and Hicks 1982).

On the outer part of the central plat­form, a circular pattern of smaller post-holes were found. The existence of these postholes were thought to indicate a fence to prevent outsiders from viewing activities within.

The earthworks were described as belonging to the New Castle Phase, a marginal persistence of Late Adena with Hopewell Interaction (Vickery 1970). Two radiocarbon dates were obtained from carbonized plant material recovered from postholes in the primary platform: 60 b.c. +/-140 and a.d. 230 +/-130. Using Clark's calibration table, these correspond to cal­endar dates of approximately 20 B.C. and A.D. 265. Related sites include New Castle, Spruce Run, Mound Camp, Bertsch, Hayes Arboretum, Waterworks, Whitehead and Glidewell sites. Archaic occupation of the central area of the enclosure is suggested prior to its con­struction by the presence of Archaic tools in the area.

Vickery also excavated a test trench in the large panduriform in a low mound in the western lobe. It was Vickery's conjec­ture that the low mound was located in the center of the lobe and was approxi­mately 28 feet in diameter. Vickery's excavation was 5 x 1 0 feet and eight inches deep. Two areas of ash were found and appeared to have been

dumped there along with quantities of flint, animal bone and potsherds. The cremated remains of one individual were also found in this area. In his report, Vickery assumed that this may have been a village site.

A scandal of some proportions fol­lowed the work of Vickery immediately after his investigations were completed. Through a series of colossal miscommu-nications and the state's apparent apathy towards its smallest state park (yet per­haps most historically significant) the arti­facts retrieved from these excavations were found to be missing for nearly a six year period. During a visit to the park some time after the excavations took place, Dr. W. John Schrader inquired to the reason why the artifacts from White and Vickery's work were not on display for the public's edification. Schrader had worked as a park naturalist and guide during the digs. No one at the park was certain of the location of the artifacts which prompted Dr. Schrader to write a letter to then Governor Otis Bowen. He demanded a full investigation to the whereabouts of the artifacts and why the allocation of a $100,000 grant from the Eli Lilly Endowment Inc. that he believed was meant for Mounds State Park for the construction of an artifact display center had also vanished.

By October of 1976, the pieces of the puzzle were falling into place. It was learned that Dr. James Kellar, an Indiana University professor who had supervised the excavation, had taken 11 boxes of material to the Glenn A. Black Archa­eological Laboratory at the Bloomington campus for further study. Among the materials Dr. Kellar had taken were soil samples, cracked rock, snail shells and pottery sherds. Three additional boxes were taken to the Indiana State Museum for storage, as no proper facilities existed at the park. The boxes contained the skeletal remains of a woman, a skull, sev­eral tools, a broken pipe, clay pottery sherds and additional soil samples. Approximately four months after the mate­rials were stored at the Indiana State Museum, they were loaned to Vickery. By this time, a professor at the University of Cincinnati, Vickery had borrowed the material to assist in the preparation of his doctoral thesis and was given the under­standing that the materials would not have to be returned to the museum until he was notified to do so. In time, the State Parks Division Director, David Herbst, was deter­mined to ascertain the whereabouts of the materials. In 1974, he contacted Dr. Kellar at Indiana University and learned about the 11 boxes that were at the Glenn A. Black Laboratory. Herbst was informed that the remaining boxes were located at the state museum. At this time Herbst discovered that the boxes were not at the museum but had been in the possession of Vickery

for nearly four years. Herbst was primarily interested in the materials' location there­fore he did not request its return. This takes the story back to the beginning when Shrader had requested information from Mounds State Park concerning the loca­tion of the materials. Shrader was referred to Herbst who replied that the materials were not in the museum's possession. Shrader made the assumption that the materials were missing at this point and wrote his letter to Governor Bowen. It was also learned shortly after this that the Eli Lilly Endowment Inc. grant for $100,000 had been designated for Angel Mounds near Evansville, not Mounds State Park. There had been one meeting with the Lilly Endowment to discuss the possibility of funding a display center at Mounds State Park, which Kellar attended, but the dis­cussion ended there and the idea was scrapped.

With all of the confusion concerning the artifacts from the late 1960s digs finally settling down, the materials were returned to the custody of the state museum which is where they remain to this day. It is quite unfortunate that a suitable, yet economical display center, has not been established for Mounds State Park through the auspices of the state legislature or the philanthropy of private donations. It is hoped that some time in the near future one may be estab­lished for the pleasure and education of those who choose to enjoy a visit to Mounds State Park.

Excavations resumed in 1974, when B. K. Swartz began a project to salvage two burials which were discovered to be washing from the river bluff located 800 feet to the northeast of the Great Mound. This is now referred to as the Mounds' Bluff Site. The burials were found to be a 19-month-old infant and a 12-year-old juvenile. Seven test pits were also made in the immediate vicinity. Swartz's inves­tigation revealed a bellshaped pit mea­suring 22 inches deep and 24 inches wide, containing bright dark red clay with charcoal flecks. While no cultural material was found with the burials or the bell-shaped pit, this type of structure is indicative of the Archaic culture (Buehrig and Hicks 1982). In addit ion to the burials, one Early Archaic point and another point from the Middle to Late Archaic period was found.

Several more projects took place in the late 1970s and early 1980s. These pro­jects were to investigate areas of planned construction within the park area. Two areas of artifact concentration were located with Archaic and Late Woodland artifacts found in the area known as the Bronnenberg ditch.

Hicks (1981a, 1981b) investigated the two badly damaged subrectangular earthen enclosures in the northern of the park, initially reported by Cox in 1875

29

and specifically shown by Lilly with the use of aerial photography. Hick's excava­tions confirmed that substantial traces of the earthworks, though badly damaged, s t i l l e x i s t e d and c o n f i r m e d tha t the smaller of the two works once had a low mound near its center. This mound had at least one layer of burnt earth similar to that found in the Great Mound. Auger probes were used in the central area of the larger mound and these produced f lecks of burnt clay. No art i facts were located in th is area and rad iocarbon dating proved unreliable.

