vol. 16, no. 1, 2016 herbologia, - anubih - naslovna out as the second cause of species extinction...

Vol. 16, No. 1, April 2016

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Issued by: The Academy of Sciences and Arts of Bosnia and Herzegovina

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Paolo Barberi (Italy) Shamsher S. Narwal (India) Daniela Chodova (Czech Republic) Zvonimir Ostojić (Croatia) Mirha Đikić (B&H) Lidija Stefanović (Serbia) Gabriella Kazinczi (Hungary) Taib Šarić (B&H) Senka Milanova (Bulgaria) Štefan Tyr (Slovakia) Viktor Zadorozhnyi (Ukraine)

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Dubravka Šoljan (B&H), Chairman Mira Knežević (Croatia) Katerina Hamouzova (Czech Republic) Gyula Pinke (Hungary) Rabiaa Haouala (Tunisia) Milena Simić (Serbia) Zoran Jovović (Montenegro) Andrej Simončič (Slovenija) Gerhard Karrer (Austria) Asif Tanveer (Pakistan)

Editor-in-Chief: Academician Taib Šarić (B&H) Deputy Editor and DTP: Mirha Đikić (B&H)

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CONTENTS

S. Maslo:Preliminary list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia andHerzegovina …......…….......…………………………………….........…………... 1

S. Maslo, Š. Šarić:Fall panicgrass Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx - a new alien species in theflora of Bosnia and Herzegovina ………………............................................ 15

R. Baličević, M. Ravlić, J. Kleflin, M. Tomić:Allelopathic activity of plant species from Asteraceae and Polygonaceaefamily on lettuce ....…...............................................................................…. 23

T. Abbas, M. A. Nadeem, A. Tanveer, N. Farooq, A. Zohaib:Mulching with allelopathic crops to manage herbicide resistant littleseedcanarygrass ……………………………………………………………...………... 31

Z. Pacanoski, A. Saliji:Response of maize/bean intercrop on pre applied herbicide ….…..………... 41

E. Štefanić, S. Antunović, B. Japundžić-Palenkić, I. Štefanić:Weed community responses to agricultural management systems intransplanted cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. Capitata) ……………..…….. 51

E. Štefanić, I. Štefanić, S. Antunović, B. Japundžić Palenkić:

Economic analysis of weed control in transplanted cabbage (Brassicaoleracea var. Capitata) ………....….......................................................…… 59

Instruction to Authors in the Herbologia ….................................................. 67

Referees of the papers in the Herbologia Vol. 16, No. 1 .…….......…........68

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PRELIMINARY LIST OF INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES (IAS) IN BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Semir Maslo Primary School, Lundåkerskola, Gislaved, Sweden E.mail: [email protected]

Abstract

As a result of 20 years of field research as well as herbarium and literature searches, a preliminary list of invasive alien plant species has been compiled and is presented here. It numbers 50 taxa, which equals 10% of the alien flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina. The invasive alien flora was further analyzed with respect to taxonomy, life forms, geographic origin, first record and habitat type. The most common family is Asteraceae s.l. (19 taxa; 38%) and the predominant life form is therophytes (56%). The majority of the plant invasive alien species originate from North America (52%).

Keywords: invasive alien plants, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Balkans

Introduction

Plant invasion has been recognized as one of the most serious environmental problems which impact the structure, composition and function of natural and semi-natural ecosystems (Mooney & Hobbs, 2000). According to Genovesi & Shine (2003), invasive alien species have been pointed out as the second cause of species extinction at the world level (after habitat deterioration or loss).

Due to the concept of Richardson et al. (2000) and Pyšek et al. (2004), plant invasive alien species (IAS) are defined as “naturalized plants that produce reproductive offspring, often in very large numbers, at considerable distances from parent plants, and thus have the potential to spread over large areas (produce reproductive offspring more than 100 m in less than 50 years through generative reproduction/or more than 6 m in three years through vegetative reproduction)”.

According to data available in “Overview and status of Biological and Landscape Diversity in Bosnia and Herzegovina” (Redžić et al, 2008) 4569 taxa of vascular flora have been registered in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina. Based on available records, it is estimated that in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina occur more than 500 alien species, of which many got adapted in natural habitats. A significant number of them live only in crops (Redžić et al., 2008).

Herbologia, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2016. 10.5644/Herb.16.1.01

mailto:[email protected]

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In about one third of Bosnia and Herzegovina plant invanders the first records of their occurrence in the wild are more than a century old (Struschka, 1880: Murbeck, 1891; Malý, 1899; 1908; 1912), but with the majority of them quick expansion of populations took place in the last 50 years. Since the 1950s a few works giving findings of alien flora from various areas in Bosnia and Herzegovina have been published (Korica,1952; Bjelčić, 1954; Kovačević, 1957; Slavnić, 1960, 1964; Šilić, 1972/73, 1973; Obradović & Budak, 1982; Bjelčić & Stefanović, 1986; Abadžić, 1986/87; Mišić, 1998; Šilić & Abadžić, 2000: Šoljan & Muratović, 2000, 2002, 2004; Šoljan et al, 2003;, Topalić-Trivunović, 2004, 2008, Tomović-Hadžiavdić & Šoljan, 2006; Vojniković, 2009, 2015; Maslo, 2010, 2012, 2014a, 2014b, 2015; Petrović et al, 2011; Šoljan, 2011; Maslo & Abadžić, 2015; Memišević Hodžić et al, 2015). There are no published complete lists or analyses of alien flora in Bosnia and Herzegovina as a whole.

