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Vol. 3, No. 4 Nov. 2011

Contents

• High Feed Costs –Strategies to SurviveThem

• Extending the GrazingSeason

• Diseases: Preventionand Management

High Feed Costs – Strategies to Survive ThemSteven M. Jones, Associate Professor - Animal Science

Many factors have converged tomake it more expensive to feed live-stock, including small ruminants.Regardless of the purpose of their enter-prise, most sheep and goat producerswant to know how they can reducetheir feed costs. Everything we feedour animals is more expensive than itwas a few years ago, and it is likely tostay this way for the foreseeable future.

However, there are some stepsproducers can take to reduce feedcosts. Many of the steps are commonsense and cost little to no money toimplement. Other strategies require afinancial investment and should payfor themselves in the long run. Whatworks for one producer may not workfor another. Some strategies mayrequire some economies of scale.

Feed balanced rations.The first step towards reducing

feed costs is fine-tuning your feedingprogram to make sure you are meeting,but not exceeding, your animals’ nutritional requirements. Sheep andgoat nutrition requirements are basedon size (weight), age and stage andlevel of production. Environmental

conditions also affect nutrient requirements. Animals that have towalk further for feed as well asanimals below their critical tempera-ture have higher nutritional needs.

It is difficult to know how muchto feed a sheep or goat if you don’tknow how much it weighs. Ideally,you should weigh your animals atleast once per year. Prior to breedingis usually the best time. If you neverweigh your livestock, your feedingprogram will be rooted in guesswork.Very few people, if any, can accuratelyestimate the weight of livestock.Consider purchasing a scale orsharing a scale with other producers.Accurate weights will also aid in youranimal health program. One of thequickest ways to increase anthelminticresistance is to underdose an animal.

Divide herd into productiongroups.

Sheep and goats should be dividedinto production groups and fedaccording to their nutritional require-ments. If you keep pregnant andlactating females in the same feedinggroup, some females will be overfed

United States Department of Agriculture, University of Arkansas, and County Governments Cooperating

DIVISION OF AGRICULTURER E S E A R C H & E X T E N S I O N

University of Arkansas System

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and some will be underfed. If you keep femalesnursing triplets in the same feeding group as femalesnursing twins or those nursing singles, the same thingwill happen. Feeding growing animals in the samegroup as mature animals is also problematic. Over-feeding or underfeeding sheep and goats is costly inmany ways. Overfed livestock are obviously moreexpensive to feed. They tend to experience more repro-ductive problems (embryo loss, pregnancy toxemia,dystocia, prolapses). Fat rams and bucks may be toolazy to breed. It may cost less to underfeed an animal,but you’ll probably lose more money in the long run asa result of poorer performance and health. If yourfinancial resources prevent you from feeding properly,you should reduce your animal numbers, not reducehow much (or what) you feed to the whole flock.

Balance rations. You can balance rations by hand (using simple

math) or by using a personal computer. If you are agoat producer, you can use Langston University’sRation Balancer and Nutrient Requirements Calculator.Commercial ration-balancing programs may also bepurchased and used to formulate least-cost rations forsheep and goats.

Forages are usually the most variable part of anyfeeding program for ruminant livestock. Forage qualityvaries by plant species, stage of plant maturity andvarious other production factors. Because of this,forages should be tested to determine their nutritivecontent. A simple hay analysis only costs about $20. Itcan easily pay for itself. If hay is not tested, you maybe overfeeding or underfeeding certain nutrients. Youmay be feeding more grain than is necessary or youmay not be feeding enough grain to meet the nutri-tional requirements of your high-producing animals.Because forages vary in cost and nutritive value, it’simportant to feed the right forage at the right time tothe right group of animals.

Weigh feed.All feed should be purchased and fed by weight.

Sheep and goat nutritional requirements are based onweight not volume (bale or bucket). If you don’t knowwhat a bale of hay weighs, you don’t know how muchyou are feeding your livestock or how much they areeating, and you don’t how much it is costing you. Youcannot compare its cost to other feedstuffs. The sameis true of grain. A scoop of corn does not weigh thesame as a scoop of pellets. It’s not necessary that youweigh every bale or scoop of grain, but you need toknow what your bales weigh (on average) and whatyour scoop or bucket of grain weighs.