Hicks also performed an excavation in 1980 on the sou the rn of t w o smal l mounds reported by Cox that flanked the entrance of the Circle Mound. Hick's work demonstrated that the mound was actu­ally a D-shaped embel l ishment of the earthwork, not a free standing structure as was previously thought. Radiocarbon dates were taken of depos i ts of car­bonized wood found near the base of the mound and provided a date of construc­tion of the mound at around the second century A.D, contemporary with the earth­works of the northern section of the park.

Some of the most recent, and possibly most important, work at the mounds site has been conducted by Dr. Donald R. Cochran, director of the Archaeological Resources Management Services at Ball State University. During the summers of 1987 and 1988 Cochran was leading a t eam to d e t e r m i n e the ages of the mounds and to verify the accuracy of an earlier survey. Whi le s tand ing on the outer wal l of the F idd leback M o u n d , Cochran noticed that he could observe members of his team who were pos i ­tioned on or about the central portion of the Great Mound. This should not have been possible as the outer wall of the Great Mound is substantially higher than that of the Fiddleback Mound. Cochran determined that there existed in the outer wall of the Great Mound indentat ions, ever so slight, that allowed this phenom­enon to exist. His suspicions of astro­nom ica l a l i g n m e n t s began a lmos t i m m e d i a t e l y , and in June of 1988 , Cochran d iscovered that the sun set through the highest part of the embank­ment of the outer wall. Further investiga­t i ons by C o c h r a n s h o w e d tha t t he Mounds State Park complex aligns with the winter solstice and the movement of various stars.

Cochran then took his discovery a step further and decided to test the correlation of t he M o u n d s c o m p l e x w i t h o ther mound comp lexes nearby (Figure 4). Within forty miles of Mounds State Park

are eight other mound si tes in wh ich Cochran's investigation found 25 sepa­rate alignments, some of them within one degree of accuracy. Ten of the sites were within two degrees of accuracy (see table 1). Cochran also determined that the postholes discovered during the excava­tions of the late 1960s had a precise pat­tern of alignment with various celestial ob jects . With Cochran 's f ind ings, the conc lus i on may be in fer red tha t the Hopewell were capable of determining the movement of celestial bodies with a good degree of accuracy and aligning their mound complexes, as much as forty miles apart, through dense woods and r ivers. Cochran is current ly do ing an overview of the mounds systems in the Ohio Valley and would be interested if the astronomical connect ions extend into Ohio and Illinois.

Using the as t ronomica l tab les pre­pared by Aveni in 1972, Cochran used t h e m to ver i fy t he a l i g n m e n t s w i t h depressions in the embankment of the mound. The survey demonstrated that the embankmen t was cons t ruc ted to determine solar movement between the solstices. The eighteen postholes discov­ered by Vickery in 1969 (see Figure 5) were checked for alignments in a system of checking posts against all other posts, once again using Aveni 's tables ca l i ­brated for 0 B.C./A.D. A precise pattern of alignments with additional astronom­ical o b j e c t s was ve r i f i ed (Table 2). Furthermore, radiocarbon dating shows that the postholes were erected approxi­mately one hundred years after the con­struct ion of the mound and then later burned. Cochran states that once the posts were burned they obviously could not have been used for alignment, there­fore th is cons t i tu ted a change in the observa t ions of as t ronomica l events (Cochran 1992).

Cochran found evidence of more align­ments existing in the three subrectan-gular earthworks one-half mile north of the main c o m p l e x , the la rgest w o r k named the "Circle Mound". Radiocarbon dat ing infers the cons t ruc t i on of the Circle Mound at around 5 B.C.

The Circle Mound demonstrates align­ment with the equinox sunrise and sunset through its gateway and with the summer and winter solstices through the comers of its embankments. Cochran concludes by saying that addi t ional survey work needs to c o m p l e t e d w i t h the C i rc le Mound to ensure absolute alignments.

Preliminary investigations of astronom­ical a l i gnmen ts were p e r f o r m e d by Cochran using the map done by Lilly in

1937. Many of the New Castle earthworks had already been destroyed by this time and only indefinite patterns were found to exist. With the destruction of many of the earthworks, the sites on Lilly's map (see Figure 6) are no longer verifiable. Precise relationships between the earthworks at New Castle are difficult or impossible to establish (Cochran 1992).

Another site, for the most part destroyed by the plow, is the Fudge Mound site in Randolph County. Using a site map done in 1931 by Setzler (Figure 7), Cochran was able to find alignments similar to those at Anderson and New Cast le w i th the absence of any equinox alignments.

One major point Cochran makes is that the Mounds Park earthworks are a conti­nuity of Adena and Hopewell cultures, unlikely to be two distinct entities. The stratigraphy of the earthworks demon­strate not a gradual combination of the two cultures but a sequential progression of the ch rono log i ca l usage be tween Adena and Hopewell.

Cochran also states that the cosmolog-ical relationship between the three basic forms of earthworks — the circular, the subrectangular and the panduriform — is clearly demonstrated by the alignments of a variety of astronomical events. He calls for further investigations of al ign­ments as only the more obvious ones have been measured. He finds that since only a l ignments used f rom the Aveni tables have been tested, additional align­ments are quite likely through more measurements. In linking the Adena and Hopewell use of astronomical alignments with their mortuary practices, Cochran states that more documentation is nec­essary for other Adena and Hopewel l sites in the eastern United States as he suggests that the astronomical systems the Adena and Hopewell cultures created are far more complex than the recent investigations reveal.