Table 1. List of plant invasive alien species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Taxon Family Life form Origin 1st record/autor Habitat type

Abutilon theophrasti Medik. Malvaceae T As-E Struschka, 1880 Waste places, cultivated soils.

Acer negundo L. Aceraceae P Am-C&N

Tomović-Hadžiavdić. & Šoljan, 2006

Riverine forest, waste places.

Ailanthus altisima (Mill.) Sw. Simaroubaceae P As-E Struschka. 1880 Ruderalis/widespread, waste

places, railways, rocklands.

Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthaceae T Am-N Struschka. 1880 Ruderalis, waste places,

cultivated soils, city lawns.

Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. Asteraceae T Am-N Maly, 1940 Waste places, cultivated soils.

river banks, city lawns.

Amorpha fruticosa L. Fabaceae P Am-N Beck , 1927 River banks.

Artemisia annua L. Asteraceae T As-E Murbeck ,1891 Ruderalis/widespread, waste places, railways.

Artemisia verlotiorum L. Asteraceae H As-E Redžić et al.,

2008 Ruderalis, waste places,

railways.

Asclepias syriaca L. Asclepiadaceae H Am-N Maly, 1928 Wet meadows.

Aster squamatus (Spreng.) Heiron Asteraceae T Am-

C&S Maslo, 2014a. Ruderalis/waste places, river banks.

Bidens frondosa L. Asteraceae T Am-N Bjelčić, 1954 Ruderalis/waste places, river banks.

Preliminary list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina

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Bidens subalternans DC. Asteraceae T Am-S Ilijanić&

Hećimović 1983. Ruderalis, waste places,

railways.

Broussonetia papyrifera L`Herit ex Vent.

Moraceae P As-E Beck ,1916 Ruderalis/waste places,

vegetation near the road sides.

Chamomilla suaveolens (Pursh) Rydb

Asteraceae T Am-S Maly, 1912

Ruderalis, vegetation near the road sides.

aste places, vegetation near the road sides.

Chenopodium ambrosioides L. Chenopodiaceae T Am-T Beck ,1916

Ruderalis, vegetation near the road sides.

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronq. Asteraceae T Am-C Lasić et al, 2010 Ruderalis, waste places,

railways.

Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq. Asteraceae T Am-N Struschka, 1880 Ruderalis/widespread.

Cuscuta campestris Yunker Cuscutaceae T Am-N Beck et al, 1967 Ruderalis, submediterranean

shrublands and rocklands.

Datura stramonium L. Solanaceae T Am-N Struschka, 1880 Ruderalis/widespread.

Duchesnea indica (Andrews) Focke Rosaceae H As-E Maslo, 2014b City lawns, grasslands.

Echinocystis lobata (Michx.) Torr. et Gray Cucurbitaceae T Am-N

Slavnić, 1964 (in Abadžić, 1986/87).

BOS. GRADIŠKA

Ruderalis/waste places, river banks.

Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. Poaceae T As Mišić, 1987 City lawns, trampled habitats,

cracks in the asphalt.

Elodea canadensis Michx Hydrocharitaceae Hy Am-N Maly, 1928 Stagnant water, channels,

shalow lakes, ditches.

Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers. ssp. annuus Asteraceae T Am-N Murbeck ,1891 Ruderalis/widespread, waste

places, shrublands.

Euphorbia maculata L. Euphorbiaceae T Am-N Slavnić, 1960 Ruderalis, trampled habitats, railways..

Euphorbia prostrata Aiton Euphorbiaceae T Am-N Maslo, 2014b Ruderalis, trampled habitats,

along roads and railway lines.

Galinsoga ciliata (Raf.) S.F.Blake Asteraceae T Am-S Beck et al, 1983 Disturbed habitats, weed in

gardens.

Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Asteraceae T Am-S Maly, 1933 Ruderalis/waste places, weed

in crops and gardens.

Helianthus tuberosus L. Asteraceae G Am-N Beck et al, 1983 Along roads and railways, river

banks, ditches, dikes.

Impatiens glandulifera Royle Balsaminaceae T As Maly, 1935 Along rivers, around dumpsites

and in disturbed habitats.

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Juncus tenuis Willd.. Juncaceae H Am-N Maly, 1935 Semi-natural and man-made habitats.

Lepidium virginicum L. Brassicaceae T Am-N Maly, 1923 City lawns, along roads and railways, cracks in the asphalt.

Oenanthera biennis L. Onagraceae H Am-N Beck ,1927 Ruderalis/waste places, on river banks, near roads and

railways.

Opuntia vulgaris Mill. Cactaceae Ch Am-N Maslo, 2014b Mediterranean rocklands, in rocky, sandy and grassy areas.