Minimize feed wastage.Hay and grain should generally not be fed on the

ground. There is considerably more feed wastage whenfeeding on the ground. Feeding on the ground can alsospread diseases. All feed should be fed in feeders. Youshould favor feeders that minimize wastage and keepthe feed clean and free from fecal or other foreignmatter. Feeders can be built on the farm or purchasedfrom commercial vendors. There are many differentdesigns for feeders. Not all feeder designs will workequally well for all classes of sheep and goats. Goatsare particularly adept at getting into feeders and on topof feed.

If feed is limit-fed, there needs to be enough feederspace for all animals in the feeding group to eat at onetime. It is generally recommended that each femalehave 16 to 20 inches of feeder space. Lambs and kidsshould have 9 to 12 inches of feeder space. Thesespace measurements may need to be adjusted up ordown depending upon the species, size of the animalsand presence of horns or dominant behavior. Animalsthat do not get their fair share of feed because of lackof feeder space will end up costing you money becausetheir nutritional needs will probably not be met.

Cull unproductive animals.When feed costs are high, culling standards should

be equally high. You can’t afford to take a chance onmarginally productive animals when feed costs arehigh. Why feed an ewe or doe that raises only oneoffspring when there are plenty of other females thatwill raise twins or triplets. Don’t make excuses for anewe or doe that fails to raise any offspring. Get rid ofher. On average, a female’s most productive years arefrom 3 to 6. The most efficient females in the flock arethe ones that wean a greater proportion of their bodyweight. It’s a good idea to weigh and condition scoreyour females at the start of breeding season and toweigh their offspring at the time of weaning. This willenable you to determine which females in your flockare the most efficient and which ones’ offspring youshould retain for breeding. Replacements should beselected from the most productive females in the flock.These won’t necessarily be the “prettiest” ones. They’llbe the ones that utilize expensive feed resources toproduce babies that grow well.

You can increase productivity by breeding ewelambs and doelings. Well-grown ewe lambs and doelings can be bred to produce offspring by the timethey are one year old. Size is more important than agewhen deciding if or when to breed lambs and kids. Therecommendation is that females achieve approximatelytwo-thirds of their mature weight before being bred.

Ewe lambs and doelings should be managed andfed separately from mature females, (ideally) up untilthe time they wean their first set of offspring. If ewelambs and doelings aren’t big enough and you can’tmanage them separately, you should not breed themuntil the second year of life.

Every extra lamb or kid that you produce willreduce your feed costs, because it will spread out yourfixed costs (overhead). Feed costs tend to comprise 50to 75 percent of the production costs on a sheep and/orgoat farm.

Extending the Grazing SeasonJohn Jennings, Professor - Forages

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Summer drought reduces the hay crop yield, andlong, cold winters increase the amount of hay needed.The past couple of years in Arkansas have includedboth weather extremes. The typical length of the hayfeeding season in Arkansas is 135 days, startingaround mid-November and lasting until March 31. It isinteresting to know that the average hay feedingseason for Wisconsin, Missouri and Mississippi lasts140 days, about the same as in Arkansas (Lacefield,personal communication, 2011). But think about thelocation of those states. Missouri is in the middle ofthe continental U.S., Mississippi is on the Gulf Coastand Wisconsin is in the Great Lakes region. Theclimate and forage choices in Arkansas are conduciveto a much shorter hay feeding season and a muchlonger grazing season. Farmers enrolled in theArkansas 300 Days Grazing Program have success-fully extended their grazing seasons to over 300 daysby using the forage base existing on their farm, addinglegumes and making some simple adjustments inforage planning and management. For most farms,extending the grazing season can be accomplished infive basic steps.

Start with an inventory of your forage baseand livestock stocking rate.

Determine what management practices to addto increase seasonal grazing from your existingforage base.

Add complementary forages to fill inseasonal gaps.

Plan forage and grazing practices ahead forthe year.

Monitor and adjust forages and livestockas needed.

Inventory forage for type and seasonalproduction.

Questions regarding pasture improvement arefrequently focused on which new forage variety toplant. However, improving a pasture system ofteninvolves more assessment and management of existingforages rather than planting new forage species or

varieties. A forage inventory tells you which foragespecies you have on the farm and when those foragesare producing useful livestock feed. A forage inventoryhas two parts: 1) what species are in each pasture and2) if the pastures provide adequate forage for the herdduring spring, summer, fall and winter.