What is apparent is that much work remains to be done in the hope of better understanding the Hopewell and Adena cultures. Too little work has been per­formed in Indiana, in part icular at the Mounds State Park site. With the revela­t ions of Cochran 's recent work, more interest needs to be generated in the archeoastronomical possibil i t ies of the east central Indiana mounds sites and the c o r r e l a t i o n tha t can be made between them. Few vil lage sites have been identified in this area, although local surface hunters have found a wealth of ma te r ia l s rang ing f r om Paleo to Mississippian cultures in the area's local cultivated fields and stream banks.

30

References

Anderson Herald 1875 "The Mounds", author unknown, June 25. Anderson Herald, 1968 "Girl's Rescue From Cave at Mounds

Park Recalled", author unknown, July 19. Anderson Herald 1976 "Mounds Park Mysteries Include Missing

Relics, Museum Grant", by Jeff Evans, October 2.

Anderson Herald 1976 "Officials Still Seek Mound Relics", by

Jeff Evans, October 6. Anderson Bulletin 1976 "Missing' Relics Found", by Steve Smith,

October 8.

Anderson Herald-Bulletin 1990 "Mounds Park Mysteries", by Carole

Carlson, February 27. Buehrig, Jennette E. and Ronald Hicks 1982 A Comprehensive Survey of the Archeo-

logical Resources of Mounds State Park, Anderson, Indiana, Archeological Resources Management Service, Ball State University.

Carlson, Carole 1991 Solving the Mysteries of the Great

Mound, Madison County Monthly, May. Cochran, Donald R. 1992 Adena and Hopewell Cosmology: New

Evidence from East Central Indiana, Native American Cultures in Indiana, edited by Ronald Hicks, Minnetrista Cultural Center and Ball State University.

Dalman, Karen 1989 Earthworks, Outdoor Indiana, April. Forkner, John 1914 History of Madison County. Hardin, Samuel 1874 History of Madison County. Lilly, Eli 1937 Prehistoric Antiquities of Indiana, Indiana

Historical Society. Mohow, James 1992 A Brief Overview of Early Archaic

Settlement in East Central Indiana, Native American Cultures in Indiana, edited by Ronald Hicks, Minnetrista Cultural Center and Ball State University.

MM

y0,0O /^sfajy, /i^y^Lo^/l^ir^u U-ZJjktis

J7.2&X. h, fatten -• "

Figure 1 Map and notations taken by Bentley of what was to become the Mounds State Park area. Note the inclusion of the two Delaware villages -Bucktown to the northeast and Little Munsee Town to the southwest.

Figure 2 Levette's Map showing the main complex of earthworks in the northern section of Mounds State Park, including the Great Mound and Fiddleback mound, (from Lilly 1937)

31

Figure 3 The aerial view of the rectangular earthwork commis­sioned by Lilly through the Bowman-Park Aero Co. of Louisville, KY. (from Lilly 1937).

Figure 4 Earthworks located in east central Indiana (from Cochran 1992).

Figure 5 Using the data from Vickery (1969) Cochran deter­mined the locations of the posts and the log tomb on the pri­mary mound of the central platform of the Great Mound. Using table 2, Cochran determined the alignments of the posts with specific celestial occurrences.

MOUND GROUP ON GROUNDS OF THE EAST COLONY OF

THE EPILEPTIC VILLAGE NEAR NEW CASTLE, HENRY COUNTY, INDIANA

1-2-1-4-6 still evident- others

destroyed .•...U Ht*ck -160ft

11'tin iM^ttn tmUiMfi tf Suit IfilmtkHOHm SmfHU—iMimtl

fiSCiKOljggiwSS f

s e c r i o n

MA

toe A

tooft

Figure 6 Lilly's map of the New Castle complex used by Cochran to determine alignments with the Anderson complex.

CASTOR SETy

SUN SET \ SUMMER \ . \ SOLSTICE \ ^

SUN SET SUNWEB SOLSTICE

PROCYON ^ - \ SET - ^ ^ - N ^

ALTAI B — 1 ^ * > ^ SET ~~ * -

1 RIGEL SET ^ ^ - ^ ^ ^

SUN SET <S WINTER SOLSTICE

l 1/

?-^JS*n /,

\ . -'/I

\ - ^ ^ ~ ^ ~ ~ ^ li

v \ / \ \ /I

SUN RISE SUMMER SOLSTICE

yS JUDEBARAN

^ \ S U N RISE WINTER SOLSTICE

^ 6 U N RISE WINTER SOLSTICE

Figure 7 Cochran's demonstration of alignments at Fudge Mound (from Cochran 1992).

32

Figure 8 Diagram of earthworks that were used for regional align­ments in Cochran's study, (from Cochran 1992)

PLATE C.

Ancient Earthwork I mil* N. E. from New Gairlen, Wayne county, Indiana.

• , A ' , ? 1 9 ' * D > » * • • « ' • * » acroaa. F. (!, H, p l l e U ftcl aires*. Embankment 6 feet high and 60 fact through at ba>«. I, openloa SO fret wide.

Prof. J-. C. H A C P H S X J O H .

It!

t;

IS! ()

o

/ //v. = soo r j

PLATE A.

A o c W Evtlivwkl BWtll (ran Cambridft Citj, Wayne count?, Ind J . C . M * C P H K k * O K .

nea SECTION THROUGH A. B.

Fif-.i

Xe.j.

1 //ir A » s oo yy.

Figure 9 Bertsch Earthwork by MacPherson (1878) used by Cochran as a site of regional alignment with the Mounds State Park complex.

Figure 10 Graves Earthwork by MacPherson (1878) used by Cochran as a site of regional alignment with the Mounds State Park complex.

S I I * Ande rson M o u n d * Ande rson Mounds Anderson Mounds

Ande rson Mounds

Ande rson Mounds Ande rson Mounds

Maw Cast le New Cast le Naw Cast le

New Castle New Castle New C a i t l e

N e w c a s t l e Ber tsch Ber tsch

Ber tsch

Windsor

Windsor

K i tse lman Kit sal man

Kit sal men Ki tse lman Fudge

Fudge

Baxter

Graves

JUb

Kg

Mm

24li

231

,'.!>, 2a

•111)

2 1 0

251

. ' I i9

128

1.10

192

217

.'.!»