Panicum capillare L. Poaceae T Am-N Slavnić, 1960 Along roads and railways.

Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planchon.

Vitaceae P Am-N Beck ,1916 Along rivers and forest

margins, climbing and coiling around trees.

Paspalum paspalodes (Michx.) Scribn. Poaceae G Am-N Bajić, 1954 Ruderalis, city lawns, river

banks.

Phytolacca americana L. Phytolaccaceae G Am-N Maly, 1908 Abandoned and ruderal places,

margins of forests, in gardens.

Pueraria thunbergiana Benth. Fabaceae P As-E Maslo, 2014b Along rivers and forest

margins, coiling around trees.

Reynoutria japonica Houtt. Polygonaceae G As Trinajstić, 1990 Man-made habitats, along

roads and railways, dumpsites.

Robinia pseudoacacia L. Fabaceae P Am-N Struschka 1880 Natural forests, along roads,

railways, river banks.

Rudbeckia laciniata L. Asteraceae H Am-N Slavnić, 1960 Along rivers and forest margins, wetlands.

Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav. Solanaceae T Am-S Lasić et al, 2010 Ruderalis/waste places.

Solidago canadensis L. Asteraceae H Am-N Beck et al, 1983 Along rivers and forest margins, roadsides, gardens.

Solidago gigantea Aiton Asteraceae H Am-N

Maly, 1933

TREBEVIĆ

Along rivers and forest margins, roadsides, gardens.

Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers. Poaceae G As Struschka 1880 Grassy and sandy places, in

crops as a weed, roadsides.

Tagetes minuta L. Asteraceae T Am-S Maly, 1935 MOSTAR

Waste places, along roads, railways, vineyards, farmland.

Veronica persica Poir. Scrophulariaceae T As -W Maly, 1899 Widespred


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Xantthium spinosum L. Asteraceae T Am-S Struschka, 1880 Ruderalis/waste places, along roads, railways, river banks.

Xanthium strumarium L. ssp. italicum (Moretti) D.Löve

Asteraceae T Am-N&S

Murbeck ,1891 Man-made and disturbed habitats, river banks and dikes.

Although occasional attention has been paid to the alien flora in Bosnia and Herzegovina, ecological studies on plant invasion are still scanty. Some data exist but the authors do not rely on the criteria set by Richardson et al. (2000) and Pyšek et al. (2004), and their lists include some taxa that belong to the autochthonous flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina (Redžić et al, 2008; Vojniković, 2009). Both of these lists have even included a taxon that does not exist in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina, namely Bidens bipinnata L. According to Trinajstić (1993) all the previous states of B. bipinnata in the Eastern Adriatic Littoral refer to the taxon Bidens subalternans DC. This is also confirmed by my own field research in South Herzegovina. This work contains the first preliminary list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) of Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Materials and methods

The preliminary check-list of invasive alien plant species in Bosnia and Herzegovina is mainly created according to literature data and my own field observations. All relevant literature concerning alien species, their first records and their spread in the territory of Bosnia and Herzegovina was examined.

Plant nomenclature follows Nikolić (ed.) (2015). In this work theAsteraceae family is perceived in a broader sense (sensu lato), namely Asteraceae and Cichoriaceae together.

In the list of invasive alien flora (Tab. 1.), taxa were listed in alphabetic order. The invasiveness of species is estimated according to Richardson et al. (2000). The life-form categories follow Raunkiaer (1934) and are marked with the standard abbreviations in the list of urban flora: Ch (Chamaephytes), G (Geophytes), H (Hemmicriptophytes), Hy (Hydrophytes), P (Phanerophytes) and T (Therophytes).

Data about the geographic origin of invasive alien taxa were taken mostly from the available literature (see References).

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Table 2. Taxonomic spectrum of families of IAS in Bosnia and Herzegovina

Family No. of taxa % Asteraceae 19 38.00 Poaceae 4 8.00 Fabaceae 3 6.00 Euphorbiaceae 2 4.00 Solanaceae 2 4.00 Aceraceae 1 2.00 Amaranthaceae 1 2.00 Asclepiadaceae 1 2.00 Balsaminaceae 1 2.00 Brassicaceae 1 2.00 Cactaceae 1 2.00 Chenopodiaceae 1 2.00 Cucurbitaceae 1 2.00 Cuscutaceae 1 2.00 Hydrocharitaceae 1 2.00 Juncaceae 1 2.00 Malvaceae 1 2.00 Moraceae 1 2.00 Onagraceae 1 2.00 Phytolaccaceae 1 2.00 Polygonaceae 1 2.00 Rosaceae 1 2.00 Scrophulariaceae 1 2.00 Simaroubaceae 1 2.00 Vitaceae 1 2.00

Results and discussion

The preliminary check-list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina consist of 50 taxa and is presented in Tab. 1. The list consists of IAS that belong to 43 genera and 25 families (Tab. 2.), the majority of which (22 familes with 44 taxa) belong to dicotyledones. Monocotyledones are represented by only 3 families with 6 taxa. The family with the highest number of IAS is Asteraceae, which included 19 invasive taxa, which account for more than one third of all IAS in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Other families with a considerable number of invasive taxa are Poaceae and Fabaceae, with 4 respectively 3 taxa, while the other families are represented with two taxa or only one taxon (Tab. 2). Comparisons with the