Pasture inventories are simple to conduct and givethe landowner a chance to really look over fields. Thepasture inventory form can also be printed from theAgriculture/pasture/forages section of the University ofArkansas Cooperative Extension Service website atwww.uaex.edu. Start the inventory by walking a lineacross the field. Stop at every fourth or fifth step andthen record a tally mark on the sheet next to the cate-gory corresponding to what is at the end of your righttoe, whether it is a grass, legume, weed or bareground. Continue walking across the field until youcollect at least 50, preferably 100, such points. Recordthe data for each pasture on different tally sheets.Calculate the percentage of each category representedfrom the field. Inventories can also be conducted withan ATV. Hold a length of PVC pipe or similar pointerstick to drag on the ground. Stop after a certainnumber of feet or seconds and record the plant foundat the end of the pointer stick. Inventories provideuseful information on success of previous managementand give direction for future management decisions.

Determine what management practicesto add to increase seasonal grazing fromyour forage base.

Improving grazing management often makes thesingle largest contribution to pasture improvement.Pastures that are continuously grazed with no rotationare usually less productive than rotationally grazedpastures. Continuous grazing leads to only 35 percentutilization of the forage produced, or in cases ofpastures too heavily stocked, it leads to overgrazedpastures that become weak and unproductive. Well-managed rotational grazing can improve forage utiliza-tion to as much as 65 percent and encourages growth

of legumes. Pasture regrowth rates are higher and thepasture becomes more productive. Rotational grazingcan help maintain forage productivity longer into adrought period. Research has shown that increasing therotation frequency from twice per month to twice perweek increased the number of grazing days per acre by40 percent. In Arkansas, producers who strip-grazedstockpiled fescue nearly doubled the number ofanimal-unit grazing days per acre and the savings peranimal unit, compared to producers who continuouslygrazed the winter pasture.

Add complementary forages to fill inseasonal gaps.

Complementary forages add to the forage baseinstead of substituting for an existing forage. Exampleswould be adding winter annuals like ryegrass to abermudagrass pasture or adding clover to a fescue

pasture. Both the ryegrass and clover are high-qualityforages that extend the grazing season for the pasture.Annual ryegrass provides excellent spring grazingwhen bermudagrass is dormant and reseeds readily inmany cases. Clover added to fescue helps improveanimal performance, especially in KY-31 toxic endo-phyte fescue fields. Clover added to bermuda can begrazed in spring to allow nitrogen fixed by the clover tobe recycled to boost bermudagrass growth in summer.

Plan forage and grazing practices aheadfor the year.

Advance planning of the forage production andgrazing schedule helps avoid unexpected problemscaused by poor weather. For example, in a foragesystem with fescue/clover mixed pastures andbermudagrass pastures, a plan might include thefollowing strategy:

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Spring

• Start rotationally grazing fescue at greenup to get the rotation sequence undercontrol before rapid grass growth begins.

• If high-quality clover is needed in May or June, graze clover pastures 30 daysearlier so the regrowth will be ready when needed.

• Control winter annual weeds on bermudagrass pastures. Fescue pastures grow atthe same time in spring as winter weeds in bermudagrass, so grazing both at thesame time may not be a good option. Selective herbicide application on weedsin bermudagrass may help.

• Plan summer grazing sequence.

Summer

• Rotationally graze bermudagrass. This will help keep the grass in a high-qualitygrowing condition and will give the opportunity to protect accumulated growthfor limit-grazing in case of drought conditions.

• Fertilize bermuda pasture in blocks on a 30-day schedule. Fertilize a few acres forJune growth then more in July if conditions warrant. Under good summer rainfall,N fertilization may be minimal on pasture.

• Fertilize some bermudagrass pasture in August for fall stockpiled pasture to graze inOctober-November to reduce hay feeding.

• Plan fall grazing sequence.

Fall

• Fertilize some fescue pasture for stockpiled pasture to graze from December toFebruary. This is a very cost-effective practice and greatly reduces hay feedingin winter.

• Strip-graze stockpiled bermudagrass pasture during October/November. This allowstime for fescue/clover to grow for grazing in November and December.

• Annual ryegrass can be overseeded onto bermudagrass pasture after strip-grazingif needed.

• Rotationally graze fescue/clover pastures in fall before cold winter weather. Cloverdoes not hold up well under freezing conditions, so it should be grazed beforegrazing the stockpiled fescue pastures.

• Plan winter grazing sequence.

Winter• Strip-graze stockpiled fescue.• Overseed clover on fescue pastures where needed.• Plan spring grazing sequence.

Monitor and adjust forages and livestockas needed.