Regiona l A l ignments

B1

6 8

29

3 5

4 3

296

2S7

81

5 0

BO

9 5

3 5

IrM

IS8

A l i g n m e n t

Altair R i s e ( - 1 ) PlslaOss R u e

Eps i lon Onon is Rise 104 Rlgel Rise (-2}

Jupiter. Mars or Venus Set {+2} Moonsa t ( - 2 )

Moonr ise (-1) C a p e l l a R i M ( - l )

Vega Rise

Moonr ise (-1)

6 8 Equinox (+2)

Pol lux Set {-1)

V e g a Rise

57 Sunr ise Summer Solst ice Castor R i t e

Altair R ise (-2)

Sinus Sel Fomalhaut Sel

Beta C u t i s S e l ( 2) Beta Crucis Riae (+2) M o o n s e l ( H )

Jupiter. Mars or V e n u s Set (-1) Beta Cantaun Rise ( *2 )

165 Beta Cruets Rise ( - H

Sete lgeuse Sel S inus (+2)

Fomainaut Set (-2) Regu lus Set

Equinox (+1)

Pol lux Sat

Table 1

M M ,

;

a

s

J

»

" « 5

rop tt

i t

l i

!

i s

« g i

memm

33

59

MB

B9

110 56 82

55

xw m

124

2T7

110

MB

set

.

Rig.1 H.»

EquJnOBC Sunns*

Ri[)Bl Rita

AlHir R I H

B i l l Centnuri Stt V k o e M

• p i n ran Equmo> Sunut

M a t Sat Mounnin Wintsr CapwiaSM

M a * M M Procyor Snt Bwwfiauaa Sal PlMMMSol

B w i g u n S *

PWKWaSM D e n s e * *

%2£.tm

ttaVSM

13 14 14 14

14

15

15 15 15

15

16

16

16 17 17 17 17

8 6 3

15

16

1 &3 2 5 7

10

2

9

17 3 4

2 S 5 6

Post Alignments

297 261 291 312

316

2 5 0

237 236 129

145

231

144

84 249 245 239 230

Regulus Set Procyon Set Pleiades Set Arcturus Set Castor Set Castor Set Mars & Jupiter Set Winter Venus Set Winter Moonrise Winter Fomalhaut Rise Moonset WintBr Fomalhaut Rise Betelgeuse Rise Sinus Set Moonset Spring Sunset Winter Solstice Moonset Winter

Table 3

Table 2

33

A BIFURCATE SITE IN WAYNE COUNTY by

Jeff Zemrock 903 Green Township Road 2850

Perrysville, Ohio 44864

This article is an update to a brief piece I wrote in 1988 concerning a site in Wooster Township, Wayne County (Ohio Archaeology-Fall 1988; Boyhood Finds). At that time, I didn't fully realize the importance of this site. Upon discussing the artifacts found here with Jeb Bowen during his research for the upcoming publication Lecroy KnifelSpearpoints of the Ohio Region Ca.6200 B.C. I learned that this is the largest group of small bifurcates from a concentrated area that he knows of in the state of Ohio. With that in mind, I would like to offer more infor­mation on the site.

The area is approximately two miles southwest of Wooster, part of the former Sherrick farm, and known to area resi­dents as "the long field". The site itself is situated about one hundred yards east of a springfed stream that empties into Killbuck Creek west of Wooster. This area is the first level plain above the creek gully. There is one low hill between the site and the creek which doesn't offer much level ground. To my knowledge, this area has always been pasture land and has never been tilled. The area's proximity to a good water supply and sheltered valley has obvious advantages.

This farm, over the last hundred years or so has yielded a large amount of flint artifacts, especially archaic types, including pieces in my own collection.

There is no change in the immediate landscape to define or limit use of the site. This was apparently determined by the population of the people that used it.

Most of the bifurcates in Figure 1 were found in an area of about two hundred feet in diameter. These nineteen whole or fragmentary points are personal finds. Of these, there are two points of light gray and tan Flintridge, one of glossy black Upper Mercer, and fourteen of various shades of blue or gray Coshocton flint. Two pieces are tip sections that have the same styling, chipping and thinness as the other bifurcates. These are all the same type except for two which are the short stem type and possibly the large broken point which may be the same. Lengths of resharpened points are from 1 to VA inches. Basal width is from 'A to % of an inch. One other notable artifact from the site is a slate roller pestle although this could be associated with one of sev­eral other archaic types also found on or near the site.

The bifurcates shown in Figure 2 are in the Sherrick family collection. These points were found within a distance of less than one-half mile of the site in any direction, although their exact prove­nience cannot be determined. There are an additional nineteen points; four of these are St. Albans types that date a little earlier in the archaic period at 7000-6800 B.C. These are the only points in the entire group made of the duller Nellie chert. Of the rest, five are the short stem variety which seem to go hand in hand with the other small bifurcates on this site. The one long example is colorful Flintridge flint and has not been resharp­ened. One is a mini-bifurcate of white

Flintridge flint only % inch long, and is the smallest I have ever seen. Again, these are all of Flintridge or Upper Mercer/Coshocton flint. At least one other point, of Flintridge flint, was given to a neighbor (piece not pictured).

Only a few points had serrations. None had burinated stems, and only a few had shoulders fractured off. Instead, most had simply been chipped away through resharpening.

Because the farm is no-till, further col­lection is not possible at the present time. Given the fairly level nature of the site, and the lack of erosion, sub-plow zone features may exist. The adjacent pasture could also extend the site considerably. Although still a minor type, these three successive types of small bifurcates doc­ument an occupation period of about one thousand years, from 7000 to 6000 B.C. This may have been a seasonal camp, since amounts of scrapers, drills, and ground stone tools are small compared to points and knives.