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invasive floras of Croatia (Boršić et al., 2008), Montenegro (Stešević & Petrović, 2010), Serbia (Lazarević et al., 2012) and Europe (Lambdon et al., 2008), show that the representation of the richest families is very similar, and that these are mostly global plant families. The family Asteraceae not only is an important contributor of IAS in Bosnia and Herzegovina, but also is the largest dicotyledonous family and one of the notorious contributors to the naturalized flora of the world (Pyšek, 1998).The most abundant genera are Artemisia, Bidens, Conyza, Euphorbia, Galinsoga, Solidago and Xanthium which all are represented with two taxa (Tab. 1).

An analysis of life-forms of IAS in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Fig. 1.) shows the predominance of therophytes with 28 taxa (56% of all IAS), followed by hemmicriptophytes with 8 taxa (16%), phanerophytes with 7 taxa (14%) and geophytes with 5 taxa (10%), while the least abundant are chamaephytes and hydrophytes with only one taxon each (2%). The greatest procentage of recorded therophytes is similar to the alien floras of other countries in the region (Boršić et al., 2008; Stešević & Petrović, 2010). On the other hand, such a high presence of therophytes also matches their dominance in the native flora of the area. Quite a large proportion of phanerophytes is connected with significant introductions of ornamental and cultivated species of trees and shrubs.

Figure 1. Life-form analysis of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

An analysis of the geographical origin of IAS in Bosnia and Herzegovina (Tab. 3) showed that the most plants originated from the Americas (37 taxa, 74%), among which most originate from North America (26 taxa, 52%). Plants that originate from Asia are also significantly represented (13 taxa, 26%). The IAS of Bosnia and Herzegovina primarily

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has American and Asian origins, similar to other countries in this region including Croatia (Boršić et al., 2008), Montenegro (Stešević & Petrović, 2010) and Serbia (Lazarević et al., 2012).

Table 3. Origin analysis of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Geografic region/subregion No. of taxa %

AMERICA

Central America 1

37 74.00

Central & North America 1 Central & South America 1 North America 26 North & South America 1 South America 6 Tropical America 1

ASIA Asia 5

13 26.00 East Asia 7 West Asia 1

TOTAL 50 100.00

Up to now five taxa of IAS have distribution restricted only to Bosnia, mostly in the Posavina region: Asclepias syriaca, Chamomilla suaveolens, Echinocystis lobata, Impatiens glandulifera and Solidago gigantea. According to distribution maps in FCD (Nikolić (ed.), 2013) almost all given taxa have the same continental distributions in neighbouring Croatia.

Due to the favorable climate and higher level of disturbance the Mediterranean part of the country hosted significantly higher number of IAS than continental-mountainous. IAS (12 taxa) typical for the Mediterranean part of the country are: Artemisia verlotiorum, Aster squamatus, Bidens subalternans, Broussonetia papyrifera, Conyza bonariensis, Duchesnea indica, Eleusine indica, Euphorbia prostra, Opuntia vulgaris, Paspalum paspalodes, Pueraria thunbergiana, Solanum elaeagnifolium and Tagetes minuta. Other taxa (33) are distributed in both parts of the country (Fig. 2).


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Figure 2. Preliminary data on the distribution of some invasive alien plant species in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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Conclusions

The preliminary check-list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Bosnia and Herzegovina consists of 50 taxa belonging to 43 genera and 25 families.The families with the highest number of IAS are Asteraceae, Poaceae and Fabaceae.

In the spectrum of life forms therophytes are prevailing, while due to its native range, the majority of IAS has North American origin. Due to the favourable climate and higher level of disturbance the Mediterranean part of the country is more favourable for alien plant species than the continental one.

It is important to note that my results in this study did not include several well-know invasive taxa, which were recorded in the country, such as Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Lévier, Paspalum dilatatum Poir and Senecio inaequidens DC, due to their short residence times in to the area,and limited amount of herbarium records of these species. Therefore, further studies are highly recommended in the future.

Acknowledgement I would like to thank to Aldin Boškailo on the mapping of distribution of species as well as my colleague Jessica Andersson for improving the English of this paper.

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http://www.researchgate.net/researcher/2029937955_Nenad_Sekulic/

http://www.researchgate.net/researcher/2029962575_Sasa_Brankovic/

http://www.researchgate.net/researcher/2029953716_Goran_Sekulic/

http://www.researchgate.net/researcher/2029961157_Vladan_Bjedov/

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MIŠIĆ, LJ. 1998: Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. – nova vrsta trave (Poaceae) u adventivnoj flori Bosne i Hercegovine. Radovi Poljopriv. Fak. Universiteta u Sarajevu XLIII, 47: 52-55. Sarajevo.

