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Volume 17 Number 4
Winter 2009
Published by the New York State Horticultural Society
Volume 17 Number
Winter 200
Published by the New York State Horticultural Society
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NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 1
5 11 15 19 23
COVER: Blueberries with Phomopsis
Canker. Photos courtesy Cathy
Heidenreich and Kevin Iungerman.
Contents
NEW YORK Fruit Quarterly WINTER 2009
5 Nutrient Requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26
Apple Trees for High Yield and Quality
Lailiang Cheng and Richard Raba
11 Fertigation for Apple Trees
in the Pacifi c Northwest
Denise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen
15 Antioxidant contents and activity in
SmartFresh-treated ‘Empire’ apples
during air and controlled atmosphere storage
Fanjaniaina Fawbush, Jackie Nock and Chris Watkins
19 Results of a New York Blueberry Survey
Juliet E. Carroll, Marc Fuchs and Kerik Cox
23 Assessing Azinphos-methyl Resistance in
New York State Codling Moth Populations
Peter Jentsch, Frank Zeoli & Deborah Breth
EditorialManaged New York Apple Varieties: Are You Ready to Control Your Destiny?
Hopefully by now you are aware of Cornell University’s intent
to introduce two new apple varieties under a managed license
contract with an exclusive partner. Prior to this announcement
by Cornell, a group of apple growers representing all major production
regions in New York State met last Winter and Spring and subsequently
formed New York Apple Growers LLC (NYAG) whose primary focus
was to gain exclusive rights to new and exciting Cornell releases. All
apple growers in New York State, who pay AMO dues, were mailed
a notice in August regarding the formation of NYAG, which is a new
grower-owned corporation whose primary mission and objectives
are as follows:
NYAG Mission: To manage the release of new advanced apple
varieties and market these varieties at an accelerated pace that delivers
profi t and long term sustainability to our members and licensing
partners and to overwhelm our fresh apple consumers with a positive
fresh apple eating experience.
Objectives• To introduce outstanding new apple cultivars to the
marketplace
• To allow any NYS Apple Grower the opportunity to become a
member during the founding year
• To enhance New York State apple grower sustainability, growth,
and long term competitiveness
• To secure exclusive variety contracts that allow its members and
licensing partners to profi t from the growing and selling of these
varieties
• To invest funding directly into the Cornell apple breeding
program
Currently NYAG and Cornell are undergoing negotiations for exclusive
rights contracts and it is our desire to have these contracts completed by
the end of January. After this we will begin the process of raising capital,
creating a defi ned corporate structure, creating variety evaluation and
quality programs, creating a nursery production plan, developing a
detailed marketing plan and working on all other necessary details
involved with the creation of a new entity. Additionally, NYAG wishes
to increase our grower board by at least fi ve new growers. If you are
interested, please contact one of the current board members in your
district listed below.
What Action Should New York Apple Growers Take Now?Th e initial grower response to the formation of NYAG has been
very positive and it is the current board’s goal to get as many quality
growers aboard to make NYAG a success. New York growers must now
begin to contemplate what their involvement will be with NYAG. All
growers from grower operations of all sizes will be invited to become
members of the grower-owned corporation during the founding year.
Capital investments will be acreage based and the minimum and
maximum amounts of acreage each grower can obtain are currently
being evaluated.
Th e question for growers to ponder is if and by how much should
they invest in NYAG? Th ere has been a lot of interest in managed
varieties over the past few months and this topic has been reviewed
by many trade journals. Despite all of the opinions of how managed
varieties will perform in the marketplace, the one fact that cannot
be disputed is that the overall quality of the managed variety is the
number one deciding factor. Although there is a tremendous amount
of work to be completed in quality evaluation for the fi rst two Cornell
releases, we are very pleased and excited by the potential of these
(Continued on p.2)
0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
*
fertigationfertigation periodperiod
1.0
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
6.0
(B)
0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
*
fertigationfertigation periodperiod
1.0
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
N lo
ss (
g/t
ree
)
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
*
fertigationfertigation periodperiod
1.0
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
6.0
(B)
2 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
2008 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
President Walt Blackler, Apple Acres
4633 Cherry Valley Tpk. Lafayette, NY 13084
PH: 315-677-5144 (W); FAX: 315-677-5143
Vice President Peter Barton 55 Apple Tree Lane, Paughquag, NY 12570
PH: 845-227-2306 (W); 845-227-7149 (H)
FX: 845-227-1466; CELL: 845-656-5217
Treasurer/Secretary Bruce Kirby, Little Lake Farm
3120 Densmore Road Albion , NY 14411
PH: 585-589-1922; FAX: 585-589-7872
Executive Director Paul Baker 90 Lake St., Apt 24D, Youngstown, NY 14174
FAX: (716) 219-4089
CELL: 716-807-6827; [email protected]
Admin Assistant Karen Wilson
630 W. North St., Geneva, NY 14456
PH: 315-787-2404; FX: 315) 787-2216
CELL: 315-521-0852; [email protected]
Cornell Director Dr. Terence Robinson, NYSAES
630 W. North Street
Hedrick Hall, Room 125, Geneva, NY 14456
PH: 315-787-2227; FX: 315-787-2216
CELL: 315-521-0435; [email protected]
Director Dan Sievert Lakeview Orchards, Inc.
4941 Lake Road, Burt, NY 14028
PH: 716-778-7491 (W)
FX: 716-778-7466; CELL: 716-870-8968
Director Roderick Dressel, Jr., Dressel Farms
271 Rt 208, New Paltz, NY 12561
PH: 845-255-0693 (W); 845-255-7717 (H)
FX: 845-255-1596; CELL: 845-399-6767
Director Robert DeBadts, Lake Breeze Fruit Farm
6272 Lake Road, Sodus, NY 14551
PH: 315-483-0910 (W), 315-483-9904 (H)
FX: 315-483-8863; CELL: 585-739-1590
[email protected]; (Summer – use FAX only)
Director Tom DeMarree, DeMarree Fruit Farm
7654 Townline Rd.
Williamson, NY 14589
PH: 315-589-9698; FX: 315-589-4965
CELL: 315-576-1244; demarreeff @aol.com
Director Doug Fox, D&L Ventures LLC
4959 Fish Farm Rd., Sodus, NY 14551
PH: 315-483-4556; FX: 315-483-4342
Director William R. Gunnison Gunnison Lakeshore Orchards
3196 NYS Rt. 9W & 22, Crown Point, NY 12928
PH: 518-597-3363 (W); 518-597-3817(H)
FAX: 518-597-3134; CELL: 518-572-4642
Director John Ivison, Helena Chemical Co.
165 S. Platt St, Suite 100
Albion, NY 14411; PH: 585-589-4195 (W)
FX: 585-589-0257; CELL: 585-509-2262
Director Chuck Mead, Mead Orchards LLC
15 Scism Rd., Tivoli, NY 12583
PH: 845-756-5641 (W); CELL: 845-389-0731
FAX: 845-756-4008
APPLE RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM ADVISORY BOARD 2008
Chairman Walt Blackler, Apple Acres
4633 Cherry Valley Tpk. Lafayette, NY 13084
PH: 315-677-5144 (W); FAX: 315-677-5143
Alan Burr 7577 Slayton Settlement Road, Gasport, NY 14067
PH: 585-772-2469; [email protected]
Steve Clarke 40 Clarkes Lane, Milton, NY 12547
PH: 845-795-2383; [email protected]
Rod Farrow 12786 Kendrick Road, Waterport, NY 14571
PH: 585-589-7022
Mason Forrence 2740 Route 22, Peru, NY 12972
PH: 518-643-9527; [email protected]
Ted Furber, Cherry Lawn Farms
8099 GLover Rd., Sodus, NY 14551
PH: 315-483-8529
Dan McCarthy NY State Dept. of Agriculture & Markets
10B Airline Drive, Albany, NY 12235
PH: 518-457-8857; [email protected]
Peter Ten Eyck, Indian Ladder Farms
342 Altamont Road
Altamont, NY 12009
PH: 518-765-2956; [email protected]
Robert Deemer, Dr. Pepper/Snapple Group
4363 Rte.104
Williamson, NY 14589
PH: 315-589-9695 ext. 713
NYS BERRY GROWERS BOARD MEMBERS
Chair Dale Riggs, Stonewall Hill Farm
15370 NY Rt 22, Stephentown, NY 12168
PH: 518-733-6772; [email protected]
Treasurer Tony Emmi, Emmi Farms
1572 S. Ivy Trail, Baldwinsville, NY 13027
PH: 315-638-7679; [email protected]
Executive Secretary Paul Baker 90 Lake St., Apt 24D, Youngstown, NY 14174
FAX: (716) 219-4089
CELL: 716-807-6827; [email protected]
Jim Bauman, Bauman Farms
1340 Five Mile Line Rd., Webster, NY 14580
PH: 585-671-5857
Bob Brown III, Brown’s Berry Patch
14264 Rooseveldt Highway, Waterport, NY 14571
PH: 585-682-5569
Bruce Carson, Carson’s Bloomin’ Berries
2328 Reed Rd.
Bergen, NY 14416
PH: 585-494-1187; [email protected]
Jim Coulter, Coulter Farms
3871 N. Ridge Road, Lockport, NY 14094
PH: 716-433-5335; [email protected]
John Hand, Hand Melon Farm
533 Wilber Ave., Greenwich, NY 12834
PH: 518-692-2376; [email protected]
Craig Michaloski, Green Acres Farm
3480 Latta Road, Rochester, NY 14612
PH: 585-225-6147; [email protected]
Terry Mosher, Mosher Farms
RD #1 Box 69, Bouckville, NY 13310
PH: 315-893-7173; [email protected]
Greg Spoth, Greg’s U-Pick
9270 Lapp Rd., Clarence Center, NY 14032
PH: 716-742-4239; [email protected]
Alan Tomion, Tomion Farms
3024 Ferguson Corners Rd., Penn Yan, NY 14527
PH: 585-526-5852; [email protected]
Tony Weis, Weiss Farms
7828 East Eden Road, Eden, NY 14057
PH: 716-992-9619; [email protected]
NEW YORK Fruit Quarterly WINTER 2009 • VOLUME 17 • NUMBER 4
WINTER 2009 • VOLUME 17 • NUMBER 4This publication is a joint eff ort of the New York State Horticultural Society, Cornell University’s New York State Agricultural Experiment Station at Geneva, the New York State Apple Research and Development Program, and the NYSBGA.
Editors Terence Robinson and Steve Hoying
Dept. of Horticultural Sciences
New York State Agricultural Experiment Station
Geneva, New York 14456-0462
PH: 315-787-2227; FX: 315-787-2216
Subscriptions Karen Wilson & Advertising NYSHS, 630 W. North St., Geneva, NY 14456
PH: 315-787-2404; [email protected]
Design Elaine L. Gotham, Gotham City Design, Naples, NY
PH: 585-374-9585; [email protected]
Production Communications Services, NYSAES, Geneva, NY
PH: 315-787-2248; [email protected]
NEW YORK Fruit Quarterly
(Editorial, cont.)selections. In order to command shelf space
in an ever increasing competitive market, we
feel continued variety improvement will be
necessary. NYAG is off ering an opportunity for
growers to get on board in the managed variety
system; our business plan ensures continued
investment into the long-term future to create
superior varieties. As a result, when conducting
your fi nancial planning activities for 2010 and
beyond, we pose the question: How can you not
aff ord to get involved with NYAG?
More details will continue to evolve with
NYAG through the winter so stay tuned for the
communication of more information. If you
have any questions or ideas for consideration,
please feel free to contact a board member in
your district.
Sincerely,
New York Apple Growers,
LLC Executive Board:
Chairman: Roger Lamont,
Vice Chairman: Jeff Crist
jeff @cristapples.com
Treasurer: Walt Blackler
Secretary: Bob Norris,
Member Relations: Mason Forrence,
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NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 3
4 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
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NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 5
Nutrient management plays a more important role in
ensuring good tree growth, cropping and fruit quality
for apple trees on dwarfi ng rootstocks in high-density
plantings than for
those on vigor-
ous rootstocks as
dwarf apple trees
crop earlier and
have higher yield
and smaller root
systems. With the
development of
leaf nutrient anal-
ysis and its wide
adoption for diag-
nosis of tree nutri-
ent status (Bould,
1966; Stiles and
Reid, 1991; Neilsen
and Neilsen, 2003),
fertilization prac-
tices in orchards
are now routinely adjusted by comparing leaf analysis results
against the optimal range of leaf nutrient concentrations. How-
ever, eff ective nutrient management to these dwarf trees still
requires a good understanding of their nutrient demand in terms
of amount and timing because optimal leaf nutrient concentra-
tions do not refl ect the actual amount and timing of tree nutrient
requirements.
Due to the diffi culty of destructive sampling of entire trees
multiple times during the annual cycle of tree growth and de-
velopment, the actual demand of dwarf apple trees for all the
macro- and micro-nutrients in terms of timing and amount has
not been examined in detail. In this study, we took an approach
of growing apple trees in sand culture to achieve optimal tree
nutrient status, high yield and good quality, and using sequential
excavation of entire trees to determine the magnitude and sea-
sonal patterns of the accumulation of macro- and micro-nutrients
in apple trees on dwarfi ng rootstocks. Th e sand culture system
eliminates competition for nutrients between any adjacent trees
grown in the fi eld in high-density plantings, and allows good
control of nutrient supply and better recovery of the entire root
system at excavation.