In closing, I give my thanks to the Sherrick family for allowing me to examine and photograph their collection.

References Bowen, Jeb

Personal communication Converse, Robert N.

Ohio Flint Types Hothem, Lar

Indian Flints of Ohio Ohio Department of Natural Resources, Division of Geological Survey-Map

34

•ttfft wfZJ ^IZ°^J S Wh°ie °r Partn b'fu[catT- Motfrom Figure 2 (Zemrock) Nineteen points from the Sherrick collection. Fifteen AISlSTJZS^ 9 ' ^ C°Sh0Ct0n Upper Mercer small bifurcates including five short stem types and one mini-bifurcate. mm. r-ersonai collection. Bottom left are four St. Albans types of Nellie chert or black Upper Mercer

flint. The rest are of Flint Ridge flint or Upper Mercer Flints.

•4 Figure 3 (Zemrock) View of pasture from the edge of the site looking west into a shallow ravine. The creek lies in a second ravine behind a clump of trees. The land is nearly flat in every other direction. Farm buildings are obscured by trees to the right.

Figure 4 (Zemrock) Topographical map of site and surrounding I |

35

A MIAMI COUNTY CACHE

Fifty Adena cache blades were found in a cache by Dan Schway in Piqua, Ohio, in Miami County in the fall of 1985. All are made of light blue and white Flint Ridge fl int, except for one which is caramel in color. The smallest blade measures 21/ inches long and 1 "A inches wide. The largest measures 4 inches long and 1 % inches wide. Ed Levan Sr. and son Roy are presently curating 15 of the fifty blades.

by Ed Levan, Jr.

404 S. Downing Street Piqua, Ohio 45356

1

Figure 1 (Levan) Fifteen of fifty Adena cache blades found in Piqua, Ohio.

A MIAMI COUNTY CACHE by

Jim Stephan Bradford, Ohio

I contacted Mr. Levan of Piqua, Ohio, as I believed that I had blades from the same cache he described. He kindly allowed me to examine his cache and we discovered that the two of us had blades from the same cache. This kind of co­operation is of extreme importance among students of prehistory.

To elaborate on what Mr. Levan wrote, the cache was found by Dan Schway and a friend when they were surface sur­veying a plowed field. Several blades appeared on the surface, and fifty were finally recovered in all. The blades are made of translucent Flint Ridge chal­cedony, which varies from light to medium blue. Several blades have caramel-brown inclusions.

Figure 1 (Stephan) Fifteen more blades from the same cache found in Piqua, Ohio

36

STRANGE POINT NO. 2

The two points pictured (Fig. 1) were both found on the same farm in Sullivan Twp. Ashland Co., Ohio. The larger point was reported in Ohio Archaeologist, Vol. 33, Spring 1983, page 41. The smaller point was found in the spring of 1995, about % mile from where the larger one was found. Both have a very odd basal treatment. Probably the flint knapper had his own idea how a point should be made. This could be a type, but I have never seen any of these in fellow collec­tors collections.

The larger point measures YA inclf long -1 inch wide - 3/6 inch thick. Both are chipped from mottled grey Upper Mercer flint. Comments anyone?

I

ARTIFACTS FOUND BY JOE WITZMAN by

Bob Burns 8415 Upton

San Antonio, Texas

A 2.2 inch Miniature Pentagonal Pendant of green banded slate. The pendant is very thin, undrilled but highly polished. The pendant was found by Joe Witzman in Wayne County, Ohio.

A 1.8 inch polished plummet. The plummet surface has been worn about its widest circumference. This worn surface may have been intended by the maker or a result of its Use. One other plummet of this type has been described in Ohio Archaeologist, v. 39, No. 3. The plummet was a surface find by Joe Witzman in a corn field in Wayne County, Ohio.

Two salvaged green banded slate Birdstone "tails". Each is drilled in the typical birdstone method. One tail is a fantail, the other is narrow and vertical. The tails were found in Wayne County, Ohio by Joe Witzman.

by John R. Heath

Sullivan, OH, 44880

4 Figure 1 (Heath) Two unusual points from Ashland Co.

37

PREHISTORIC PIPES — HOW WERE THEY MANUFACTURED by

D.R. Gehlbach Columbus, Ohio

In the past 30 years the writer has studied several thousand prehistoric pipes and has collected a number of unfinished examples to determine crafting techniques and in what order preparation activities occurred during the manufacturing process. Always an impediment to a successful study were numerous examples of only partially fin­ished pipes in an extremely crude stage of preparation or even re-worked by con­temporary man to produce a more fin­ished version of some value. At a recent show I obtained a fascinating example of the classic Hopewell platform pipe form in an unfinished stage demonstrating the crafting technique in a readily observable manner. Now we have at least one example that clearly demonstrates how they "could have been made". The reader will note the "could have been" reference because the writer's belief is that there was no standard or blueprint for pipe manufacturing but instead more of a common sense, "let's see what works and repeat the process" attitude.

First, let me describe the pictured (Figure 1) example and the uniqueness of locating a complicated artifact at this stage of preparation. This example was discovered in Union County, Illinois and is made of typical greenish - brown Ohio pipestone. Why pipestone? There are two basic reasons. One the silica-based matrix is very soft when excavated and therefore relatively easily crafted in its raw form. Also, the finished product hardens with exposure and receives a

glossy luster when polished, making the artifact an attractive and desirable art-form and/or religious talisman. The pic­tured piece features finished stem drilling through a partially developed curved base, a partially drilled bowl in a pre­pared orifice, and what is really unique, examples of both surface pecking, grinding and polishing on the surface of a partially completed pipe.