MITIĆ, B., BORŠIĆ, I., DUJMOVIĆ, I., BOGDANOVIĆ, S., MILOVIĆ, M., CIGIĆ, P., REŠETNIK, I. & NIKOLIĆ, T., 2008: Alien flora of Croatia: proposals for standards in terminology, criteria and related database. Nat.Croat. 17, 73-90.

MOONEY, H.A. & HOBBS, R.J. (eds), 2000: Invasive Species in a Changing World. Island Press, Washington, D.C., USA.

MURBECK, S., 1891: Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Flora von Sudbosnien und der Hercegovina. Lunds Universitets Arsskrift, 27: 1-182, Lund.

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NIKOLIĆ, T. (ed.), 2015: Flora Croatica baza podataka /Flora croatica Database. On-Line URL: http://hirc.botanic.hr/fcd. ( Acessed November 2015). Botanički zavod, Prirodoslovno-matematički fakultet, Sveučilište u Zagrebu.

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PETROVIĆ, D., HERCEG, N., KOVAČEVIĆ, Z. & OSTOJIĆ, I., 2011: Distribution of tree of heaven species Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle in Herzegovina. Herbologija. 12 (1), 111 – 114.

PYŠEK, P., 1998: Is there a taxonomic pattern to plant invasions? Oikos 82, 282-294. PYŠEK, P., RICHARDSON, D.M., REJMANEK, M., WEBSTER, G.L., WILLIAMSON,

M., & KIRSCHNER, J., 2004: Alien plants in checklists and floras: towards better communication between taxonomists and ecologists. Taxon, 53(1): 131-143.

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REDŽIĆ, S., BARUDANOVIĆ, S. & RADOVIĆ, M., eds., 2008: Bosnia and Herzegovina –Land of Diversity. Overview and status of Biological and Landscape Diversity in Bosnia and Herzegovina. Federal Ministry of Environment and Tourism, Sarajevo.

RICHARDSON D. M., PYŠEK P., REJMÁNEK M., BARBOUR M. G., PANETTA F. D. & WEST C. J., 2000: Naturalization and invasion of alien plants: concepts and definitions. Diversity & Distributions, Oxford, 6: 93–107.

SLAVNIĆ, Ž., 1960: O useljavanju, širenju i odomaćivanju nekih adventivnih biljaka u Bosni i Hercegovini. Godišnjak Biološkog instituta Univerziteta u Sarajevu, XIII, 1-2: 117-146. Sarajevo.

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Appendix 1. Invasive alien plant species in Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Figure 1. Some invasive alien plant species in Bosnia and Herzegovina: a. Asclepias syriaca; b. Bidens frondosa; c. Chamomilla suaveolens;

d. Chenopodium ambrosioides; e. Conyza bonariensis;f. Echinocystis lobata; g. Impatiens glandulifera; h. Reynoutria japonica;

i. Solidago Canadensis(Photos: Semir Maslo, except photos a, b and f, by Šemso Šarić).

Herbologia, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2016.

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FALL PANICGRASS Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. – A NEW ALIEN SPECIES IN THE FLORA OF BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA

Semir Maslo1, Šemso Šarić2 1Primary School, Lundåkerskola, Gislaved, Sweden E.mail: [email protected]

2JP ŠPD-ZDK d.o.o Zavidovići, Bosnia and Herzegovina E.mail: [email protected]

Abstract

A new alien species for the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina was found, namely Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx., fall panicgrass. In early autumn 2015, during fieldwork on the banks of the Krivaja River near Zavidovići (Central Bosnia), the second author came across a dense population of an unknown grass species. Based on the collected material and the relevant literature the first author has determined the taxon as Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx.

Fall panicgrass is an annual arable weed and ruderal plant of American origin with a limited distribution in Europe. The paper presents a short morphological description and illustrations of the species based mainly on the collected specimens, as well as the distribution of the taxon.

Keywords: alien species, weed, morphology, distribution.

Introduction

Panicum dichotomiflorum belongs to sect. Dichotomiflora (Hitch.) Honda. No representative of sect. Dichotomiflora is spontaneous in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina and P. dichotomiflorum cannot be confused with other species of Panicum from this flora.

The native distribution range is North and South America and it is widely naturalized in southern Europe, Asia and Australia. It has been reported in Europe as established in Azerbaijan, Albania, Austria, Belgium with Luxembourg, Czech Republic, Croatia, France, Germany, Georgia, Great Britain, Hungary, Italy, Netherlands, Poland, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, Slovenia, Spain, Switzerland, Turkey and Ukraine (Valdés & Scholz, 2009).

The first record of this species for the territory of Former Yugoslavia (on the banks of the open channels, near Turopolje in Central Croatia) was reported by Hulina (1985), as well as in maize fields, on field paths and boundaries (Ilijanić & Marković 1986). It is also reported in Slovenia (Csiky et al., 2004; Jogan, 2007).

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Material and methods

During fieldwork in 2015 in the area of Central Bosnia, the second author found a new alien species for the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. Digital photographs and GPS coordinates were taken in field.

Identification of the specimens was done according to Clayton, (1980), Conert, (2000), Cope & Gray, (2009), Hitchcock, (1950), Pignatti, (1982), Ryves et al., (1986), Schou, (2009) and Verloove, (2001, 2014). The taxonomy and nomenclature of species has been adjusted according to Nikolić (2016).