Experimental ProceduresSix-year-old Gala/M.26 trees were grown in 55-L plastic containers
in acid-washed sand (pH 6.2) at a spacing 3.5 by 11.0 feet (1129
trees/acre) at Cornell Orchards. Th ese trees were trained as tall
spindles. Th ey had produced regular crops over the previous three
years. Nutrient supply to these trees was based on a previous study
(Xia et al., 2009). Briefl y, all trees were fertigated with four liters
of 15N-ammonium nitrate (210 ppm N) balanced with all other
nutrients in Hoagland’s #2 solution twice a week from May 2 to one
month before fruit harvest except during active shoot growth when
the trees were fertigated three times per week. Fertigation contin-
ued from one month before harvest to fruit harvest but nitrogen
was provided at half the concentration for the fi rst two weeks and
then was completed omitted from the fertigation solution in the
two weeks immediately preceding fruit harvest. After fruit harvest,
each tree was fertigated with four liters of the Hoagland’s solution
at an N concentration of 210 ppm twice (September 22 and Oc-
tober 2). Each tree received a total of 30 grams of actual nitrogen
during the entire growing season (equivalent to 75 lbs actual N
per acre). Th e cropload of these trees was adjusted to 8.2 fruit per
cm2 trunk cross-sectional area via hand-thinning at 10mm king
fruit (104 fruit per tree), and this cropload was maintained to fruit
harvest. Irrigation was provided with two spray sticks per tree and
the trees were well watered throughout the growing season. No
foliar application of nutrients was applied to these trees. All the
trees received standard disease and insect control throughout the
growing season. A copper spray was put on at budbreak to control
fi re blight, but the spray made it diffi cult to accurately determine
the accumulation patterns of total Cu in the new growth and the
whole tree during the early part of the season.
At each of the 7 key developmental stages throughout the
annual growth cycle (budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth,
end of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, fruit harvest,
and after leaf fall), a set of four trees was excavated. Each tree
was partitioned to spurs, shoots, spur leaves, shoot leaves, fruit,
one year-old stem, branches, trunk, upper shank, lower shank
and roots. All the samples were dried in a forced-air oven, and
the dry weight of each tissue was recorded. Each sample was
ground twice to pass a 40 mesh screen and measured for N, P, K,
Ca, Mg, S, B, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn using combustion analysis and
inductively coupled plasma emission spectrometry. Total N, P,
K, Ca, Mg, S, B, Zn, Cu, Fe, and Mn in each organ type and the
whole tree were calculated based on its concentration and dry
weight data.
ResultsFruit yield, size and quality at harvest. Fruit yield was 18.8 kg per
tree (equivalent to 1113 bushels/acre) with an average fruit size
of 181 g. Fruit soluble solids concentration was 14.5% and fruit
fi rmness was 16.8 lbs.
This paper was presented at the 2009 Cornell In-depth Fruit School on Mineral Nutrition.
“Shoots and leaves have a high demand
period for nutrients from bloom to end
of shoot growth whereas fruits have
a high demand period from the end
of shoot growth to fruit harvest. Our
research has shown that at harvest,
fruit contain more K than any other
nutrient followed by N, Ca, Mg, P, Fe,
S, Mn, B, Zn, and Cu. Understanding
tree nutrient requirements will help
in developing improved fertilization
programs in apple orchards.”
Nutrient Requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26
Apple Trees for High Yield and QualityLailiang Cheng and Richard Raba
Departments of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
Figure 1. The concentration of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium (C),
calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H), iron (I)
and manganese (J) in leaves and fruit of 6-year-old ‘Gala’/‘M.26’
apple trees from bloom to fruit harvest. The fi ve points in each
line correspond with bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end of
shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,
respectively. Each point is mean ± SE of four replicates.
6 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
Leaf and fruit nutrient status. Th e concentration of N, P, K,
S, Zn and Fe in both leaves and fruit decreased from bloom to
fruit harvest, with concentrations being higher in leaves than in
fruit from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest (Figure 1A,
B, C, F, H and I). Th e concentration of Ca, Mg, and Mn in leaves
decreased from bloom to the end of spur leaf growth, and then
increased thereafter, whereas fruit Ca, Mg, and Mn concentra-
tions decreased from bloom to fruit harvest (Figure 1D, E, and J).
Th e B concentration was higher in fruit than in leaves at bloom,
but both had similar B concentrations from the end of spur leaf
growth to fruit harvest (Figure 1G).
Leaf samples taken at the regular time recommended for
nutrient analysis (90 days after bloom), and fruit samples taken
at harvest, showed that both leaf and fruit nutrient status were
in the satisfactory range for this cultivar (Table 1).
Dry matter accumulation and partitioning. Total dry matter
of the tree showed an expolinear increase from budbreak to fruit
harvest, with a net dry matter gain of 4.3 kg (Figure 2). Total dry
matter of shoots and leaves increased rapidly from bloom to the
end of shoot growth in early July, and then remained unchanged
till fruit harvest. Th e total dry matter in shoots and leaves at fruit
harvest only accounted for about 17.3% of the net dry matter
gain of the whole tree from budbreak to fruit harvest. Total dry
matter of fruit increased slowly from bloom to the end of shoot
growth, then rapidly in a linear fashion till fruit harvest. Th e to-
tal dry matter of fruit accounted for about 72.2% of the net dry
matter gain of the whole tree. At fruit harvest, approximately
10.5% of the net dry matter gain was found in the woody peren-
nial parts (branches, central leader, shank and roots) of the tree.
No signifi cant increase was observed in the dry matter of roots
between budbreak and fruit harvest.
Accumulation of nutrients in the whole tree. Total tree N
increased very rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth,
and then continued to increase, but at a slower rate to fruit har-
vest (Figure 3A). Total P, K, Ca, Mg, S and B in the tree increased
slightly from budbreak to bloom and then in a near linear manner
from bloom to fruit harvest, although accumulation of Ca, Mg,
and B slowed starting from one month before harvest (Figure
3B-G). Both total Zn and total Mn in the tree showed a gradual
increase from budbreak to the end of spur leaf growth, and then
a rapid increase till one month before fruit harvest, followed by
a slow increase to fruit harvest (Figure 3H, J). Total Fe in the
tree increased rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth,
followed by a slower
increase till fruit har-
vest (Figure 3I).
Th e net gains of
total N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
and S from budbreak
to fruit harvest were
19.8, 3.3, 36.0, 14.2,
4.4 and 1.6 g/tree, and
those for B, Zn, Cu,
Mn, and Fe were 93.6,
60.9, 46.5, 184.8 and
148.7 mg/tree, which
were equivalent to
49.3, 8.2, 89.4, 35.4,
10.9 and 4.0 lbs/acre
for N, P, K, Ca, Mg,
and S, and 105.7, 68.8,
52.5, 208.6 and 167.9
grams/acre for B, Zn,
Cu, Mn, and Fe at a
Table 1. Leaf and fruit nutrient status. Leaf nutrients were from samples
taken on August 9, 2006. Fruit nutrients were from the samples
taken at harvest (September 13, 2006). Macronutrients are
expressed as % dry weight whereas micronutrients are in ppm.
Macronutrients (%)
Tissue N P K Ca Mg S
Leaves 2.00 0.18 1.61 1.10 0.39 0.13 Fruit 0.25 0.06 0.80 0.05 0.04 0.02
Micronutrients (ppm)
Tissue B Zn Cu Mn Fe
Leaves 27.3 27.3 8.3 143.8 83.5 Fruit 21.8 3.5 3.8 7.8 25.3
Figure 2. Dry matter accumulation of the
whole tree, shoots and leaves, and
fruit of 6-year-old ‘Gala/M.26’ trees
from budbreak to fruit harvest in
the 2006 growing season. The six
points in each line correspond with
budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf
growth, end of shoot growth, rapid
fruit expansion period, and fruit
harvest, respectively. Each point is
mean ± SE of four replicates.
Figure 3. Total accumulation of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium
(C), calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H),
iron (I) and manganese (J) in 6-year-old ‘Gala/M.26’ apple trees
from budbreak to fruit harvest. The six points in each line
correspond with budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end
of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,
respectively. Each point is mean ± SE of four replicates.
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 7
tree density of 1129 trees/acre (Table 2).
Accumulation of nutrients in the new growth (fruit, shoots
and leaves) Because fruit and shoots and leaves are the most dy-
namic parts of the tree, determining their nutrient accumulation
patterns may help us understand their diff erential requirements
for nutrients.
Total N in shoots and leaves followed the same pattern as
dry matter (Figures 2, 4A). It increased slowly from budbreak to
bloom, very rapidly from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and
then remained unchanged till fruit harvest. In contrast, total
N in fruit increased gradually from bloom to the end of shoot
growth, and then increased rapidly till fruit harvest. Th e increase
of total N in fruit from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest
made up 65.4% of fruit N accumulation, and accounted for all of
the increase in total N in the new growth, because the total N
in shoots and leaves did not change during this period. At fruit
harvest, total N in fruit accounted for 37.6% of N in new growth.
Total N in new growth showed almost the same pattern as total N
in the whole tree (Figs. 3A, 4A), and total N in new growth at fruit
harvest accounted for 100% of net N accumulation in the whole
tree from budbreak to fruit harvest. Th e accumulation patterns
of total S in shoots and leaves and fruit were similar to those for
total N (Figure 4F). At fruit harvest, total S in fruit accounted for
42.6% of S in new growth, and total S in new growth accounted
for 91.8% of its net gain in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest.
Total P, K, B and Fe in shoots and leaves increased very rapidly
from bloom to the end of shoot growth, then remained unchanged
till fruit harvest (Figure 4B, C, G, I). In contrast, total P, K, B and
Fe in fruit increased gradually from budbreak to the end of shoot
growth, and then rapidly in a linear fashion till fruit harvest. Th e
increase of P, K, B and Fe in fruit from the end of shoot growth
to fruit harvest made up 74.9%, 77.4%, 77.2%, and 61.0% of their
total amount at fruit harvest, respectively. Total P, K, B and Fe in
fruit at fruit harvest accounted for 60.7%, 71.3%, 77.7% and 60.4%
of their total amount in new growth, respectively. Total P, K, B,
and Fe in new growth showed a linear or near linear increase
from bloom to fruit harvest. Total P, K, B, and Fe in new growth
at fruit harvest accounted for 97.6%, 96.7%, 93.3%, and 87.2% of
their net accumulation in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest, respectively.
Total Ca and Mn in new growth showed a slight increase from
budbreak to bloom, then a very rapid increase from bloom to one
month before harvest, followed by a slow increase to fruit harvest
(Figure 4D, J). Total Ca and Mn in shoots and leaves accounted
for most of the total Ca and Mn in new growth. Total Ca and
Mn in fruit increased throughout the entire fruit growth period,
with 61.7% and 73.3% of their respective accumulation occurring
from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest. However, total Ca
and Mn in fruit at harvest, however, accounted for only 14.0%
and 17.8% of the total Ca and Mn in new growth, respectively.
At fruit harvest, total Ca and Mn in new growth accounted for
77.8% and 73.2% of their net accumulation in the whole tree from
budbreak to fruit harvest, respectively.
Both total Mg and total Zn in shoots and leaves increased rap-
idly from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and then increased
slowly till fruit harvest (Figure 4E, H). In contrast, total Mg and
total Zn in fruit increased slowly from bloom to the end of shoot
growth and then rapidly from the end of shoot growth to fruit
harvest, with 67.8% and 58.1% of the total accumulation taking
place during the latter period. Total Mg and total Zn in fruit at
fruit harvest accounted for 31.3% and 30.8% of the total Mg and
total Zn in new growth, respectively. Total Mg and total Zn in
new growth at fruit harvest accounted for 90.4% and 58.1% of
Table 2. Net accumulation of nutrients in the entire tree from budbreak
to harvest, and the total accumulation of nutrients in new
growth (shoots, leaves and fruit) at harvest at a fruit yield of
1113 bushels/acre (52.45 metric tons per hectare).
Macronutrients (lbs/acre)
N P K Ca Mg S
Net gain 49.3 8.2 89.4 35.4 10.9 4.0 New growth 50.7 8.0 86.5 27.5 9.9 3.7
Micronutrients (grams/acre)
B Zn Cu Mn Fe
Net gain 105.7 68.8 52.5 208.6 167.9 New growth 98.6 40.0 23.0 152.6 146.5
8 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
their net accumulation in the whole tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest, respectively.
DiscussionSince the trees used in this study had optimal nutrient levels
in both leaves and fruit (Table 1, Figure 1) and they produced
a high fruit yield (equivalent to 52.45 metric tons per hectare)
with good fruit size and quality, the observed accumulation of
nutrients represents the nutrient requirements of these trees.
Th e net accumulation of N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S in the whole tree
from budbreak to fruit harvest was 19.8, 3.3, 36.0, 14.2, 4.4 and
1.6 g/tree and that for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe was 93.6, 60.9, 46.5,
184.8 and 148.7 mg/tree, which was equivalent to 49.3, 8.2, 89.4,
35.4, 10.9 and 4.0 lbs per acre for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S and 105.7,
68.8, 52.5, 208.6 and 167.9 grams per acre for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and
Fe at a tree density of 1129 trees per acre. Th is study, for the fi rst
time, has generated a comprehensive nutrient accumulation data
Figure 4. Total accumulation of nitrogen (A), phosphorus (B), potassium
(C), calcium (D), magnesium (E), sulfur (F), boron (G), zinc (H), iron
(I) and manganese (J) in shoots and leaves, fruit, and new growth
(fruit plus shoots and leaves) of 6-year-old ‘Gala’/‘M.26’ apple
trees from budbreak to fruit harvest. The six points in each line
correspond with budbreak, bloom, end of spur leaf growth, end
of shoot growth, rapid fruit expansion period, and fruit harvest,
respectively. Each point is mean ± SE of four replicates.
set for ‘Gala’/‘M.26’ trees trained in tall spindle. It is interesting
to note that the accumulation of nutrients in new growth (fruit
plus shoots and leaves) accounted for over 90% of the net gain for
total N, P, K, Mg, S, and B in the entire tree and a large propor-
tion of the net gain for Ca, Zn, Mn, and Fe (ranging from 58.1%
in Zn to 87.2% in Fe) from budbreak to fruit harvest in this study
(Table 2). Th erefore, future studies of this type might gain most
of the information on tree nutrient needs by just focusing on new
growth (fruit, shoots and leaves).