As to the preparation process, it is evi­dent the pipe maker had nearly finished his artifact, and the processes used to reach this stage are shown in this rare example.

1. First, the pipe matrix was "blocked out"; That is, rough grinding and chipping were simultaneously employed with hammerstone and knife to achieve rough shaping.

2. Second, pecking was employed to fur­ther shape and thin the unfinished piece.

3. Third, drilling was initiated first in the more difficult curved stem orifice with a thin drill with water and an abrasive compound. If a mistake was made and the drilling process was inaccurate the unfinished piece could be discarded at this relatively early stage in the manu­facturing process. The writer has seen crafting errors corrected by drilling from the opposite end.

4. Fourth, the bowl hole was started in the more bulbous bowl orifice. Note* the finished stem opening was drilled to join the bowl hole at the point of its deepest penetration, in some cases

even penetrating the far wall of the drilled bowl. In the pictured example only about one eighth of an inch of bowl drilling was completed.

5. Fifth, finished grinding and polishing was initiated to achieve final shaping and remove unsightly peck marks pro­duced in stage two. At this point the most interesting suppositions can be made. John Baldwin, has suggested that the semi-rounded bowl shown in the example would have been further configured to the classic spool shape (Figure 2) by four single hammerstone blows at defined points approximately half way up the bowl. Of course final shaping and smoothing would follow. In other words, the craftsman would in effect minimize his effort and achieve symmetry through minor modification of the bowl in its current shape and then modify it to its final form with relatively minor effort.

In the pictured example both final grinding and the bowl drilling processes are underway but were never completed. Because of this we are now able to learn more about these skilled craft people and their techniques of artifact manufacturing. If finished, this Hopewell platform pipe would probably have been used in special ceremonies 2000 years ago in southern Illinois in the Mississippi River watershed. They were able to cope with minimal availability of resources and demon­strated an ability to create works of art under the most primitive conditions.

uurrent unnnisnea H^c

t-snmaieo r-inisnea i-orm -» ', /

im ~</

Figure 1 (Gehlbach) Unfinished Hopewell platform pipe, brown pipestone, Union County, Illinois.

Figure 2 (Gehlbach) Drawing of Hopewell pipe showing final con­figuration.

38

NECROLOGY Colonel Raymond C. Vietzen

Colonel Raymond C. Vietzen of Elyria, Ohio passed away quietly on October 1, 1995. Colonel Vietzen is survived by his loving wife of 64 years Ruth Vietzen.

Colonel Vietzen was one of the early presidents, 1949, and organizers of what is now the Archaeological Society of Ohio. He devoted himself, his time, and his resources to the cause of archaeology in Ohio.

For many years the Vietzen's hosted

many Archaeological Society of Ohio summer meetings at their large Indian Ridge Museum. Indian Ridge was visited by thousands of people, both young and old, from throughout the United States and from all over the globe.

Colonel Vietzen's untimely death certainly will leave a large gap in Ohio archaeology and Ohio history in general. He authored 17 books on archaeology, and has a final work

at the printer's office at the time of this writing.

His many friends will miss him at his lively kitchen roundtables, archaeological meet­ings, and at the auctions he so dearly loved to attend.

So-long to a longtime friend.

James G. Hovan

NECROLOGY Charles Smith

Charles C. Smith, 82, of Oceanside, Calif., died Wednesday, Aug. 2, 1995, at his residence.

He was born Aug. 16, 1912, in Robinson, III., and was a former Modoc resident for 45 years. He was retired as quality control supervisor, Borg-Warner, after 37 years of service in Muncie.

He was a member of United Methodist Church of Vista, Calif., and Lions Club International. He was an avid col­lector of Pre-historic Indian artifacts.

Survivors include his wife, Lois C. Smith of Oceanside, Calif.; one son, Charles W. Smith of San Diego, Calif., and two grandchildren.

39

SCENES FROM THE FOURTH ANNUAL NATIVE AMERICAN ARTIFACT EXHIBIT

Brian DaRe 58561 Sharon Blvd. Rayland, OH 43943

by Robert A. Kersten

2907 Femwood Ave. Moundsville, WV 26041

Over a thousand Ohio Valley residents viewed the Fourth Annual Native American Artifact Exhibit held at the Delf Norona Museum in Moundsville, W. Va. on August 5, 1995. The event was sponsored by the Upper Ohio Valley Chapter of the West Virginia Archaeological Society and Grave Creek Mound State Park.

Twenty-one exhibitors from the West Virginia Archaeological Society and the Archaeological Society of Ohio received blue ribbons for their participation in the one day event (Figures 1-30).

Special awards were presented to the winners of three categories of exhibits:

Best Table Display - George Armann

Best Educational Display - Bob Walden

Public's Choice - Frank A. Fleahman

40

41

A NEW THREAT TO ARCHAEOLOGY AND COLLECTING

Printed on this page are excerpts of proposed amendments and changes to the cemetery laws of Ohio. These pro­posals go far beyond the intent of the original law and are an attempt to all but eliminate archaeology in the State of Ohio. Every artifact found on the surface of the ground would be subject to the provisions

of this law. Every farmer could have his property, and the ability to farm it, taken without compensation. Write your state legislator now. Tell them to vote against these amendments. The sponsors of this ill-advised legislation are listed at the head of the bill - House Bill 432. If he or she is one of your state representatives, call or

write and protest. The best way to defeat such over-regulation is to get it killed in committee before it is ever presented as a bill. The bill violates several provisions of the Constitution including the amend­ments against the taking of private prop­erty and establishment religion. WRITE YOUR REPRESENTATIVE NOW!