Herbarium samples (No. inv. XX XXX) are stored in the Herbarium of the National Museum of Bosnia and Herzegovina (SARA).

Figure 1. Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. (Drawing from the book Danmarks græser, by Jens Christian Schou with permission of author).

Fall panicgrass Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. – a new alien species in the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina

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Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. Fl. Bor.-Amer. 1: 48. 1803 (syn. Panicum chloroticum Nees ex Trin.), also known as fall panicgrass, originated in North and South America, and is widely naturalized in Asia, Australia and parts of Europe.

The first finding of this species for Bosnia and Herzegovina is coming from Central Bosnia 2015, in the village Hadžine Vode near Zavidovići, on the banks of Krivaja river (44° 14' 18.07" N; 18° 28' 48.81" E), with several massive colonies on both sides of the river.

It especially grows in disturbed habitats: waste places, along moist or wet (periodically flooded) road sides, riverbanks, and as a weed in cultivated areas. Our findings in Central Bosnia: midstream of the river Bosna, between Žepče and Maglaj (Žepče, Zavidovići, Maglaj), Krivaja River downstream of Ribnica and the town of Banovići.The largest population recorded is in maize fields near Žepče (Fig.3).

The invasive character: Although it is not known yet from other localities in Bosnia and Herzegovina, its wide spread throughout the world leads to us considering it as a species with a fairy high invasive potential into disturbed habitats. Even fall panicgrass is classified as invasive in Croatia (Boršić et al., 2008, Nikolić et al, 2014) we recognized it as naturalized non-invasive taxa according to its behavior observed in the investigated area. For the time being it does not show the ability of invasive expansion, but this possibility cannot be excluded.

The genus Panicum L. is one of the largest genera of grasses, and comprises approximately 300 species of worldwide distribution. The majority of species are of tropical or subtropical origin (Zuloaga & Soderstrom, 1985). In the flora of Europe, Panicum is represented by only six species (Clayton, 1980). The majority of Panicum species recognized in Europe belong to sect. Panicum L. (leaf sheaths rounded and hairy, lower glumes acute to attenuate) and sect. Dichotomiflora (Hitch.) Honda (leaf sheats compressed, glabrous, lower glumes truncate to subacute) (Clayton, 1980, Freckmann and Lelong, 2003).

In the flora of Bosnia and Herzegovina only two species of the genus Panicum have been recorded so far: Panicum capillare L. and Panicum miliaceum L.(Beck, 1903, Slavnić, 1960). From these two P. dichotomiflorum can be easily distinguished by compressed and glabrous leaf sheats.

To identify this new species, we offer the adjusted key according to Clayton (1980), Freckmann and Lelong (2003) and Verloove (2014).

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1. Lower glume ¼ of spikelet length. Leaf sheaths compressed,glabrous, lower glumes truncate to subacute P. dichotomiflorum

1. Lower glume more than ½ of spikelet length. Leaf sheaths roundedand hairy, lower glumes acute to attenuate

2. Panicle usually more than ½ the length of the entire plantP. capillare

2. Panicle less than ½ the length of the entire plantP. millaceum

Figure 2. Panicum dichotomiflorum Michx. in the town of Zavidovići (Photo by Šemso Šarić).


19

Panicum dichotomiflorum (Fig. 1) is a fibrous-rooted annual grass, with geniculate or ascending stem, up to 50 – 150 cm high. Size varies greatly, depending on competition from other plants for soil moisture and nutrients. The stem often has a zigzag appearance because it bends at the nodes (Fig. 2). Mature leaves are 10-50 cm long and 5-25 mm wide, with a prominent pale green midvein. The ligules are 1 – 2 mm long, roundly obtuse, membranous and are surrounded by thick, small, white hairs. The sheaths are often compressed glabrous, ciliate on the margin. The spikelets are grouped in large, many-flowered and diffuse panicles, 10-40 cm long The spikelets are narrowly elliptical, deciduous, 2 – 3 mm long, acute, often greenish purple. Lower glume is ¼ as long as the spikelet, truncate or broadly triangular. Upper glume and lower lemma acute. The caryopsis is ca 2 mm long, yellow-brown, and elliptic (Hitchcock, 1950, Clayton, 1980).

Fall panicgrass has become a nuisance in cultivated fields, such as maize, alfalfa and soybeans. The species is also recorded as a pernicious weed in maize fields in some countries of Europe (Jensen et al., 2011). Fall panicgrass became a particular problem in maize fields when atrazine came into popular use in the 1950s and 1960s. Atrazine controls many weeds but has little or no effect on fall panicgrass, which flourishes in the absence of competition. The best control method for fall panicgrass in cultivated fields is to establish a shady crop canopy, because fall panicgrass must have full sun to grow (Thompson et al., 1971). Fall panicgrass has been blamed for causing nitrate poisoning and extreme sensitivity to light in livestock of any skin that is not protected from the sun (Nikolić et al, 2014).