Although the trees we used in this study were grown in sand
culture, our data on total nutrient accumulation in fruit (or fruit
nutrient removal at harvest) are very similar to those reported by
Palmer and Dryden (2006) on ‘Royal Gala’, ‘Fuji’ and ‘Braeburn’,
and Drahorad (1999) on several apple cultivars for commercial
apple orchards (Comparison of our data with the data from
Palmer and Dryden on Gala are shown in Table 3), when the fruit
yield was adjusted to the same level. Th is high similarity indicates
that the estimates of nutrient requirements obtained in this study
may be applicable to fi eld-grown trees. If we assume the ratio
between net accumulation of each nutrient in the whole tree from
budbreak to fruit harvest and its amount in fruit remains constant
across the range of fruit yield encountered in commercial apple
production, one can readily calculate the total requirement for
each nutrient at any expected fruit yield by using the data gener-
ated in this study (See Table 4 for an example). It’s clear that the
requirement for each nutrient increases as fruit yield increases.
Of the macronutrients required by ‘Gala’ apple trees, K is the
one whose amount in the fruit at harvest accounted for the largest
proportion of its net gain in the entire tree from budbreak to fruit
harvest, i.e. more than two thirds of the total tree K requirement
was found in fruit although fruit K concentration was only about
half of that in leaves on a dry weight basis (Table 1, Figure 4C).
Because of this large demand for K by fruit, apple trees on dwarf-
ing rootstocks need adequate K supply to achieve high yield and
good quality. However, it is possible that too much K can negatively
aff ect fruit quality as K may compete with the uptake of Ca and
Mg. It should be noted that the widely cited work of Haynes and
Goh (1980) on nutrient budget of apple orchards signifi cantly over-
estimated the amount of K in fruit. Based on the amount of K in
fruit and fruit dry matter reported in Haynes and Goh (1980), the
calculated fruit K concentration would be over 2% on a dry weight
basis. Either the trees used in their experiment were in luxury
consumption of K, or an error was made by the authors (Haynes
and Goh, 1980) in measuring or calculating the total amount of K
in fruit. However, the former does not seem to be the case as leaf
K concentration was only 1.2% at the end of the season.
Table 3. Comparison of total amounts of nutrients in ‘Gala’ fruit at harvest
obtained in this study with those obtained in the Nelson region
of New Zealand by Palmer and Dryden (2006) at a fruit yield of
1113 bushels/acre (52.45 metric tons per hectare).
Macronutrients (lbs/acre)
Study N P K Ca Mg S
Palmer & Dryden (2006) 18.7 4.6 57.8 3.0 2.7 N/A Cheng & Raba (2009) 19.1 4.9 61.6 3.9 3.1 1.5
Micronutrients (grams/acre)
Study B Zn Cu Mn Fe
Palmer & Dryden (2006) 54.5 10.3 30.7 9.1 31.0 Cheng & Raba (2009) 76.5 12.3 13.3 27.2 88.5
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 9
Fruits, shoots and leaves have diff erential nutrient accumula-
tion patterns (Figure 4). Our data indicate that the most rapid ac-
cumulation of all nutrients in shoots and leaves took place during
active shoot growth, from bloom to the end of shoot growth, and
the accumulation pattern of most nutrients corresponded well
with the accumulation of dry matter, with continued accumula-
tion observed only in total Ca and Mn in shoots and leaves after
the end of shoot growth. Nutrient accumulation in fruit largely
followed its dry matter accumulation, and a large proportion of
the nutrient accumulation (ranging from 58.1% of Zn to 77.4 %
of K) occurred from the end of shoot growth to fruit harvest.
Th e diff erential patterns of nutrient accumulation between fruit
and shoots and leaves, and the similarity between dry matter ac-
cumulation and accumulation patterns of most nutrients within
each organ (Figures 2B, 4), indicate that nutrient accumulation is
demand-driven. Th e linear increase in both P and K in the whole
tree, and in new growth from bloom to harvest (Figures 3B, C,
4B, C) indicates a constant demand for both nutrients during this
period. Th e demand by shoots and leaves before the end of shoot
growth accounted for a larger proportion of the total demand
for both P and K, whereas the demand by fruit from the end of
shoot growth to fruit harvest made up nearly the entire demand
for new growth and for the whole tree. At fruit harvest, shoots
and leaves had more N, Ca, Mg, S, Zn, and Mn, whereas fruit
had more P, K, B, and Fe. It should be noted that B had the high-
est proportion (77.7%) partitioned to fruit among all nutrients
(Figure 4G) and was the only nutrient that had a much higher
concentration in fruit (fl owers) than in leaves at bloom (Figure
1G), which clearly indicates the importance of B to fruit growth
and development.
Although the Ca concentration in leaf samples taken in early
August was at the lower end of the optimal range, fruit had a
good Ca level with a Ca to Mg ratio at 16 in this study. However,
it should be pointed out that the net accumulation of Ca for the
whole tree from budbreak to fruit harvest obtained in this study
might be an underestimate of Ca requirements for apple cultivars
Table 4. Calculated requirement for each nutrient as a function of fruit
yield (bushels/acre) based on the nutrient requirement data
obtained in this study, assuming that the ratio between net
accumulation of each nutrient in the whole tree from budbreak
to fruit harvest and its amount in fruit remains constant across
the range of fruit yield.
Macronutrients (lbs/acre)
Fruit yield (b/a) N P K Ca Mg S
500 22.1 3.7 40.2 15.9 4.9 1.8 750 33.2 5.5 60.2 23.9 7.3 2.7 1000 44.3 7.4 80.3 31.8 9.8 3.6 1250 55.4 9.2 100.4 39.8 12.2 4.5 1500 66.4 11.1 120.5 47.7 14.7 5.4 1750 77.5 12.9 140.6 55.7 17.1 6.3
Micronutrients (grams/acre)
Fruit yield (b/a) B Zn Cu Mn Fe
500 47.5 30.9 23.6 93.7 75.4 750 71.2 46.4 35.4 140.6 113.1 1000 95.0 61.8 47.2 187.4 150.9 1250 118.7 77.3 59.0 234.3 188.6 1500 142.5 92.7 70.8 281.1 226.3 1750 166.2 108.2 82.5 328.0 264.0
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it uelp
10 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
that are more susceptible to Ca-defi ciency induced disorders rela-
tive to ‘Gala’.
Ca accumulation in ‘Gala’ fruit was found to continue through-
out its entire growth period from bloom to harvest, with 61.7%
of total accumulation occurring from the end of shoot growth to
harvest in this study (Figure 4D). Th is contrasts with some of the
earlier studies suggesting that Ca accumulation primarily takes
place in the fi rst few weeks after bloom (Faust, 1989; Wilkinson,
1968). Th e lack of continued increase in fruit Ca content previ-
ously observed in New York (Faust, 1989) may have been related
to drought conditions during the summer, as most orchards were
not irrigated then. Th e continued accumulation of Ca throughout
fruit growth observed in central Washington under irrigated con-
ditions (Rogers and Batjer, 1954) is also consistent with the idea
that soil moisture may play an important role in determining Ca
accumulation patterns in apple fruit. Wilkinson (1968) observed
that more Ca was accumulated during the cell expansion stage of
fruit development in wet years or under irrigation than in dry years
without irrigation. Th e fact that Ca accumulation occurs during the
entire fruit growth period suggests a wide window for enhancing
fruit Ca levels via irrigation and foliar applications of Ca.
ConclusionsNutrient requirements of ‘Gala’/M.26 trees from budbreak to fruit
harvest are estimated to be 49.3, 8.2, 89.4, 35.4, 10.9 and 4.0 lbs per
acre for N, P, K, Ca, Mg, and S, and 105.7, 68.8, 52.5, 208.6 and 167.9
grams per acre for B, Zn, Cu, Mn, and Fe at a density of 1129 trees/
acre to achieve high yield and good fruit size and quality. Shoots
and leaves and fruit have diff erential patterns of nutrient require-
ments: the high demand period for shoots and leaves is from bloom
to end of shoot growth whereas that for fruit is from the end of
shoot growth to fruit harvest. At harvest, fruit contains more P, K,
B, and Fe whereas shoots and leaves have more N, Ca, Mg, S, Zn,
and Mn. When developing fertilization programs in apple orchards,
soil nutrient availability and tree nutrient status must be taken into
consideration along with tree nutrient requirements.
AcknowledgmentsTh is work was primarily supported by a generous gift from Dr. Da-
vid Zimerman, Cornell Pomology Ph.D. 1954. Additional support
was provided by the New York Apple Research and Development
Program. Th e ‘Gala’ trees used in this study were generously do-
nated by Van Well Nursery in Wenatchee, WA. We thank Andrea
Mason, Louise Gray, Scott Henning, and Cornell Orchard crew for
technical assistance
ReferencesBould, C. 1966. Leaf analysis of deciduous fruits, p. 651-684. In:
N.F. Childers (ed.). Temperate to tropical fruit nutrition. Hort.
Publ., Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ.
Cheng, L. and R. Raba. 2009. Accumulation of macro- and
micronutrients and nitrogen demand-supply relationship of
‘Gala’/M.26 trees grown in sand culture. Journal of American
Society for Horticultural Science 134(1): 3-13.
Drahorad, W. 1999. Modern guidelines on fruit tree nutrition.
Compact Fruit Tree 32:66-72.
Faust, M. 1989. Physiology of temperate zone fruit trees. John Wiley
& Sons Inc., New York.
Haynes, R.J. and K.M. Goh. 1980. Distribution and budget of
nutrients in a commercial apple orchard. Plant and Soil
56:445-457.
Neilsen, G. H. and D. Neilsen. 2003. Nutritional requirements of
apple, p267-302. In: Ferree D. C. and I. J. Warrington (eds.).
Apples: Botany, Production and Uses. CABI Publishing,
Cambridge, MA, USA.
Palmer J.W. and G. Dryden. 2006. Fruit mineral removal rates from
New Zealand apple (Malus domestica) orchards in the Nelson
region. New Zealand Journal of Crop and Horticultural Science
34:27-32.
Rogers, B.L. and L.P. Batjer. 1954. Seasonal trends of six nutrient
elements in the fl esh of Winesap and Delicious apple fruits.
Proceedings of American Society for Horticultural Science
63:67-73.
Stiles W. C. and W. S. Reid 1991. Orchard nutrition management.
Cornell Cooperative Extension Bulletin 219.
Wilkinson, B.G. 1968. Mineral composition of apples IX. Uptake
of calcium by the fruit. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture 19:646-647.
Xia, G., L. Cheng, A. N. Lakso, and M. Goffi net. 2009. Eff ects of
nitrogen supply on source-sink balance and fruit size of ‘Gala’
apple trees. Journal of American Society for Horticultural
Science.
Lailiang Cheng is a research and extension professor of Horticulture at Cornell University’s Ithaca Campus. He leads Cornell’s research and extension program in mineral nutrition. Rich Raba is a research technician who works with Dr. Cheng.
YEARS
Since 1932
www.noursefarms.com 413.665.2658
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NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 11
“Fertigation has the advantage of
allowing fl exibility in the timing
of nutrient additions, and under
micro-irrigation, targeting the
nutrients into the tree root zone
with higher precision than possible
with sprinkler or rain fed watering.
It is particularly well suited to
high-density production systems.”
Fertigation for Apple Trees
in the Pacifi c NorthwestDenise Neilsen and Gerry Neilsen
Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada, Pacifi c Agri-Food Research Centre, Summerland, BC, Canada
Fertigation is the application of nutrients through irriga-
tion lines, during watering. In general, it is more read-
ily adapted for use in micro-irrigation systems such as
micro-sprinkler, micro-
jet and drip than to more
extensive systems such as
sprinkler or furrow. It has
the advantage of allowing
fl exibility in the timing of
nutrient additions, and
under micro-irrigation,
targeting the nutrients
into the tree root zone
with higher precision
than possible with high-
pressure irrigation or
rain-fed watering. It is particularly well suited to high-density
production systems. Injection of nutrients into the irrigation line
can be either passive (Venturi-type) or through pumps, which
can proportion the amount of nutrient added to the fl ow. Th is
paper will emphasize nutrient management with fertigation, not
the design of fertigation systems.
Nutrient uptake by trees is determined by the availability of
nutrients in the soil, interception of nutrients by the roots and by
tree demand. Nutrient availability in the soil is related to native soil
fertility. Soils with a coarse texture (sandy and gravelly) or with low
organic matter content tend to be less fertile than soils that are fi ne
textured (loamy, silty, clayey) or have high organic matter content.
Delivery of nutrients to the tree is aff ected by nutrient mobility.
Mobile nutrients such as nitrogen and boron are dissolved in soil
solution and move easily to roots. Less mobile nutrients such as
calcium, magnesium, sodium and potassium are somewhat soluble
but are also easily detached from soil particles. In some soils, potas-
sium also falls into the class of immobile nutrients, which includes,
phosphorus and zinc. Th e immobile nutrients are fi xed onto soil
particles, have low soil solution concentrations and tend to move
slowly to the root by diff usion. Apple trees also have sparse roots
and so cannot easily intercept immobile nutrients. A fi nal factor
is retention in the root zone. For mobile nutrients, movement of
nutrients out of the root zone with water prevents interception; for
immobile nutrients the issue is retaining the nutrient in solution
long enough for root interception and uptake to occur.
Mobile NutrientsNitrogen (N). Careful management of water and nitrogen is
important because fruit trees are very ineffi cient in their use of
nitrogen. A comparison of retention of applied nitrogen in the root
140 160 180 200 220 240
0
20
40
60
80
100
Day of the year
Nitra
te-N
(m
g.l-1
) Fertilizer broadcast
(A)
Day of the year
Nitra
te-N
(m
g.l-1
)
110 130 150 170 190 210 230 0
40
80
120
160
200 (N1
(N3
(B)
Figure 1. Soil solution nitrate-N concentration measured throughout
the growing season at 30cm depth in (A) plot receiving a single
application of broadcast N fertilizer and weekly high impact
sprinkler irrigation and (B) plot receiving daily N fertigation
and drip irrigation at diff erent times N1(triangle) and N3
(square).
zone is shown in Figure 1 and shows how fertigation might help
N fertilizer use effi ciency. Soil solution concentrations of nitrate
nitrogen quickly declined when the fertilizer was broadcast and
sprinkler irrigation was used (Figure 1a). In contrast, an almost
constant concentration in the root zone was maintained when
nitrogen was supplied daily through fertigation at diff erent times
(Figure 1b) allowing nitrogen supply to be managed with more
precision than when broadcast.