As Introduced 121st General Assembly

Regular Session 1995-1996

REPRESENTATIVES OGG-LUCAS-HARTLEY-LOGAN-SYKES-PRENTISS-OFFER-DOTY-FORD-TAVARES-BRITTON-BOYD-BOGGS-LEWIS-PRINGLE-

VAN VYVEN-GARCIA-TAYLOR

A Bl LL To amend sections 517.02, 517.08, 759.02, 1721.03,

1721.04,1721.21, 2909.05, and 2927.11, to amend for the purpose of adopting a new section number as indicated in parentheses, section 1721.01 (1721.02), to enact new sections 517.01, 759.01, and 1721.01, and to repeal sections 517.01, 759.01, and 1721.02 of the Revised Code to include a definit ion of "cemetery" in the cemetery laws and the vandalism and desecration laws.

BE IT ENACTED BY THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY OF THE STATE OF OHIO: Section 1. That sections 517.02, 517.08, 759.02, 1721.03,

2927.11 be amended, section the purpose of adopting a new

parentheses, and new sections Revised Code be enacted to

1721.04, 1721.21, 2909.05, and 1721.01 (1721.02) be amended for section number as indicated in 517.01, 759.01, 1721.01 of thi read as follows:

Sec. 517.01. AS USED IN THIS CHAPTER: (A) "CEMETERY" MEANS A BURIAL SITE IN WHICH MULTIPLE HUMAN

REMAINS OF ANY CULTURE ARE INTERRED. (B) "BURIAL SITE" MEANS ANY NATURAL OR PREPARED PHYSICAL

LOCATION, WHETHER ORIGINALLY BELOW, ON, OR ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH, INTO WHICH AS PART OF THE DEATH RITE OR CEREMONY OF A CULTURE. HUMAN REMAINS AND ASSOCIATED BURIAL OBJECTS HAVE BEEN DEPOSITED.

(C) "BURIAL OBJECTS" MEANS CULTURAL ITEMS THAT, AS PART OF THE DEATH RIGHT OR CEREMONY OF THE CULTURE, ARE REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN PLACED WITH OR NEAR HUMAN REMAINS, EITHER AT THE TIME OF DEATH OR AT A LATER TIME, OR ANY OTHER CULTURAL ITEMS REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN MADE EXCLUSIVELY FOR PLACEMENT WITH OR TO CONTAIN HUMAN REMAINS.

(D) "HUMAN REMAINS" MEANS ANY PART OF THE BODY OF A DECEASED PERSON IN ANY STAGE OF DECOMPOSITION.

Sec, 759.01. AS USED IN THIS CHAPTER: (A) "CEMETERY" MEANS A BURIAL SITE IN WHICH MULTIPLE HUMAN

REMAINS OF ANY CULTURE ARE INTERRED. (B) "BURIAL SITE" MEANS ANY NATURAL OR PREPARED PHYSICAL

LOCATION, WHETHER ORIGINALLY BELOW, ON, OR ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH, INTO WHICH AS PART OF THE DEATH RITE OR CEREMONY OF A CULTURE, HUMAN REMAINS AND ASSOCIATED BURIAL OBJECTS HAVE BEEN DEPOSITED.

(C) "BURIAL OBJECTS" MEANS CULTURAL ITEMS THAT, AS PART OF THE DEATH RITE OR CEREMONY OF THE CULTURE, ARE REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN PLACED WITH OR NEAR HUMAN REMAINS, EITHER AT THE TIME OF DEATH OR AT A LATER TIME, OR ANY OTHER CULTURAL ITEMS REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN MADE EXCLUSIVELY FOR PLACEMENT WITH OR TO CONTAIN HUMAN REMAINS.

(D) "HUMAN REMAINS" MEANS ANY PART OF THE BODY OF A DECEASED PERSON IN ANY STAGE OF DECOMPOSITION.

Sec. 1721.01. AS USED IN THIS CHAPTER: (A) "CEMETERY" MEANS A BURIAL SITE IN WHICH MULTIPLE HUMAN

REMAINS OF ANY CULTURE ARE INTERRED. (B) "BURIAL SITE" MEANS ANY NATURAL OR PREPARED PHYSICAL

LOCATION, WHETHER ORIGINALLY BELOW, ON. OR ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH, INTO WHICH AS PART OF THE DEATH RITE OR CEREMONY OF A CULTURE. HUMAN REMAINS AND ASSOCIATED BURIAL OBJECTS HAVE BEEN DEPOSITED.

25 27 28 29 30 31

33 36

39 40

45 46 47 48 49 50 53

96 99

102 103 104 105

108 109

no in 112 113 116 136 138

142 143 144 145

THE DEATH RITE OR CEREMONY OF THE CULTURE. ARE REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN PLACED WITH OR NEAR HUMAN REMAINS, EITHER AT THE TIME OF DEATH OR AT A LATER TIME, OR ANY OTHER CULTURAL ITEMS REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN MADE EXCLUSIVELY FOR PLACEMENT WITH OR TO CONTAIN HUMAN REMAINS.

(D) "HUMAN REMAINS" MEANS ANY PART OF THE BODY OF A DECEASED PERSON IN ANY STAGE OF DECOMPOSITION.

(a) "CEMETERY" MEANS A BURIAL SITE IN WHICH MULTIPLE HUMAN REMAINS OF ANY CULTURE ARE INTERRED.

(b) "BURIAL SITE" MEANS ANY NATURAL OR PREPARED PHYSICAL LOCATION, WHETHER ORIGINALLY BELOW, ON, OR ABOVE THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH, INTO WHICH AS PART OF THE DEATH RITE OR CEREMONY OF A CULTURE, HUMAN REMAINS AND ASSOCIATED BURIAL OBJECTS HAVE BEEN DEPOSITED.

(c) "BURIAL OBJECTS" MEANS CULTURAL ITEMS THAT, AS PART OF THE DEATH RITE OR CEREMONY OF THE CULTURE, ARE REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN PLACED WITH OR NEAR HUMAN REMAINS, EITHER AT THE TIME OF DEATH OR AT A LATER TIME, OR ANY OTHER CULTURAL ITEMS REASONABLY BELIEVED TO HAVE BEEN MADE EXCLUSIVELY FOR PLACEMENT WITH OR TO CONTAIN HUMAN REMAINS.