Figure 3. The distribution of Panicum dichotomiflorum in the Bosnia and Herzegovina.

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This species flowers from June to October and reproduces entirely by seeds that mature in late summer and fall. Seeds can be dispersed by wind and animals. The mode of introduction in our flora is not certain. It is possible that it happened accidentally, but can be introduced with birdseeds and from other sources. The potential invasive characteristics of the species should be monitored in the coming years.

Acknowledgements: We would like to thank Jens Christian Schou for his permission of the use of the species' drawing as well as Aldin Boškailo on the mapping of distribution of species.

References

BECK, G., 1903: Flora Bosne i Hercegovine i Novopazarskog Sandžaka. Sarajevo. BORŠIĆ, I., MILOVIĆ, M., DUJMOVIĆ, I., BOGDANOVIĆ, S., CIGIĆ, P., REŠETNIK,

I., NIKOLIĆ, T. & MITIĆ, B., 2008: Preliminary check-list of invasive alien plant species (IAS) in Croatia. Nat.Croat. , 17(2).

CLAYTON, W.D., 1980: Panicum L. In Tutin, T.G., Heywood, V.H., Burges, N.A., Moore, D.M., Valentine, D.H., Walters, S.M. & Webb D. A. (eds.): Flora europaea. 5: p.261. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

CONERT, H. J., 2000: Pareys Gräserbuch. Die Gräser Deutschlands erkennen und Bestimmen. 592 pp. Parey Buchverlag, Berlin.

COPE, T. & GRAY, A., 2009: Grasses of the British Isles. Handbook Number 13. Botanical Society of the British Isles. London.

CSYKI, J., KIRALY, G., OLAH, E., PFEIFFER, N. & VIROK, V., 2004: Panicum dichotomiflorum Michaux., a new element in the Hungarian flora. Acta Bot. Hung. 46(1-2): 137-141.

FRECKMANN, R.W., LELONG, M.G., 2007: Panicum L. In: Barkworth, M.E., Anderton, I.A., Capels, K.M., Long, S., Piep, M.B. (eds.), Manual of Grasses for NorthAmerica, 289-296. Intermountain Herbarium & Utah State University Press, Logan,Utah.

HITCHCOCK, A. S., 1950: Manual of the grasses of the United States, ed.2. Washington. HULINA, N., 1985: Vrsta Panicum dichotomiflorum Mnchx. – Novi korov u Jugoslaviji.

Fragm. Herbol. Jugosl. 1-2(14): 113-120. HULINA, N., 1998: Rare, endangered or vulnerable plants and neophytes in a drainage

system in Croatia. Nat. Croat. 7(4): 279-289. ILIJANIĆ, L. & MARKOVIĆ, L., 1986: Panicum dichotomiflorum Michaux in the

surroundings of Zagreb. Acta Bot. Croat. 45: 137-139. JENSEN, P.K, BIBARD ,V., CZEMBOR, E., DUMITRU, S., FOUCART G, FROUD-

WILLIAMS R.J, JENSEN J.E., SAAVEDRA, M., SATTIN M., SOUKUP, J., PALOU, A.T., THIBORD, J.-B., VOEGLER, W. & KUDSK, P., 2011: Survey of weeds in maize crops in Europe DJF Report Agricultural Science No. 149.

JOGAN, N., 2007: Poaceae. In: Martinčič A., Wraber T., Jogan N., Ravnik V., Podobnik A., Turk B., Vreš B. (eds.), Small flora of Slovenia (in Slovenian), 826-932. Tehniška založba Slovenije, Ljubljana.

NIKOLIĆ, T. (ed.)., 2016: Flora Croatica baza podataka / Flora Croatica Database. On-Line. URL: http://hirc.botanic.hr/fcd. (Accesed January 2016). Botanički zavod, Prirodoslovno-matematički fakultet, Sveučilište u Zagrebu.

NIKOLIĆ, T., MITIĆ, B. & BORŠIĆ, I., 2014: Invazivne biljke, Alfa dd. 296 pp. Zagreb. PIGNATTI, S., 1982: Flora dÌtalia 3. Edagricole. Bologna.

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RYVES, T. B., CLEMENT, E. J & FOSTER, M. C., 1996: Alien grasses of the British Isles. Botanical Society of the British Isles. London.

SCHOU, J.C., 2009: Danmarks græser. 527 pp., BFN´s forlag, Thisted /In Danish. SLAVNIĆ, Ž., 1960: O useljavanju, širenju i A (Poaceae, Paniceae) in Belgium. Syst. Geogr.