In irrigated production systems the supply of nitrogen and
water are closely linked. As nitrate is highly mobile, irrigation
This paper was presented at the 2009 Cornell In-depth Fruit School on Mineral Nutrition.
12 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
management is key to the retention of nitrate in the root zone
and hence to nitrate availability to the tree. Several strategies can
be employed to reduce the over application of water which leads
to losses of both water and nitrogen beneath the tree root zone.
Th ese include the use of conservative micro-irrigation systems
to reduce total water inputs (Figure 1), the use of irrigation
scheduling techniques to match water supply to demand and
mulching to reduce water losses from the soil surface through
evaporation. Th e eff ect of scheduling irrigation to meet crop
water demand and thereby reducing nitrate losses beneath the
root zone illustrates the relationship between water and nitrogen
management (Figure 2). In this example an automated system,
which is based on estimates of evaporative demand using a
commercially available electronic atmometer (Etgage Co.,
Loveland Colorado) was used to control irrigation. Water (Figure
2a) and nitrate-nitrogen (Figure 2b) losses were greater beneath
the root zone of trees receiving a fi xed irrigation rate than for
those receiving irrigation scheduled to meet evaporative demand
as described above. Th ere were no diff erences in tree growth
between the sets of trees receiving the two types of irrigation.
Effi cient use of nitrogen requires an estimate of the size and
timing of tree N demand. We have used a variety of measurements
to determine the nitrogen demand of dwarf apple tree including
total tree excavation and partitioning, the use of labeled nitrogen
fertilizer and assessment of annual removal in leaves and fruit.
During the fi rst few years after planting, these values ranged
from 8 lb/acre to 38 lb/acre of nitrogen for trees grown on M.9
rootstock that were newly planted to six year-olds respectively.
Recommended rates of fertilizer are often higher ranging from
40 to 100 lb N/acre.
It has been well documented for apple and other fruit trees
that N is withdrawn from foliage prior to leaf fall, stored in woody
tissues and roots and that in spring N is remobilised from stor-
age to support new growth. For apple trees, development of the
spur leaf canopy is largely dependent on remobilised N. Both
remobilisation and current season uptake supply N for shoot leaf
canopy growth and high root uptake commences around bloom.
Fruit N requirements are met mainly by remobilisation during
cell division, but mainly by root uptake during cell expansion.
Th us application of fertilizer N can be timed to match maximum
demand for shoot leaf canopy development, that is, during the six
weeks after bloom, without necessarily having a potential negative
impact on fruit quality by elevating fruit N concentration.
Less Mobile NutrientsPotassium (K). Th e mobility of K in soil is generally reduced
compared to N but greater than P. Th e mobility of surface-
applied K is highest in sandy soils, reduced for soils with high
exchange capacity (higher clay and organic matter content) and
very limited for soils known to fi x K. Potassium defi ciency can
be increased in drip-irrigated orchards on sandy soils where root
distribution can be restricted by poor lateral spread of applied
water. Defi ciency symptoms appear fi rst in spur leaves adjacent
to fruit. Th ese leaves develop an irregular chlorotic leaf surface
during midsummer which progresses into interveinal browning
and marginal leaf scorch by fruit harvest.
However, soil K status at the main rooting depth can be eas-
ily altered. Daily fertigation of K from mid-June to mid-August
at a rate of 15 g (0.83 oz) /tree/year increased the concentration
of K in the soil solution (Figure 3). Th ese application rates were
loss (
L/t
ree
)
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
*
*
**
00
100100
200200
(A)
loss (
L/t
ree
)
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
*
*
**
00
100100
200200
Wa
ter
loss (
L/t
ree
)
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
*
*
**
00
100100
200200
00
100100
200200
(A)
0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
*
fertigationfertigation periodperiod
1.0
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
6.0
(B)
0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
*
fertigationfertigation periodperiod
1.0
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
N lo
ss (
g/t
ree
)
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
*
fertigationfertigation periodperiod
1.0
Scheduled to meet evaporative demand
Unscheduled (fixed rate)
6.0
(B)
Figure 2. Water drainage (A) and N fl ux (B) beneath the root zone in
response to drip irrigation applied at either maximum rate or
scheduled to meet evaporative demand using an atmometer
either maximum rate or scheduled to meet evaporative demand
using an atmometer.
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
Soil
solu
tion K
(m
g.l-1
)
0 K
15g K
Year 3Year 2 Year 4Year 1
Figure 3. Soil solution K concentration at 30cm beneath drip emitters in
response to K applications of 0 and 15 g.year-1 per tree.
Figure 4. Fertilizer phosphorus mobility in the soil in response to irrigation.
Amount of water required to move the same amount of fertilizer
6 inches into the root zone.
1.3
30
72.5
3635
0
20
40
60
80
100Fertigated
(17.5g P/tree
~58kg/ha)
Broadcast
(60 kg/ha)
Irri
gati
on
ap
plied
(cm
)
Single
dose
Daily
dose
Skaha loamy sand
Skaha loamy sand
Quincy sand
Wardensilt loamWardensilt loam
Non-calc.
Calc.
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 13
suffi cient to prevent the development of defi cient leaf K con-
centrations during the fi rst fi ve years for four apple cultivars on
M.9 rootstock.
Th ere appears to be little eff ect of the form of K fertilizer on
tree response as demonstrated in a three year experiment with
‘Jonagold’ on M.9 rootstock in which K in diff erent forms was fer-
tigated daily over a six week period from late June to mid-August
(Table 1). Th ere were no major diff erences in leaf K concentration
among K forms which was generally above leaf defi ciency levels
(1.3%) regardless of treatment.
Immobile NutrientsPhosphorus (P). Poor downward movement of surface applied
P-fertilizer into the root zone of many orchard soils has long
been recognized. Th e mobility of P through soil can be further
reduced in fi ner-textured and other soils with a high P-sorption
capacity.
Th is is illustrated from fi eld studies in Washington State
and British Columbia which measured changes in soil P values
with depth after surface fertilizer application (Figure 4). To move
P-fertilizers distances as short as six inches requires the applica-
tion of large quantities of water, particularly for calcareous fi ne
textured soils such as the Warden silt loam (Figure 4). Around
30 times the amount of water was required to move P using daily
fertigation or a broadcast application compared with a single
fertigated dose. Th e single fertigated application temporarily
saturates the P fi xing sites in the soil allowing more downward
movement of P. Similar responses occur with high rates of mono-
ammonium phosphate-fertilizer mixed in the planting hole,
especially on fumigated, replanted orchard sites or in orchards
with low available P.
Few responses to broadcast fertilizer P have been reported.
However, fertigation of P in fi rst year results in the same benefi -
cial eff ects associated with planting hole P applications, namely
increased leaf P concentration and improved tree establishment
and initial fruiting. A single annual pulse application of fertilizer
P to fi ve diff erent apple cultivars (Gala, Fuji, Cameo, Ambrosia,
Silken) planted on M.9 rootstock at high densities (3 foot by 10
foot spacing) improved cumulative yield performance of these
cultivars during the fi rst fi ve growing seasons. Th e experiment
tested a range of fertigation treatments including low (28 ppm
N in irrigation water) and high (168 ppm) nitrogen applications,
each applied for four weeks at three diff erent times after bloom
including early (fi rst 4 weeks postbloom), mid season (four-eight
weeks postbloom) and late applications (8-12 weeks postbloom).
Th e treatment involving high early N plus a pulse of P (4.6 oz/
tree of ammonium polyphosphate (10-34-0)) in the week im-
mediately following bloom has produced the most fruit over all
cultivars (Table 2).
Zinc (Zn). Zinc defi ciency is a common problem in apple.
Symptoms of Zn defi ciency are most usually observed in the
spring and include chorosis (yellowing) of the youngest shoot
leaves that are often somewhat undersized and narrower than
normal (referred to as little leaf). Th e defi ciency may also result in
blind bud and rosetting (small basal leaves which form on short-
ened terminals and lateral shoots of current year’s growth).
Zinc occurs in the soil in relatively insoluble forms and is
easily precipitated on solid surfaces of carbonates and iron and
manganese oxides. As a result, it is considered relatively im-
mobile in the soil and a large fraction of Zn applied to the soil
Table 1. Eff ect of K-fertilizer form on K-nutrition of >Jonagold= on M.9
rootstock grown on sandy loam soil, 2000-2002.
Fertigation treatment (Kg/tree) y Mid-July leaf K concentration (% DW)
2000 2001 2002
Control (0g) 1.38c 1.58c 1.46c KCI (15 g ) 1.60b 1.81b 1.73b KCI (30 g ) 1.67ab 1.96b 1.83ab KMag (15 g) 1.66ab 1.89ab 1.74b KMag (30 g) 1.72a 1.98a 1.85ab K2SO4 (30 g) 1.66ab 2.00a 1.91a K thiosulfate (30 g ) 1.76a 2.01a 1.94a Signifi cance **** **** ****
y 15g = 0.83 oz; 30g = 1.66 oz
*,**,***,**** signifi cantly diff erent at p<0.05, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001Within columns diff erent values followed by diff erent letters are signifi cantly diff erent
Table 2. Cumulative yield per tree of apples from 2nd - 5th leaf for selected
treatments averaged over all cultivars (Silken, Cameo, Fuji, Gala
and Ambrosia).
Fertigation Treatment Cultivar Cumulative yield (pounds/tree)
High early N + P pulse All 86.5a High N (all times) All 73.5b
Within columns diff erent values followed by diff erent letters are signifi cantly diff erent
Table 3. Soil chemical changes at 30 cm depth directly beneath the
emitter, in 20 orchards (3-5 years old) receiving drip irrigation
and fertigation with NH4–based fertilizers
pHz Ca (ppm) Mg (ppm) K (ppm) B (ppm)
Between rows 7.0 1235 144 211 0.97 Beneath emitter 6.2 911 114 88 0.19 Signifi cance *** ** ** ** ****
z pH (1:2 soil:water); Ca, Mg, K extracted in 0.25M acetic acid + 0.015M NH4F; B (hot water extractable).*,**,***,**** signifi cantly diff erent at p<0.05, 0.01, 0.001, 0.0001
is absorbed by soil particles unless extremely high application
rates are made. Th ere are some diff erences among soils with less
adsorption on noncalcareous sandy soils, which have reduced
capacity to fi x Zn.
Th ere have been limited studies investigating fertigation of
Zn. Zn fertigation research has been undertaken in an experimen-
tal block of four diff erent apple cultivars on M.9 rootstock at the
Pacifi c Agri-Food Research Centre at Summerland, BC (Figure
5). If no Zn was applied (1992 and 1993) all trees, regardless of
cultivar, had leaf Zn concentrations below the 14 ppm defi ciency
threshold. In 1994, application of dormant zinc sulphate and
foliar Zn chelates, postbloom in early summer, resulted in very
high leaf Zn concentrations across cultivars, probably through
contamination from surface residues from the foliar Zn sprays.
Commencing in 1995, eff orts were made to fertigate Zn as zinc
sulphate (36% Zn) dissolved in the irrigation water and applied
for four weeks during the growing season. Th e application rate
ranged from 0.34 oz liquid zinc sulphate (36% Zn) per tree (3.5 g
Zn per tree) in 1995 and 1996 to double these rates in 1997 and
to 1.7 oz liquid zinc sulphate per tree (17.5 g Zn per tree) in 1998.
Regardless of the fertigated Zn application rate, leaf Zn concentra-
tion did not generally increase above defi ciency thresholds for any
14 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
cultivar. Since the site was a sandy soil, these results imply
that correction of inadequate Zn nutrition via fertigation
of mineral zinc sulphate will be diffi cult. Fertigation of
more expensive chelated Zn forms may be more eff ective
but have not undergone extensive testing.
Effects Of Fertigation On Soil PropertiesFertigating ammoniacal forms of N and P can aff ect the
base status of soils as transformation of ammonium to
nitrate is an acidifying process, which may also acceler-
ate leaching. Th e widespread nature of this problem was
indicated in a survey of 20 commercial orchards on coarse-
textured soils which had undergone three to fi ve yrs. of
NP-fertigation in British Columbia. Soil pH, extractable
soil bases and soil B measured at 0 to 15 cm depth directly
beneath the drip emitter, were all reduced (Table 3). In re-
sponse to this survey, a soil test was designed to determine
the susceptibility of soils to acidifi cation An acidifi cation
resistance index (ARI) was developed from analysis of
buff er curves for 50 soils of diff ering composition and was
defi ned as the amount of acid required to reduce soil pH
from initial status to pH 5.0. Th ese values were then com-
pared to common soil test analysis data and a relationship
defi ned between the acidifi cation resistance index, soil pH
and soil extractable bases. It was recommended that soils
with a low acidifi cation resistance index be fertigated with
NO3 –based rather than NH4 –based fertilizers.
Denise Neilsen is a research scientist at the Pacifi c Agri-Food Research Centre of Ag Canada in Summerland British Columbia who specializes in orchard nutrient management.
Sodus, NY Florida, NY
(315) 483-9146 (845) 651-5303
Fancher, NY Addison, VT
(585) 589-6330 (802) 759-2022
Milton, NY Cohocton, NY
(845) 795-2177 (585) 384-5221
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 15
Antioxidant contents and activity in
SmartFresh-treated ‘Empire’ apples
during air and controlled atmosphere storageFanjaniaina Fawbush, Jackie Nock and Chris Watkins
Department of Horticulture, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY
“Our results show that 1-MCP has little
eff ect on the concentrations of ascorbic
acid, total phenolics, fl avonoids and
anthocyanins of Empire apples in either
air or CA storage. Total antioxidant
activity in peel tissues of fruit stored in
air was sometimes higher in Smartfresh-
treated fruit than untreated fruit.
However, the health benefi ts of apples
are realized primarily through phenolic
concentrations and these compounds
are stable after harvest. The bottom line
is that ‘an apple a day keeps the doctor
away,’ regardless of storage technology.”
Many consumers think that vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is
the major antioxidant in fruits and vegetables, but in
fact it is increasingly recognized that phenolic com-
pounds often rep-
resent the majority
of health-related
antioxidant activ-
ity in plant prod-
ucts. Th e phenolic
compounds also
contribute to ap-
pearance, as well
as taste and fl avor.