(d) "HUMAN REMAINS" MEANS ANY PART OF THE BODY OF A DECEASED PERSON IN ANY STAGE OF DECOMPOSITION.

Sec. 2927.11. (A) No person, without privi lege to do so, shall purposely deface, damage, pol lute, or otherwise physically mistreat any of the following:

(1) The flag of the United States or of this state; (2) Any public monument; (3) Any historical or commemorative marker, or any

structure, Indian mound or earthwork, CEMETERY, thing, or site of great historical or archaeological interest;

(4) A place of worship, its furnishings, or religious artifacts or sacred texts within the place of worship:

(5) A work of art or museum piece; (6) Any other object or reverence or sacred devotion. (B) Whoever violates this section is guilty of

desecrat ion. Violation of division (A) (1), (2), (3), (5). or (6) of this section is a misdemeanor of the second degree. Violation of division (A) (4) of this section is a misdemeanor of the first degree that is punishable by a fine of up to four thousand dollars in addit ion to the penalties specif ied for a misdemeanor of the first degree in section 2929.21 of the Revised Code.

149 150 151 152 153 156

440 441 442 443

446 447 448 449 450 451 454

482 483 484 486 488 490 491 492 494 495 497 499 501 502 503 504 505 506 507

42

Mercer County Historical Society. Inc. 130 E. Market St. — P.O. Box 512 — Celine, OH 45822 — (419) 586-6065

Director — Joyce L. Alig

Autumn 1995

Dear rritadii

Welcome back Cor another season of seeing old friends and making new ones. I look forward to seeing you again.

First, check out our fall program*. Everyone knows Ohio was a State in 1803, but most people do not know that Mercer County and the rest of Northwest Ohio was not open for settlement until after 1820. . . or even why it was so much later that 1803. Welcomed back by popular request, are three old friends. Professor Randall Buchman will explain the Treaties with the Indians. Dr. Larry Nelson will explain about the old forts and trading posts and settlement. Ray Schuck will tell stories about local settlements. The programs are made possible by a grant from the Ohio Humanities Council and NBA, and are open to the public.

Second, the Courthouaa 75th Anniversary, 1933-1998, is being planned. If you want to participate in these celebration plans, call me at 586-6065 sr £78-2614.

Third, please be so kind as to remember the Mercer County Historical Museum and your Mercer County heritage when your neighbors visit you about tha Combined Charities this fall. It is not that a donation has to be so great, it is just nice to be remembered a little, by a lot of our friends.

Fourth, stop by and visit the Museum on Wednesday, Thursday or Friday, 8:30 - 4:00. Beginning in October the Museum will also be open on Sundays, 1:00 - 4:00. Myron Hartings is working for the Commissioners in putting in a new furnace and central air at the Museum. The air conditioning this summer was a welcome feature to our guests. This Director, and the volunteers loved it. A big thanks to Myron and Commissioners Ray Cron, Ron Puthoff, and Jerry Laffin.

R—amber to Invite your friends to become members of our County Historical Society.

Your Old Friend,

Tk>M MegalAceel Bt* B U M U Meresr Cmuty •I W n i t n Ufcio

^r^

ERRATA. Fig. 23 on page 16 in Vol. 45, No. 2, is in error. The cor­rected figure is shown.

^ •Vv " ' * " ' " ' "

- --—o— * 'a*^ -rr • . J. ^^pV

*g

*

—

4 Figure 23 East Side Work from the Papers of Ephriam G. Squier (1821-1888).

NPS ANNOUNCES NEW PUBLICATION ON FIRST AMERICANS

The people who first crossed the Bering land bridge and gradually spread across North America have long been the focus of public fascination and scholarly research. Unfortunately, the few traces left of their presence are rare, threatened by develop­ment, and prized by collectors. The remains of the first Americans, once gone, are gone forever. Stewardship of these remains, with their information about our past environ­ments, is a public responsibility.

The Public Trust and the First Americans, just published by Oregon University Press, addresses the question of how we should manage these precious resources—and how they can be pre­

served while being used to educate the public. The volume, edited by Ruthann Knudson and Bennie C. Keel of the National Park Service, was developed from a symposium cosponsored by the NPS and the university's Center for the Study of the First Americans.

A crucial part of learning about the people, the way they lived, and the world around them is an appreciation for the interrelationships among their remains and the contexts in which they are found. In the words of the editors, nothing is simple about understanding the lives of the conti­nent's first inhabitants. This volume, by promoting ecologically based stewardship,

hopes to preserve what remains of their world's complexities in the hopes of better understanding ours.

The book includes discussion of the public trust doctrine in U.S. law, the con­cept of responsibility for materials related to the first Americans, relationships among researchers, the legal basis for protecting these resources, and opportunities for educating the public.

The Public Trust and the First Americans, 224 pages, paperback, $24.95, is available from Oregon State University Press, 101 Waldo Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331-6407, (503) 737-3166, fax (503) 737-3170.

Back Cover: This double-crescent bannerstone was found in Montgomery County, Ohio, on the Askin Farm many years ago. It is made of red banded slate and was originally collected by Jacob Royer of Dayton. Collection of Bill Cain, Wilkinson, Indiana. It is shown natural size.

43

OBJECT OF THE SOCIETY The Archaeological Society of Ohio is organized to discover and conserve archaeological sites and material within the State of Ohio, to seek and promote a better understanding among students and collectors of archaeological material, professional and non-professional, including individuals, museums, and institutions of learning, and to disseminate knowledge on the subject of archaeology. Membership in the society shall be open to any person of good character interested in archaeology or the collecting of American Indian artifacts, upon acceptance of written application and payment of dues.