Both animals and forages should be observed forresponses to changes in either part of the system.Forage growth changes as weather changes. Changes

in livestock management or animal stocking rate affectforage growth and availability. By monitoring howwell the forage and animal systems matched duringeach season and for the year, adjustments can be madeto optimize the system. Good monitoring also helpswith future plans for expansion.

Diseases: Prevention and ManagementSteven M. Jones, Associate Professor - Animal Science

Disease can enter a producer’s farm or ranch frommany sources. Introducing new animals is the usualavenue, but it is definitely not the only way that illnessfinds its way into the herd.

Bringing new animals into the herd fromoff site.

Shows are a huge source of infection andillness. They are similar to children’s day-carecenters – incubators for disease.

Poor health management practices withinthe herd.

Poor nutrition.

The most basic method of disease control in individual herds/flocks is to avoid introduction ofdisease agents. If possible and practical, producersshould keep a closed herd/flock. Most diseases of acontagious nature are introduced into operations whennew animals are added. Disease agents can be intro-duced when breeding animals are added to an opera-tion, when animals commingle at a fair, show or saleor when animals contact wildlife. If a closed herd/flockis not feasible, then use an animal quarantine program.A useful isolation program consists of a facility thatprevents commingling of animals for at least 30 days,including separate water supplies.

Most producers are aware that they should quarantine new animals brought from outside the ranchproperty in order to protect their goats from whateverdiseases the new animals might be carrying. However,the reverse is just as true: newly introduced goats needto be protected from organisms present on the ranch towhich their immune systems have not been previouslyexposed. Recognize that these goats are on a newproperty in a changed environment and are often in amuch different climate than they had been previouslyadapted for living. From the moment they left theirprevious homes, these new goats’ immune systems areunder constant assault.

Vaccinating the herd/flock can provide some insurance against specific common diseases. However,each vaccination program must be tailored to an indi-vidual operation. It is also important that producersunderstand what they are vaccinating for and why it isimportant. This is an instance where a veterinarian’sassistance can be critical. Just because there is avaccine available for a specific disease does not meanproducers should use it. There should be economic orother justification to vaccinate for specific diseases.Producers should work through the risk factors andother control programs with a veterinarian and decidewhether or not it makes sense to vaccinate. Theclostridial vaccines are the only ones that can berecommended on a blanket basis for almost all sheepand goats. All other vaccination programs need to bedeveloped specific to a herd/flock.

Sheep and goats should be vaccinated forClostridium perfringens Types C and D and tetanus(CD&T) at appropriate times. Combination vaccines(7- and 8-way) are also available against otherclostridial diseases, such as blackleg and malignantedema. These vaccines are inexpensive, and when usedproperly, are very effective in preventing losses.Clostridial diseases are endemic to all sheep and goatoperations. They are caused by specific bacteria thatcommonly live in the gut and manure of sheep andgoats and, under specific conditions, can affect bothsheep and goats.

When handling vaccinations, it is important tofollow label directions, as vaccines must be stored,handled and administered properly. Only healthy livestock should be vaccinated.

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The most basic method of diseasecontrol in individual herds/flocks is toavoid introduction of disease agents.

Nutrition is vital for raising healthy livestockand for proper reproductive management. Flushing orfeeding females so they gain weight prior to breedingwill help them conceive. Forages should be used asmuch as possible when feeding sheep and goats, butproducers may need to supplement with protein orenergy, depending on nutritional demands. Importanttimes to supplement are during late gestation, duringlactation, during growth of replacement breeding stockand prior to breeding.

Minerals and salt should also be providedyear-round in a block, mixed in feed or loose. Mineralsused should be designed and formulated for the speciesof animal being fed. Goats should be fed mineralsformulated for goats, and sheep should be fed mineralsformulated for sheep. Remember to pay particular

attention to copper content of feeds and minerals usedfor sheep, as they are very susceptible to copper toxi-city. Proper mineral nutrition can enhance the immunesystem of animals. Well-fed livestock are more resis-tant to diseases and parasites, so balanced rationsappropriate for production stage should be fed in orderto maintain body condition and control losses due toparasitism and infectious diseases. Any changes infeeding should be made gradually.

A sound management program to keep animalshealthy is basic to production of both sheep andgoats. Producers must observe animals closely tokeep individual animals and the whole herd or flockhealthy and productive. If the health status of a herd iscompromised, that operation will not be as efficientas possible.

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Steven M. Jones, Associate Professor - Animal Science