Apples are one of
the best sources
of antioxidant and
p h e n o l i c co m -
pounds of all fruit,
and are especially
beneficial to our
diet because they
are available year-
round. Research
from the Cornell laboratories of Drs. Cy Lee and Rui Hai Liu,
as well as elsewhere, has shown that apples provide protection
against cardiovascular disease and various cancers. Of the top 25
fruits consumed in the United States, apples are the number one
source of phenolics in the American diet and provide Americans
with 33% of the phenolics they consume (Boyer and Liu, 2004).
For apples, the major focus on health-related properties
has been on phenolic compounds, including fl avonoids such as
the anthocyanins that are responsible for red color of the fruit.
Apple varieties vary greatly in antioxidant components and indi-
vidual phenolic compounds have diff erent antioxidant potential.
Interestingly, reactions among individual compounds may be
synergistic, and therefore, total antioxidant activities potentially
provide a better estimate of the overall contributions of antioxi-
dant components than individual components alone. Phenolic
and fl avonoid contents are consistently higher in the skin than
in the fl esh, and peel tissues have the highest antioxidant activity
and anti-proliferation activity.
In general, the total phenolic concentrations in both peel
and fl esh tissues of apples remain relatively stable during stor-
age, although individual components may vary. Th e advent of
SmartFresh storage technology based on 1-methylcyclopropene
(1-MCP), an inhibitor of ethylene perception, has raised the
question about its eff ects on the nutritional quality of apple fruit.
Knowledge about responses of fruit in both air and controlled
atmosphere (CA) storage is important. CA can prolong the im-
pact of 1-MCP on both physical and sensory responses of apple
and the two technologies generally are most eff ective when used
in combination.
To date, studies on the eff ects of 1-MCP on antioxidant
components are limited. MacLean et al. (2006) found that 1-MCP
treatment inhibited an increase in chlorogenic acid in peel tissues
of Red Delicious apples during storage, and resulted in higher
fl avonoid concentrations. MacLean et al. (2003) also found that
total antioxidant activity was higher in peels of 1-MCP-treated
than untreated Empire and Red Delicious apples during storage.
Th e total antioxidant activity (DPPH) of Golden Smoothee fl esh
was unaff ected by 1-MCP treatment, but total ascorbic acid con-
centrations were slightly lower after 30 and 90 days of air storage
(Vilaplana et al., 2006).
Th e objective of the current study was to investigate the
eff ects of 1-MCP treatment during air and CA storage on anti-
oxidant components and antioxidant activity of peel and fl esh
tissues of the Empire apple. Th is research was carried out as part
of a PhD program and has been published in full (Fawbush et al.,
2009). Here, we highlight the main fi ndings of importance to the
New York apple industry.
Materials and MethodsTh e Empire apple fruit used in these experiments were all har-
vested on the same day from mature trees growing at the Cornell
University orchards at Lansing. Th e IEC, fl esh fi rmness, SSC and
starch index of the fruit at harvest were 2.7 ppm, 16.6 lb-f, 12.5%
and 5.7 units, respectively. Fruit were randomly sorted into ex-
perimental units for either air or CA storage experiments.
For air storage, four replicates of 100 fruit were pre-cooled
overnight at 33oF and then they were either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP (SmartFresh powder) for 24 hours. Fruit
were stored for up to fi ve months. For CA storage, replicates of
55-60 fruits were cooled overnight at 36oF, and either untreated
or treated with 1ppm 1-MCP. Four replicates of fruit for each
treatment and temperature were stored in steel chambers, with
2 or 3% O2 (with 2% CO2). Final atmosphere regimes were estab-
lished within 48 hours and were maintained within 0.2% of target
atmospheres. CA storage was carried out for 9 months.
This work was supported in part by the New York Apple Research and Development Program.
16 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
Ten fruit per treatment replicates were taken at harvest
for assessment of internal ethylene concentration (IEC), fl esh
fi rmness, soluble solids concentration (SSC) and starch pattern
indices. IEC and fi rmness were measured on 10 fruit replicates
after 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5 months for the air-stored fruit, and after 4.5
and 9 months for the CA stored fruit, plus 1 day at 68oF. At the
last removal from storage, all remaining fruit were kept at 68oF
for 7 days and then assessed for disorders.
For extraction of phenolic and other compounds, 10 fruit per
treatment replicate were taken on the day of removal of fruit from
air and CA storage. Total phenolics, fl avonoids, anthocyanins,
total antioxidant activity and total ascorbic acid were measured
on apple peel and fl esh using standard procedures as described
by Fawbush et al. (2009).
ResultsAir storage. 1-MCP prevented any increase in the internal
ethylene concentrations (IEC) during storage, while the IEC
in untreated fruit reached 43.9 ppm after 5 months of storage
(Figure 1). Untreated fruit softened during this time to 11.4 lb-f,
compared with 14.0 lb-f in 1-MCP treated fruit (Figure 1). No
storage disorders were observed in air stored fruit.
At harvest, the phenolic concentrations in peel and fl esh tis-
sues were 2.82 and 1.24 g kg-1, respectively (Figure. 2). Overall,
the phenolic concentration was signifi cantly higher (2.56 g kg-1)
in peel tissues of 1-MCP treated fruit than in those of untreated
fruit (2.16 g kg-1). In the fl esh, total phenolic concentrations of
untreated fruit were signifi cantly higher at 0.90 g kg-1 than the
0.84 g kg-1 of 1-MCP treated fruit. No eff ect of storage time was
detected for either tissue type.
Total fl avonoid and anthocyanin concentrations in the peel
were aff ected only by storage time, but the patterns of change were
inconsistent (results not shown). In fl esh tissues, total fl avonoids
were not aff ected by either 1-MCP treatment or storage time.
At harvest, the total ascorbic acid concentrations in the
peel and fl esh were 0.55 and 0.11 g kg-1, respectively, and these
concentrations declined in both untreated and 1-MCP-treated
fruit during storage (Figure 3). Th ere was no signifi cant eff ect of
1-MCP treatment on peel concentrations, although in the fl esh
tissues, the total ascorbic acid concentrations were slightly lower
in 1-MCP-treated tissues than untreated tissues, averaging 0.07
and 0.06 g kg-1, respectively. However, eff ects were evident at
only some time points.
Th e total antioxidant activity in the peel was 2.82 mmol kg-1
at harvest, and overall, the activity in peel tissue from 1-MCP
treated fruit was 2.64 mmol kg-1, compared with 2.12 mmol
kg-1 in untreated fruit. However, diff erences between treatments
were evident only at months 1 to 3 (Figure 3). Total antioxidant
activity in fl esh tissues was also signifi cantly higher in 1-MCP
treated fruit than untreated fruit, averaging 1.14 and 0.95 mmol
kg-1, respectively. Total antioxidant activity was not aff ected by
storage time.
CA storage. Th e IEC was much lower, and fi rmness higher,
in 1-MCP treated fruit than in untreated fruit (Table 1). No ex-
ternal or internal disorders were detected after 4.5 months of CA
storage, but a high incidence of fl esh browning was observed in
fruit after 9 months of storage.
Th e total phenolics, total fl avonoid and ascorbic acid con-
centrations in peel and fl esh tissues were not consistently aff ected
by 1-MCP treatment (Tables 2, 3 and 4). Total anthocyanin
Figure 1. Internal ethylene concentrations (A) and fl esh fi rmness (B) of
Empire apples either untreated or treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP and
stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.
Figure 2. Total phenolic concentrations (gallic acid equivalents, mg kg−1) in
peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.
concentrations in peel tissues were also unaff ected by 1-MCP
treatment (data not shown).
Th e total antioxidant activity in peel tissues was not aff ected
by 1-MCP (Table 5), but the total antioxidant activity was higher in
fl esh tissues of 1-MCP treated than untreated fruit, being 1.40 and
1.25 mmol kg-1, respectively. Interactions among all storage factors
were detected, however, and overall trends were inconsistent.
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 17
Table 5. Total antioxidant activity (vitamin C equivalents, mmol kg-1) in
peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or
3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months.
Diff erent letters associated with means indicate that there are
diff erences between treatments for a tissue type.
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP Peel Flesh
2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 3.04a 2.66abc 1.32bc 1.52b
+ 2.55abcd 2.72abc 1.86a 1.03d
9 - 2.07cd 2.84ab 1.28bcd 1.32bc+ 1.91d 2.37bcd 1.19cd 1.16cd
Table 1. Internal ethylene concentrations (IEC), fl esh fi rmness and fl esh
browning of Empire apples, either untreated or treated with 1
ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or 3%
oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 a nd 9 months.
Diff erent letters associated with means indicate that there are
diff erences between treatments.
Storage
time
(months)
1-MCP IEC (ppm) Firmness (lb-f) Flesh
browning (%)
2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 167a 216a 13.0c 11.7d 0 0
+ 2.3c 1.5c 15.3a 15.4a 0 0
9 - 234a 170a 11.9d 9.0e 84a 60b+ 32b 56b 14.3b 14.4b 84a 87a
Table 2. Total phenolic concentrations (gallic acid equivalents, g kg-1)
in peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or
treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres
of 2% or 3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and
9 months. Diff erent letters associated with means indicate that
there are diff erences between treatments for a tissue type.
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP Peel Flesh
2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 2.56a 1.81g 0.96bc 1.01abc
+ 2.47b 2.27d 0.90c 1.12a
9 - 2.37c 2.12e 1.08ab 0.66d+ 1.90f 2.15e 0.98bc 1.01abc
Table 3. Total fl avonoid concentrations (catechin equivalents, g kg-1) in
peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples, either untreated or treated
with 1 ppm 1-MCP, and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or
3% oxygen with 2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months.
Diff erent letters associated with means indicate that there are
diff erences between treatments for a tissue type.
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP Peel Flesh
2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 0.91a 0.88a 0.39b 0.49ab
+ 1.01a 1.14a 0.56a 0.42b
9 - 1.12a 1.17a 0.49ab 0.44b+ 0.92a 1.19a 0.54a 0.49ab
Table 4. Total ascorbic acid concentrations (g kg-1) in peel and fl esh tissues
of Empire apples, either untreated or treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP,
and stored in controlled atmospheres of 2% or 3% oxygen with
2% carbon dioxide at 36oF for 4.5 and 9 months. Diff erent letters
associated with means indicate that there are diff erences between
treatments for a tissue type.
Storage time
(months)
1-MCP Peel Flesh
2% O2 3% O2 2% O2 3% O24.5 - 0.37a 0.35a 0.11a 0.09bc
+ 0.35a 0.31a 0.10ab 0.09bc
9 - 0.38a 0.33a 0.10ab 0.09bc+ 0.36a 0.33a 0.09bc 0.08c
DiscussionTh e eff ects of storage conditions on antioxidants in the absence
of 1-MCP treatment have been well studied, and in general,
total phenolics, total antioxidant activity and radical scavenging
capacity are stable or increase during storage. Th e results of our
study also largely indicate that concentrations of total pheno-
lics, fl avonoids, anthocyanins and total antioxidant activity are
Figure 4. Total antioxidant activity (vitamin C equivalents, mmol kg−1)
in peel and fl esh tissues of Empire apples either untreated or
treated with 1 ppm 1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5
months.
Figure. 3. Total ascorbic acid concentrations (mg kg−1) in peel and fl esh
tissues of Empire apples either untreated or treated with 1 ppm
1-MCP and stored at 33°F in air for up to 5 months.
18 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
relatively stable during air and CA storage. However, the eff ects
of 1-MCP on individual phytochemical groups were variable.
In air-stored fruit, total phenolic concentrations were higher in
peel tissues, but lower in fl esh tissues, of 1-MCP treated fruit
compared with untreated fruit. No eff ects of 1-MCP were found
for total fl avonoid or anthocyanin concentrations, except that
fl avonoid concentrations were higher in 1-MCP treated fruit
than untreated fruit during CA storage.
Total antioxidant activity, assayed using a recently developed
method (Adom and Liu, 2005), was higher in both peel and fl esh
tissues of 1-MCP-treated fruit compared with untreated fruit,
although higher only in fl esh tissues of CA-stored fruit. Higher
total antioxidant activity in 1-MCP treated peel tissues of air-
stored Empire and Delicious apples was also found by MacLean
et al. (2003). Th e reasons for higher antioxidant activity in air-
stored 1-MCP-treated fruit are uncertain. Both total phenolic
concentrations and total antioxidant activity were higher in peel
tissues, and these two factors have been strongly correlated with
each other in other studies.
Ascorbic acid concentrations declined in both peel and fl esh
tissues during air storage, while in CA storage, patterns of change
over time were inconsistent, depending on the O2 concentration.
Surprisingly little information is available concerning changes in
ascorbic acid concentrations in apple fruits during storage, espe-
cially in CA, and even less is known about the eff ects of 1-MCP.
Th e signifi cance of decreased ascorbic acid concentrations during
storage with and without 1-MCP-treated fruit in this study and
others is uncertain. Although ascorbic acid is generally considered
to be important in nutrition, it represents a minor component of
the total antioxidant activity of apples. Ascorbic acid, however,
is a critical component of antioxidative processes in plant cells,
interacting enzymatically and non-enzymatically with damaging
oxygen radical and reactive oxygen species.
Conclusion1-MCP delays fruit ripening of Empire apples, but the eff ects
of treatment on phytochemical groups are relatively small. Th e
results show that eating apples, regardless of storage technology,
is the right thing to do to keep the doctor away!
AcknowledgmentsTh is research was supported by the New York Apple Research
and Development Program, AgroFresh, Inc., and the Cornell
University Agricultural Experiment Station, federal formula
funds, Project NE-1018, received from the Cooperative State
Research, Education and Extension Service, U.S. Department of
Agriculture. We thank Dr. Adom and Dr. Liu for advice on the
total antioxidant assay.
ReferencesAdom, K.K., Liu, R.H., 2005. Rapid peroxyl radical scavenging
capacity (PSC) assay for assessing both hydrophilic and lipo-
philic antioxidants. J. Agric. Food Chem. 53, 6572-6580.
Boyer, J., Liu, R., 2004. Apple phytochemicals and their health
benefi ts. Nutr. J. 3, 5.
Fawbush, F., Nock J.F., Watkins, C.B., 2009. Antioxidant contents
and activity of 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP)-treated
‘Empire’ apples in air and controlled atmosphere storage.
Postharvest Biol. Technol. 52, 30-37.
MacLean, D.D., Murr, D.P., DeEll, J.R., 2003. A modifi ed total
oxyradical scavenging capacity assay for antioxidants in plant
tissues. Postharvest Biol. Technol. 29, 183-194.
MacLean, D.D., Murr, D.P., DeEll, J.R., Horvath, C.R., 2006.
Postharvest variation in apple (Malus domestica Borkh.)
fl avonoids following harvest, storage, and 1-MCP treatment.
J. Agric. Food Chem. 54, 870-878.
Fanjaniaina Fawbush was a graduate student working with Chris Watkins. Jackie Nock is a research support specialist who works with Chris Watkins. Chris Watkins is a research and extension professor in the Department of Horticulture at Cornell’s Ithaca Campus who leads Cornell’s program in postharvest biology of fruit crops.
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Well-managed blueberry plantings can remain
productive for 25 years or more. Canker and dieback
diseases rob plants of fruiting wood and reduce
planting longevity.
Th e t w o m o s t
common canker
diseases identifi ed
b y J . C a r r o l l
i n s p e c i m e n s
submitted to the
plant pathology
diagnostic lab in
the 1980’s were
Phomopsis canker
and Fusicoccum
(Godronia) canker,
prompting her to
undertake a survey
for these diseases.
While cultural practices to manage these two canker diseases are
similar, intensive management to bring the cankers under control
in severely aff ected plantings may need to rely on pathogen-
specifi c fungicide programs over a two to three year period, rather
than a one-size-fi ts-all approach.
Infection by canker fungi causes leaves to turn reddish-
brown, wilt and remain attached to shoots. Typically, symptoms
fi rst occur when fruit is present and temperatures are warm.
Cankers are often found near the base of the aff ected canes, but
can occur higher in the canopy on branches. When pruning
out aff ected canes, look for tan, pink, or brown discoloration in
the wood in cross-section. Fungal spores, produced on infected
wood, spread the diseases within and among the plants so it is
very important to rid the planting of this inoculum.
Fusicoccum spore release occurs during rain events essen-
tially all season long, from bud break to leaf drop, with peak spore
production and release during bloom (Caruso & Ramsdell 1995).
Phomopsis spore release occurs during rain events from blossom
bud swell (pink bud) through late August. As little as 0.15 inch of
rain can trigger spore release. Infections occur within 48 hours
in the presence of free water, warm temperatures (50F-80F), and
susceptible tissues.
Fusicoccum cankers on one-to-two-yr-old canes typically
develop from infections that occurred the previous year, while
those from Phomopsis canker can develop in the same year of
infection. Wounds are not required for infection by Fusicoccum.
Although this is also true for Phomopsis, mechanically wounded
or freeze-damaged stems are more prone to Phomopsis infec-
tion.
Phomopsis cankers are brownish with a lighter brown cen-
ter, while Fusicoccum cankers are redder and may have a target
pattern of alternating bands of light and dark reddish-brown. As
infected stems age, Phomopsis cankers turn gray and the canes
become fl attened because the infected side of the stem fails to
put down new wood.
Management relies principally on proper site selection and
maintaining vigorous plants: proper soil pH, plant nutrition, ir-
rigation, avoiding frost pockets and winter injury. IPM principals
of sanitation and canopy management are paramount. Prune out
diseased and dead canes. Remove prunings from the planting and
destroy them by chopping or burning. Be mindful of restrictions
against burning, but do not neglect the importance of removing
prunings from the planting. Manage the planting to allow for
rapid drying of the plant canopy after rain: manage weeds, prune
out old canes, orient rows with prevailing winds, and select sites
with good air drainage.
Survey MethodsExtension educators in each of the growing regions assisted with
the surveys and received reports on the results found. Th eir co-
operation is gratefully acknowledged; they included:
• Deborah Breth, Cornell Cooperative Extension Lake Ontario
Fruit Program
• Cathy Heidenreich, Department of Horticulture, Cornell
University
• Kevin Iungerman, Cornell Cooperative Extension North-
eastern New York Fruit Program
• Laura McDermott, Department of Horticulture, Cornell
University
• Steven McKay, Cornell Cooperative Extension Hudson Valley
Fruit Program
• Molly Shaw, Southern Tier Ag Team, Tioga County Cornell
Cooperative Extension
During June and July, 33 farms were visited, seven in 2007
(Tioga, Orleans, and Niagara counties) (Carroll 2007b), 12 in 2008
(Essex, Washington, Saratoga, Albany, Columbia, and Dutchess
counties), and 14 in 2009 (Oswego, Onondaga, and Yates coun-
Figure 1. Highbush blueberry plant with high incidence
of Phomopsis canker.
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 19
Results of a New York Blueberry
SurveyJuliet E. Carroll1,2, Marc Fuchs2 and Kerik Cox2
1 New York State IPM Program2 Dept. of Plant Pathology and Plant Microbe-BiologyNew York State Ag. Exp. Station, Cornell UniversityGeneva, NY
“Our blueberry survey found that
Phomopsis canker was most frequent
in NY. Tobacco ringspot viruses were
associated with serious decline of
blueberry in NY. Our results have
prompted us to consider research on
fungicide treatments for Phomopsis
canker and to undertake a survey for viral
diseases in blueberry.”
ties). Plantings were traversed randomly, unless specifi c areas
were identifi ed by the grower as having problems, and plants
examined.
Suspicious canes were removed and brought back to the
laboratory for analysis. Subsamples of the canes and branches
were incubated in a moist chamber to encourage sporulation
of fungi which were identifi ed microscopically. Identity of fungi
was based on characteristic size, shape and color of the fungal
fruiting bodies and spores (stroma, pycnidia, acervuli, conidio-
phores, cirrhi, and conidia) (Caruso & Ramsdell 1995, Farr et al.
1989). Samples with suspected virus infection were tested with
virus-specifi c antisera and via indicator plants.
ResultsTh e farms surveyed ranged in size from under one to over 20
acres, with plantings from one to over 25 yrs old. One farm had
long-established plantings still producing well that were pushing
100 years old. Th e majority of the plantings had irrigation. Th ose
with good weed management used sawdust or wood chip mulch
within the plant row. Plantings with vigorous, high-yielding plants
were pruned primarily to remove old canes, allowing canes to
achieve their natural height of fi ve to eight ft (Pritts & Hancock
1992), had drip irrigation, were mulched, and had excellent weed
control.
Phomopsis was the most prevalent canker disease in the
New York blueberry plantings surveyed, especially in Eastern NY
where Fusicoccum was not found. By contrast, in Western NY
farms Fusicoccum canker was more frequently found (Table 1).
Phomopsis canker was associated with the most severely aff ected
plantings with 10-50% infected plants. Typically, incidence of
cankers within a planting was low, ranging from 2-5% infected
plants. When canker incidence was ~10% infected plants, grow-
ers became concerned. Most often only one infected cane was
found per plant, and therefore, the disease would go unnoticed.
But, when incidence in the planting exceeded 10%, several canes
per plant were infected (Figure 1). Severe Phomopsis canker
incidence approaching 50% infected plants was found in three
plantings in NY. On four of the 33 farms surveyed, no canker
diseases were found.
Canker incidence varied among cultivars. It is known
that certain cultivars are very susceptible to Phomopsis canker
(Weymouth, Earliblue, and Berkeley) and to Fusicoccum canker
(Jersey, Earliblue, and Bluecrop) (Pritts et al. 2009). While only
some growers had good records of which cultivars were found
in their plantings, this information can be fundamental to IPM
and to advancing blueberry production in NY.
Botryosphaeria stem blight (Figure 2) was tentatively identi-
fi ed from four farms in NY (Table 1). Th is disease on blueberry
had not been previously described from NY. Th is fungus has a
broad host range, attacking deciduous trees and shrubs includ-
ing maple, birch, sumac, elm, viburnum, apple, buckthorn, etc.)
Management practices for this disease would be similar to those
for the other canker diseases. Twig blights were found associ-
ated with infection by Colletotrichum spp. and Botrytis cinerea,
anthracnose ripe rot and Botrytis blight, respectively, were also
found. A Pestalotia-like fungus was found on a small number
of samples collected in 2007 and 2008 and may be the same as
one reported from blueberry plantings in Chile Pestalotiopsis
clavispora (Espinoza et al 2008).
Mummy berry primary infections can also cause small
Figure 2. Microscopic view of squashed fruiting body and spores of asexual
state of Botryosphaeria dothidea (400X magnifi cation).
Figure 3. Cross-section of mummy-berry-infected immature blueberry
fruit.
20 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
Table 1. Prevalence of canker and dieback diseases found in 33 blueberry
farms surveyed during the summers of 2007, 2008, and 2009.
Canker / Dieback W NY
Farms
E NY
Farms
C NY
Farms
Total of
Disease
Phomopsis a 3 12 8 23Fusicoccum b 5 0 4 9Anthracnose c 2 0 3 5
Botryosphaeria d 1 3 0 4
Botrytis e 0 2 1 3Number of Farms 7 12 14
a Phomopsis canker, Phomopsis vaccinii Shear.b Fusicoccum canker or Godronia canker, anamorph (conidial stage) Fusicoccum putrefaciens Shear and teleomorph (ascospore stage) Godronia cassandrae Peck. Ascospore infections are relatively unimportant in the disease cycle.c Twig blight caused by the anthracnose fruit rot or ripe rot pathogens, Colletotri-chum gloeosporioides (Penz.) Penz. & Sacc. or C. acutatum J.H. Simmonds.d Botryosphaeria stem blight, putative identifi cation of Fusicoccum aesculi Corda (conidial stage) of Botryosphaeria dothidea (Moug.:Fr.) Ces. & De Not.e Botrytis blight, Botrytis cinerea Pers.:Fr.
twig blight symptoms in the
absence of fruit infections.
Lack of fruit infection may
result from dry, hot conditions
following a wet spring, from
fl owering time not coinciding
well with production of spores
on blighted leaves and twigs,
perhaps from early abscis-
sion of infected fruit, or from
well-timed fungicide sprays
protecting blossoms. In 2009,
likely favored by the wet grow-
ing season, mummy berry on
fruit (Figure 3) was found in
half of the plantings visited
and aff ected up to 70% of the
fruit in two of the 14 surveyed
plantings. In prior years it was
found only in one planting in
2007.
Weed management prob-
lems were most frequently
encountered in plantings that
had recently changed hands,
where time allotted to farm
management was insuffi cient,
and where herbicide applica-
tions were poorly timed or
inadequate. Instances where
perennial weeds had en-
croached on plantings, seri-
ous economic impact on yield
resulted. One interesting weed
was found in two Eastern NY
plantings. It was groundnut,
Apios americana, a perennial
vine which grows from edible
tubers (Iungerman 2008) (Fig-
ure 4 ABCD).
Symptoms of viral dis-
ease were found on 12 farms
surveyed and samples brought
back for analysis (Carroll
2007a). Of these, samples from
four farms tested positive for
the presence of tomato ringspot virus (ToRSV) (Figure 5) and ad-
ditional samples from one of these four farms tested positive for
tobacco ringspot virus (TRSV) which causes the disease known
as necrotic ringspot of blueberry (Converse 1987) (Figure 6).
Th e prevalence of virus symptoms in plantings and the concern
expressed by the growers and extension specialists has prompted
the authors to embark next spring on a statewide survey of viral
diseases in blueberries.
DiscussionNew York ranked 10th in the nation in blueberry production, with
700 acres producing 2.3 million pounds valued at $3.37 million
in 2007 (Anonymous 2006). Th e demand for blueberry and blue-
berry products has increased given the interest in foods high in
Figure 4. A, B. Groundnut vines overgrowing blueberry plants. C. Close-up of groundnut vine on blueberry plant.
D. Entire plant showing length of vine and tubers. E. Close-up of infl orescence in leaf axil. F. Groundnut
fl owers. G, H. Edible groundnut tubers.
antioxidants. Th is survey was undertaken primarily to determine
the prevalence of canker pathogens in blueberry plantings, but
also to survey for other problems impacting blueberry production
in NY. It will benefi t our blueberry industry to gain knowledge
about factors that limit production.
Th is survey uncovered Phomopsis canker as a principal
canker disease in NY, being found more often than other canker
diseases and, on three farms, causing severe disease. Canker
management relies almost exclusively on proper pruning and
plant health maintenance. Although Phomopsis canker can be
associated with winter injury, occurring on weakened branches, it
can be a serious primary causes of plant damage, as was found on
three farms. Intensive management to bring cankers under con-
trol in severely aff ected plantings may need to be supplemented
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 21
22 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
by aggressive fungicide programs
over a two to three year period,
spanning the disease cycle. Re-
search on specifi c treatments for
managing this disease under NY
conditions is needed.
Botryosphaeria stem blight,
previously unreported from NY,
was uncovered by this survey.
Th e importance of mummy berry
as a limiting factor in blueberry
production was also underlined
by the survey. Interestingly, while
the ringspot viruses are soil born
an IPM practice for mummy ber-
ry, which is to bury the mummies,
could contribute to spreading
the nematode vector of ToRSV
and TRSV within and among
plantings. Here is an example
of why it is crucial to know the
pest complex in your blueberry
plantings in order to best apply IPM practices. Virus diseases
can be propagated with infected, symptomless blueberry cuttings
and lead to serious decline of plantings. Research on the extent
and impact of viral diseases in blueberry will be addressed in an
upcoming survey in the spring of 2010.
Literature CitedAnonymous. 2008. New York Agricultural Statistics 2007-2008
Annual Bulletin. 88 pp.
Carroll, J. 2007a. Blueberry survey is uncovering viruses in New
York. New York Berry News 6(9):6.
Carroll, J. 2007b. Preliminary survey of blueberry cankers. New
York Berry News 6(8):11-12.
Caruso, F.L. and Ramsdell, D.C., eds. 1995. Compendium of Blue-
berry and Cranberry Diseases. APS Press, St. Paul. 87 pp.
Converse, R.H. 1987. Virus Diseases of Small Fruits. Agriculture
Handbook No. 631. USDA ARS, Washington, DC. 277
pp.
Espinoza, J.G., Briceno, E.X., and Latorre, B.A. 2008. Identifi ca-
tion of species of Botryoshaeria, Pestalotiopsis and Phomop-
sis in blueberry in Chile. Phytopathology 98:S51.
Farr, D.F., Bills, G.F., Chamuris, G.P., and Rossman, A.Y. 1989.
Fungi on Plants and Plant Products in the United States.
APS Press, St. Paul. 1252 pp.
Iungerman, K. 2008. Apios Americana (the groundnut): a major
weed of blueberries. i, NE NY Area Fruit Program, Cornell,
Vol 12, No 7, 2 pp.
Pritts, M.P. and Hancock, J.F. (eds) 1992. Highbush Blueberry Pro-
duction Guide. NRAES-55. NRAES, Ithaca, NY. 200 pp.
Pritts, M., Heidenreich, C., Gardner, R., Helms, M., Smith, W.,
Loeb, G., McDermott, L., Weber, C., McKay, S., Carroll,
J.E., Cox, K., and Bellinder, R. 2009. 2009 Pest Management
Guidelines for Berry Crops. Cornell Cooperative Extension,
Ithaca. 102 pp.
Figure 5. Symptoms on cv. Patriot associated with tomato ringspot virus
infection.
Figure 6. Symptoms of necrotic
ringspot on cv. Bluecrop
associated with tobacco
ringspot virus infection.
AcknowledgementsTh is work was supported with base funding for the Fruit IPM
Coordinator provided by the NYS Department of Agriculture and
Markets. Support from Cornell Cooperative Extension County
Associations and Regional Programs is gratefully acknowledged.
Assistance with virus confi rmation provided by Robert Martin,
USDA-ARS, Corvallis, OR is appreciated.
Photo CreditsFigures 1, 4A, 4B, 4C, and 4D - Kevin Iungerman. Figures 2 and
6 - Juliet Carroll. Figures 3 and 5 - Molly Shaw
Juliet E. Carroll is the Fruit IPM coordinator for the NYS IPM Program in Cornell Cooperative Extension. Marc
Fuchs is a research and extension assistant professor in the Dept. of Plant Pathology at Cornell’s Geneva Experiment Station who specializes in virus diseases. Kerik Cox is a research and extension assistant professor in the Dept. of Plant Pathology at Cornell’s Geneva Experiment Station who specializes in the diseases of tree fruit and berries.
The codling moth (CM) Cydia pomonella (Linnaeus),
a European native, is a principal insect pest of pome
fruit throughout much of the world. A member of the
lepidopteran fam-
ily Tortricidae, it
is a bivoltine moth,
having two gen-
erations in most of
the U.S. including
New York State. A
partial third gen-
eration exists in
the Pacifi c North-
west. Introduced
to the New World
during the earli-
est years of pome
fruit production
the codling moth
has historically been a very diffi cult insect to control. It was
not until the development of the synthetic insecticides, broad-
spectrum materials with extended residual, contact and feeding
effi cacy, that economic damage imposed by this insect was, for
a period, curtailed.
Th e larvae overwinter in cocoons on the trunk and limbs,
emerging as adults during the tight cluster through bloom period
of apple. Shortly after mating, the female deposits her eggs onto
foliage and fruit, giving rise to larva that cause signifi cant feeding
damage to the surface, fl esh, core and seed of the fruit if unman-
aged. A mechanism of survival contributing to the codling moth
persistent success are the well-developed feeding habits of the
larva. Larva emerging from eggs laid onto the fruit often begins
burrowing through the egg covering, directly into the fruit, with
little to no surface activity. To evade toxins present on the surface
or skin of the fruit, the newly emerged larva will chew and excrete
the skin prior to entry, only then proceeding into the fruit to feed.
Th is tactic of fruit skin disposal reduces the amount of toxin the
larva consumes while feeding.
Emergence of the CM fi rst generation larva coincides with
the immigration of adult plum curculio (PC) Conotrachelus
nenuphar (Herbst) into commercial orchards. For more than 50
years, the CM has been eff ectively managed through the use of
the organophosphate class of insecticides against the PC. Later
Figure 1. Eff ect of Guthion 50W (azinphos-methyl) on mortality of adult
codling populations trapped from Western NY orchards, a
laboratory strain (Benzon) and study group baseline (Barnes/
Moffi t).
in the season the second generation of CM larval emergence
overlaps, at least in part, with other principle fruit pests, including
the obliquebanded leafroller (OBLR) Choristoneura rosaceana
(Harris), apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella (Walsh), oriental
fruit moth, Grapholita molesta, and the lesser apple worm Gra-
pholita Prunivora Walsh. Management of these insects provides
fair to excellent levels of CM control depending on a number of
management and biotic factors. Recent restrictions placed on the
organophosphate class of insecticides, such as worker re-entry
intervals, lengthened days to harvest and limits on total appli-
cations per season, have substantially reduced late season OP
use. Th is shift in insecticide use may require the control of these
insects through the use of multiple and more species-specifi c
classes of insecticides, and incorporation of mating disruption
to achieve comparable control yet increasing the cost of pome
fruit production.
Insects with multiple generations, which maintain a constant
presence in commercial orchards, are exposed to the selection
pressure insect pest management tool impose. Th is constant
exposure provides the mechanism for insecticide resistance de-
velopment. Over the last two decades codling moth populations
throughout North America have become increasingly tolerant of
pest management practices, with increasing levels of insecticide
resistance to the organophosphate class of chemistries used in
pome fruit pest management. Insecticide resistance to azinphos-
methyl (Guthion) has been well documented in codling moth
populations throughout the western Unites States fruit growing
regions for the past 20 years (Varela, et al., 1993; Reidhl et al.,
1986, Steenwyck and Welter, 1998). Ohio, Michigan and Pennsyl-
vania have seen increasingly high internal lepidopteran damage
levels in harvested fruit. Over the past nine years western New
York processing blocks of apple have seen increasing numbers of
damaged fruit due to internal worm infestations. Infested fruit
sampled from these orchards contained larvae from a complex
of internal worm, consisting of the codling moth, the oriental
fruit moth and the lesser apple worm. In 2002 infestations were
found to contain predominately oriental fruit moth larvae, yet
in 2005, a year in which 100 loads from 60 farms were ticketed
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 23
Assessing Azinphos-methyl
Resistance in New York State
Codling Moth PopulationsPeter Jentsch1, Frank Zeoli1 & Deborah Breth2
1Cornell University’s Hudson Valley Laboratory, Highland, NY 2Cornell Cooperative Extension, Albion, NY
“Codling moth populations throughout the
Eastern tree fruit-producing region have
become increasingly tolerant to insect
pest management practices. We have
observed in this study greater tolerance
to azinphos-methyl in adult codling
moth populations trapped in commercial
processing blocks when compared to
Eastern NY commercial fresh market
orchards. ”
This work was supported in part by the New York Apple Research
and Development Program.
24 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
from processing centers by USDA inspectors, the predominate
species was and continues to be the codling moth.
Given the dramatic increase in the presence of the internal
worm complex in processing fruit, we were hard-pressed to
ask to the question; ‘Has there been an increase in tolerance
or resistance of the internal worm population in western NY’
or is this simply related to a shift in specifi c practices used in
managing processing apple blocks? Historically, insecticide
resistance development in CM populations has been a
reoccurring and economically devastating event, and as such,
it seemed prudent to investigate state wide CM populations
for levels of susceptibility to commonly used insecticides. In
collaboration with the Lake Ontario Fruit Team (LOFT) and
the Hudson Valley Laboratory, a study was initiated to establish
the insecticidal tolerance of azinphos-methyl in regional adult
codling moth populations given its seasonal use patterns.
A concurrent evaluation was also made of currently used
insecticides to determine the effi cacy of these materials against
susceptible CM adult and 1st instar larva.
To determine insect population levels of resistance to a
specifi c chemical or insecticide class, comparison bioassay
studies to both fi eld collected and susceptible populations to
the specifi c insecticide in question are conducted. In a classic
case study, shortly after azinphos-methyl was released for
use in commercial orchards, Barnes and Moffi t (1963) at the
University of California-Riverside conducted a resistance study
on codling moth populations obtained in commercial and
abandoned orchards. Th ey determined that fi eld populations
of codling moth had a lethal dose or LD90 level of 0.158 μg/μl
of azinphos-methyl, considered to be the standard susceptible
level of mortality to this insecticide. Helmut Riedl conducted a
follow-up study in 1985 to confi rm that New York orchards still
had susceptible populations of codling moth with adults taken
from a site in Geneva, NY exhibiting LD90 levels of 0.350 μg/μl
of azinphos-methyl. Although this concentration was two fold
higher than the Barnes and Moffi t study population, it was not
considered to be resistant.
Results: Adult BioassayIn our first series of tests conducted in 2008-09 on adult codling
moths, we collected adults from four western NY processing
orchards in Williamson and Wolcott and five Hudson Valley
fresh market orchards in Marlboro, Milton, Highland,
Altamont, Burnt Hills to compare levels of susceptibility to
azinphos-methyl. Approximately 20-100 CM traps were set at
each site to collect adults from the 1st generation flight. Moths
flying between dawn and dusk were captured on pheromone
trap cards and returned to the laboratory within 24 hours.
Adults were then treated using 1 μl (micro liter) droplets of
laboratory grade acetone, applied to our control population,
and serial dilutions of 98.9% concentration of azinphos-
methyl (Pestanal; Sigma-Aldrich, Atlanta, GA), dissolved in
acetone to achieve rates of 0.1, 0.2, 0.4, 0.8, 1.6 part per million
concentrations, equivalent to μg/μl (microgram per micro
liter) doses. Applications of these concentrations were made
to the dorsal thoratic plate of the moth with mortality assessed
using two evaluations at 24 and 48 hours after treatment.
Moths were scored as live or dead based on antenna-stimulated
and or probed movement response of the adult. In order to
establish differences in levels of insecticide tolerance, mortality
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 25
Figure 2. The concentration of Guthion 50W (azinphos-methyl) required to
produce morality in 90% of the adult codling population trapped
from Eastern (ENY) and Western (WNY) orchards.
Figure 3. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible
codling moth larva topically exposed to highest labeled fi eld rate
insecticides.
Figure 4. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible codling
moth larva exposed to apple4residue using the highest labeled
fi eld rate insecticide, and the percent of apples to which CM larva
had burrowed after 2 and 24 hours.
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90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
c
a
c
a
d
c
e
a
a
a b
a
a b
a
b c b c d
b
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
0
4
6
8
Treatment
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
b
0
b b
c
a
c
b
b
d
c
a
b
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
a
c c c
a
d
a
d
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
Codling Moth Larvae Bioassay (susceptible ‘Benzon’ Colony), NYSAES, Highland NY 2009
Efficacy of Treatments at Highest Labeled Field Rate
Percent Mortality After 24hrs.2Percent Mortality After 2hrs.1
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
1.6
1.8
2.0
ENY D
ress
el
ENY I
ndia
n La
dder
ENY T
runc
ali
ENY K
nigh
ts
Benzo
n Su
scep
tible
ENY M
orel
lo
WNY W
illia
mso
n
WNY W
olco
tt 1
WNY W
olco
tt 2
WNY V
erbr
idge
Azi
np
ho
s-m
eth
yl (µ
g/
µl )
NY Orchard
Azinphos-methyl LD90 Levels of Adult Codling Moth Populations in NY Orchards, 2009
More Susceptible Less Susceptible
curves were used to determine degrees of CM susceptibility
to azinphos-methyl (Figure 1).
From the data generated in this portion of the study we
observed lower levels of susceptibility in all study groups
compared to the previous studies mentioned. Levels of reduced
susceptibility were evident in western NY orchards, primarily
in Verbridge and Williamson (Figure 2). Laboratory reared
populations (‘Benzon susceptible strain’), and populations
collected from most eastern NY orchards exhibited an LD90
of < 0.85 μg/μl for azinphos-methyl with the exception of the
‘Morello’ orchard. Th e western NY strains in Verbridge displayed
an LD90 of 1.86 μg/μl for azinphos-methl, approximately 2.2 fold
less susceptible than the Benzon strain. Given the fi ndings that all
NY strains demonstrated a higher tolerance to azinphos-methyl
compared to that of the Riedl and Barnes/Moffi t studies implies
reduced susceptibility levels across the state, with lower levels
of susceptibility in WNY processing orchards. Th e overall low
levels of azinphos-methyl susceptibility of NYS codling moth
populations coupled with reduced levels of susceptibility in
these processing blocks, may have contributed, at least in part, to
insecticide failure resulting in infested loads observed during the
past seven years. Further evaluations in 2010 will help determine
the degree to which these populations are comprised of tolerant
or resistant population levels of susceptibility.
Results: CM Larval Studies of Insecticide Contact
ActivityAdditional studies were conducted using topical bioassays
on susceptible strains of larva using conventional and new
insecticide chemistries. ‘Benzon’ 1st instar larva were evaluated
for susceptibility to 10 commercial insecticides, in which larva
were placed onto moistened fi lter paper affi xed to the lid of
25 ml plastic cups. Applications to the larvae were then made
using the highest labeled fi eld rate for each product using a
micro-applicator and 1 ml syringe employing 1 μl applications.
Larvae were rated for mortality and evaluated at 2 and 24-hour
intervals. Larva exposed to Guthion 50WP (azinphos-methyl)
exhibited 100% mortality at 2 and 24-hour evaluation intervals,
statistically equivalent to Warrior (lambda-cyhalothrin), Sevin
XLR (carbaryl) and Calypso (thiacloprid), which provided 92.5%
& 100%, 85.0% & 97.5 % and 60.0% & 100.0% mortality levels
respectively (Figure 3).
Results: CM Larval Studies of Insecticide Residual and
Feeding ActivityResidue and feeding studies to ‘Benzon’ 1st instar larvae were
conducted to evaluate 10 commercial insecticides on susceptible
strains of larva. Treated ‘Delicious’ apple were submersed in a
dilute insecticide solution using the highest labeled fi eld rate
of each insecticide for three seconds and held indoors at 70oF,
off ering no exposure to rain or sunlight for 1, 3, 7, 14 and 21-day
periods. Ten (10) 2.5 cm apple discs were removed from two
treated fruit and secured onto the lid of plastic cups, onto which
were placed CM larvae. Th e larvae were evaluated for mortality
and feeding damage 2 and 24 hour intervals (Figures 4-8). Results
demonstrated that larva exposed to azinphos-methyl treated
apple exhibited lower levels of mortality at both the 2 hr and 24
hour evaluation intervals compared to most other insecticides.
Assail 30SG (Acetamiprid), a recently developed neonicotinoid
insecticide, had signifi cantly higher levels of fruit residual activity
against 1st instar larva than other insecticides after 2 hours but
not statistically diff erent from Calypso 4F, Delegate WG, Imidan
70WP or Sevin XLR after 24 hours. Th e least amount of feeding
after 24 hours was observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F,
Delegate WG, Imidan 70WP, Sevin XLR and Warrior treatments.
However, after 3 days, the organophosphates Guthion 50WP,
Imidan 70WP, Lorsban 75WG and the pyrethroid Warrior
demonstrated increased residual activity with the least amount
of feeding observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F, Delegate
WG, Guthion 50WP, and Warrior treatments. After seven days,
Delegate WG, Guthion 50WP, Imidan 70WP, and Warrior
demonstrated increased residual activity with the least amount
26 NEW YORK STATE HORTICULTURAL SOCIETY
Figure 5. Percent mortality of 1st instar laboratory reared susceptible
codling moth larva exposed to apple residue using the highest
labeled fi eld rate insecticide, and the percent of apples to which
CM larva had burrowed after 2 and 24 hours.
Figure 6. Results of a 2 and 24 hour evaluation of 1st instar, laboratory
reared susceptible codling moth larva showing percent mortality
of larvae exposed to apple residue using the highest labeled fi eld
rate insecticide after 7 days, and the percent of apples to which
CM larva had burrowed.
Trt
4
Trt
4
Trt
Trt
Codling Moth Larvae Bioassay (susceptible ‘Benzon’ Colony), NYSAES, Highland NY 2009
Efficacy of Treatments 7 Days After Application
Perc
en
t M
ort
ali
ty
Treatment Bioassay conducted on 1st instar codling moth larva transferred to a 2.4 cm diameter red delicious apple disk dipped in a treatment solution and placed in chambers at 70ºF. (Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 2.592, P-value = 0.0068]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 7.176, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 3.716, P-value = 0.0002]; 4.[df = 3, F-value = 5.134, P-value = 0.0001]).
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Aft
er
2h
rs.1
A
fter
24
hrs
.2
c d e
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a b a b
c d
a b c
a b
d
a
a b c
c d
b c
a a
a b a b
a a
b c
c d e
b
e f e f
Perc
en
t B
urr
ow
ing
A
fter
2h
rs.3
A
fter
24
hrs
.4
Assail
30SG
Belt S
C
Calyps
o 4F
Delega
te W
G
Guthion
50W
P
Imida
n 70W
Lorsb
an 75
WG
Proclai
m
Sevin
XLR P
lus
Warrior
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
b c
a b
a
a b c
b c d
a b
d
a
a
b
a
a b
a
f
b c d
d e f
Assail
30SG
Belt S
C
Calyps
o 4F
Delega
te W
G
Guthion
50W
P
Imida
n 70W
Lorsb
an 75
WG
Proclai
m
Sevin
XLR P
lus
Warrior
b b
4
Trt
Trt
4
Trt
Trt
Codling Moth Larvae Bioassay (susceptible ‘Benzon’ Colony), NYSAES, Highland NY 2009
Efficacy of Treatments 3 Days After Application
Perc
en
t M
ort
ality
Treatment Bioassay conducted on 1st instar codling moth larva transferred to a 2.4 cm diameter red delicious apple disk dipped in a treatment solution and placed in chambers at 70ºF.
(Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 1.693, P-value = 0.0896]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 10.561, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 3.328, P-value = 0.0007]; 4.[df = 3, F-value =
9.874, P-value = 0.0001]).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Aft
er
2h
rs.1
A
fter
24
hrs
.2
b
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
a b
b c d c d c d
a b c
a b
b c c
d
a
a
a b c
c
a
c
d
b b
b c
c d
Perc
en
t B
urr
ow
ing
A
fter
2h
rs.3
A
fter
24
hrs
.4
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
c d
a b
d
a
d
a b c
b c
a
a b c
c b c
a b
a
c d
b
c d
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
a b c a b c
of feeding observed in the Assail 30SG, Calypso 4F, Delegate
WG, Guthion 50WP, and Warrior treatments. After 21 days, the
highest level of residual effi cacy was observed with Assail 30SG,
Lorsban 75WG and Proclaim with the least amount of feeding
observed in the Delegate WG treatment, followed by Assail 30SG,
Proclaim, Sevin XLR, Warrior and Calypso 4F treatments.
DiscussionIn this study we’ve observed a 2.2 fold greater tolerance to
azinphos-methyl in adult codling moth populations trapped in
commercial processing blocks when compared to the majority of
Eastern NY commercial fresh market orchards and a susceptible
control group of adult codling moths. Yet, a number of factors
may contribute to the failure of azinpho-methyl to manage the
internal worm complex in other parts of the state. Th ese also
include the loss of insecticides used successively in the past to
manage this insect. One in particular, Lorsban 75WG, a very ef-
fective material when used at petal fall, is no longer available for
use as a foliar insecticide beyond the pre-bloom stage of apple,
thus removing it from use against the 1st generation fl ight of
codling moth. Lorsban has been found by researchers to have
excellent effi cacy against the adult CM, and demonstrates a
negative cross-resistance to azinphos-methyl, allowing it to
maintain eff ectiveness even when resistance to Guthion fails to
control CM (Steenwyck and Welter, 1998). Th e movement of
azinphos-methyl resistant CM individuals from western states
such as Washingtom State and California, to the east by way of
storage bin transport, has also been implicated as the cause of
resistant population build-up, especially in and around process-
ing centers. Another facet of discussion regarding the loss of
CM control includes a possible shift in the emergence pattern of
codling moth later into the season for both generations (Boivin,
1999). Pheromone trapping peaks, often called the ‘B Peaks’, imply
adult emergence delays, and have been observed in trap graphs of
Western and Eastern orchards. A delay in adult and subsequent
larval emergence would prolong the presence of newly hatching
larva beyond prediction models and insecticide residual activity,
allowing for increasing levels of damage.
Another important factor in New York appears to be the
diff erences in fresh market and processing production meth-
ods between regions with regards to application techniques. In
general, apples grown in Western NY sites for processing are
produced in larger acreages often bordering contiguous orchards
of neighboring processing blocks. Large blocks have a tendency
to ‘promote’ endemic populations. Th ese orchards have for many
years exclusively used azinphos-methyl in season long manage-
ment programs. In processing blocks of apple, fruit can be ac-
ceptably sold at reduced visual standards when compared to retail
fresh fruit market standards with regards to color, size and overall
appearance. In some orchards this may have led to reductions in
insecticide rates, alternate row application methods, stretched
intervals, reductions in horticultural practices such as summer
pruning, all of which hinder eff ective insecticide coverage and
subsequent insect control. Th ese practices promote greater in-
sect survival, higher levels of selection pressure with regards to
insecticide resistance development and ultimately less susceptible
strains of insects as we have observed in this study.
Comparatively, apples grown in the Eastern part of the state
are primarily produced for fresh market or pick-your-own sales,
produced in smaller acreages often isolated from other orchards,
Figure 8. Results of a 2 and 24 hour evaluation of 1st instar, laboratory
reared susceptible codling moth larva showing percent mortality
of larvae exposed to apple residue using the highest labeled fi eld
rate insecticide after 21 days, and the percent of apples to which
CM larva had burrowed.
Figure 7. Results of a 2 and 24 hour evaluation of 1st instar, laboratory
reared susceptible codling moth larva showing percent mortality
of larvae exposed to apple residue using the highest labeled fi eld
rate insecticide after 14 days, and the percent of apples to which
CM larva had burrowed.
surrounded by woodlands and or abandoned orchards. In most
Hudson Valley orchards, the presence of these woodlots or
abandoned orchards lead to higher insect pressure, increasing
insecticide rate requirements. However, the pest complex mi-
grating in from ‘the edge’ typically has greater levels of genetic
diversity leading to greater insecticide susceptibility. Fruit qual-
ity, size and color requirements for fresh market demands me-
thodical management including intensive crop load reductions,
as sales depend on visually appealing large fruit. Intensive crop
load management in fresh market fruit fosters king fruit to set
Trt
Trt
Trt
Trt
Codling Moth Larvae Bioassay (susceptible ‘Benzon’ Colony), NYSAES, Highland NY 2009
Efficacy of Treatments 21 Days After Application
Perc
en
t M
ort
ality
Treatment Bioassay conducted on 1st instar codling moth larva transferred to a 2.4 cm diameter red delicious apple disk dipped in a treatment solution and placed in chambers at 70ºF.
(Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 2.516, P-value = 0.0086]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 14.843, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 1.711, P-value = 0.0857]; 4.[df = 3, F-value =
2.242, P-value = 0.0194]).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Aft
er
2h
rs.1
A
fter
24
hrs
.2
d e
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a
a
a a a
a
a b
b c d
a b a b
a b c d
a
a
b
a b
a
d e
b
b c b
c d
Perc
en
t B
urr
ow
ing
A
fter
2h
rs.3
A
fter
24
hrs
.4
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
a
a
a
a
c d b c d
d
a b c
a a a a
a
c d e
b c
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
a
a b
0
2
4
6
8
Trt
Trt
Trt
Trt
Codling Moth Larvae Bioassay (susceptible ‘Benzon’ Colony), NYSAES, Highland NY 2009
Efficacy of Treatments 14 Days After Application
Perc
en
t M
ort
ality
Treatment Bioassay conducted on 1st instar codling moth larva transferred to a 2.4 cm diameter red delicious apple disk dipped in a treatment solution and placed in chambers at 70ºF.
(Superscript 1.[df = 3, F-value = 1.497, P-value = 0.1480]; 2.[df = 3, F-value = 11.694, P-value = 0.0001]; 3.[df = 3, F-value = 4.007, P-value = 0.0001]; 4.[df = 3, F-value =
4.570, P-value = 0.0001]).
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Aft
er
2h
rs.1
A
fter
24
hrs
.2
a
0
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
a b
a
a b c
a b c
d
b c
a
a b
b
c
a b
a b
a b
b
a
a b
d
c d c d
b c
d
Perc
en
t B
urr
ow
ing
A
fter
2h
rs.3
A
fter
24
hrs
.4
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
a b c
a b
c d
a
a b
a b
c
a
a
b
a a
a
d
b
d
Ass
ail 3
0SG
Belt S
C
Calyp
so 4
F
Deleg
ate
WG
Gut
hion
50W
P
Imidan
70W
Lors
ban
75W
G
Pro
claim
Sev
in X
LR P
lus
War
rior
a b a b
NEW YORK FRUIT QUARTERLY . VOLUME 17 . NUMBER 4 . WINTER 2009 27
and remain, while eliciting clustered fruit to drop, signifi cantly
reduces insect harborage that would typically occur in and around
the fruit cluster, off ering insects less protection from insecticide
applications and residue.
ConclusionsTh is study has demonstrated new insecticide chemistries to
exhibit eff ective control of the early instar stages of the codling
moth larva with regards to both mortality and feeding inhibi-
tion. Th rough the rotation of these insecticides, a diff erent class
of pest management tools can target each generation. Th is will
eff ectively reduce the selection pressure exerted by any one ac-
tive ingredient or insecticide class, thus reducing the resistance
potential and prolonging the effi cacy of these new materials for
years to come.
ReferencesBarnes, M.M and H.R. Moffi t. 1963. Resistance to DDT in the
adult codling moth and references curves to Guthion and
Carbaryl. Journal of Economic Entomology 56:722-725.
Boivin, T., J.C. Bouvier, D. Beslay and B. Sauphanor. 1999. Phe-
nological segregation of insecticide resistance alleles in the
codling moth Cydia pomonella (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae):
a case study of ecological divergences associated with adap-
tive changes in populations. Umr Ecologie Des Invertébrés,
Inra Site Agroparc, 84 914 Avignon Cedex 09, France.
Riedl, H. L. A. Hanson and A. Seaman. 1986. Toxicological re-
sponse of codling moth (lepidoptera: Tortricidae) popula-
tions from California and New York to azinphosmethyl Ag-
riculture, Ecosystems & Environment 16 (3-4): 189-201.
Steenwyk, R.A., S.C. Welter. 1998. Evaluation of Codling Moth
Resistance to Guthion and Lorsban. Proceedings of the
72nd Annual Western Orchard Pest & Disease Management
Conference. Proc. WOPDMC 72:93-94.
Varela, L. G.; Welter, S. C.; Jones, V. P.; Brunner, J. F.; Riedl, H.
1993. Monitoring and Characterization of Insecticide
Resistance Codling Moth (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) in
Four Western States. Journal of Economic Entomology 86
(1):1-10.
AcknowledgementsWe gratefully acknowledge the Apple Research Development
Program for funding this project. We also wish to thank the New
York apple producers assisting in the collection of codling moth
adults including orchards in Verbridge, Williamson and Wolcott,
Indian Ladder Farms in Altamont, Truncalli Farm in Marlboro,
Dressel Farm and Moriello Farm in New Paltz, Knights Orchards
in Burnt Hills, the LOFT fruit team for their help and support in
making this project possible.
Peter Jentsch is an Extension Associate in the Department of Entomology at Cornell’s Hudson Valley Laboratory specializing in arthropod management in tree fruits, grapes and vegetables. Frank Zeoli is a research technician at the Hudson Valley Laboratory. Deborah
Breth is an extension specialist on the Lake Ontario Fruit Team of Cornell Cooperative Extension who specializes in integrated pest management.