Pl. 71: 53-72. VERLOOVE, F., 2014: Manual of the alien plants of Belgium. Panicum

dichotomiflorum. Retrieved April 13, 2016. from http://alienplantsbelgium.be ZULOAGA, F. & SODERSTROM, T.R., 1985: Classification of the outlying species of

New World Panicum, (Poaceae: Paniceae). Smithsonian Contributions to Botany 59, 1-63.

http://alienplantsbelgium.be/

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23

ALLELOPATHIC ACTIVITY OF PLANT SPECIES FROM ASTERACEAE AND POLYGONACEAE FAMILY ON LETTUCE

Renata Baličević, Marija Ravlić, Jožica Kleflin*, Marijan Tomić* Faculty of Agriculture, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University in Osijek, Kralja Petra Svačića 1d,

31000 Osijek, Croatia *Student, Graduate study Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract

The allelopathic potential of extracts from nine plants species belonging to Asteraceae and Polygonaceae family was evaluated on germination and early growth of lettuce. Water extracts from dry biomass of different plant parts in concentration of 5% were examined under laboratory bioassay in Petri dishes. Among species of Asteraceae family, the highest germination and seedlings growth inhibition was observed with annual fleabane (Erigeron annuus) leaf extract which reduced all parameters for 100%. Similarly, common sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) and common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) also exhibited considerable negative effect. Germination of lettuce was not greatly affected when extracts from Polygonaceae plant species were applied, however significant inhibition of root and shoot length as well as fresh seedling biomass was recorded, especially in treatments with black bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus).

Keywords: allelopathy, Asteraceae, Polygonaceae, extracts, lettuce, germination

Introduction

Allelopathy represents harmful or beneficial influence of phytotoxic substances of donor plant species released in the environment on germination and growth of receiver species (Rice, 1984; Wu et al., 2000), and occurs in both natural ecosystems and agrophytocenosis (Chou, 1999). Allelopathic interactions in agroecosystems are common in weed–crop, weed–weed and crop–crop relationships (Abbassi et al., 2013) and can therefore play an important role in plant diversity, the composition and structure of weed communities and species dominance (Chou, 1999; Gomaa, 2012).

Allelopathy may be exploited as alternative measure in weed management in order to reduce the synthetic herbicide dependency, weed resistance, environmental pollution and adverse effects on human health (Sujatha et al., 2010; Baretto et al., 2000). Allelopathically active crops and allelochemicals can be utilized in different ways as extracts, mulches and residues (Singh et al., 2003). Crop species with high allelopathic potential

10.5644/Herb.16.1.03

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include sorghum, sunflower, Brassica sp., legumes, rice and rye (Soltys et al., 2013; Weston, 1996).

Screening higher plants for allelopathic activity enables researches to find other potential candidates for the isolation and identification of allelochemicals with high inhibitory effect and possibility of their application as natural herbicides. Hong et al. (2003) in their experiment assessed 19 species consisting of weeds, shrubs and trees for allelopathic effect and found that Galactia pendula Pers., Leucaena glauca Benth. and Melia azedarach L. were the most inhibitive in suppression of germination and growth of radish. Similarly, Gilani et al. (2010) studied leaf leachates of 81 medicinal plants against lettuce, while Fujii et al. (2003) in extensive research screened 239 medicinal plant species of different families.

Different test species are used as receptor plants in phytotoxicity bioassays, among them radish and lettuce, due to their high sensitivity to phytotoxic compounds, rapid and uniform germination, high availability and low costs (Patterson, 1986; De Villegas et al., 2011; Grisi et al., 2013).

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of water extracts from nine plant species belonging to Asteraceae and Polygonaceae family on germination and early growth of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.).


The study was conducted in the Laboratory of Phytopharmacy at the Faculty of Agriculture in Osijek, Croatia.

Collection and preparation of plant material: Aboveground biomass of plant species brown knapweed (Centaurea jacea L.), creeping thistle (Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop.), Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis (L.) Cronq.), annual fleabane (Erigeron annuus (L.) Pers.), common sow thistle (Sonchus oleraceus L.), common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare L.) from the family Asteraceae, and black bindweed (Fallopia convolvulus (L.) Á. Löve), prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare L.) and pale persicaria (P. lapathifolium L.) from the family Polygonaceae, was used in the experiments. The plants were harvested at full flowering stage (Hess et al., 1997) from agricultural and ruderal fields in Osijek-Baranja County. The collected fresh plant biomass was separated in the laboratory into root, stem, leaf and inflorescence, oven dried at 60 °C for 48 h, cut into small pieces and ground with electronic grinder into fine powder.

Preparation of water extracts: Water extracts from different dry plant parts were prepared according to Norsworthy (2003) by mixing 50 grams of the plant material with 1000 ml of distilled water and kept for 24 h at room temperature. The mixtures were filtered through filter paper to obtain 5% concentration extracts.

Allelopathic activity of plant species from Asteraceae and Polygonaceae family on lettuce

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Test species: Lettuce seeds (cultivar Majska kraljica) were purchased from a seed company. Prior to each experiment, the seeds were surface-sterilized for 20 min with 1% NaOCl, and then rinsed three times with distilled water (Siddiqui et al., 2009).

Bioassay: Two experiments with extracts were carried out separately, first with plants from Asteraceae and second with plants from Polygonaceae family.

Effect of water extracts were evaluated in Petri dish bioassay. In each Petri dish 25 seeds of lettuce were placed on filter paper and 3 ml of certain extract was added. Petri dishes were kept at room temperature (22°C ± 2) on laboratory benches for 7 days. The experiments were carried out in a completely randomized design with four replications. Each experiment was repeated twice.

Data collection and analysis: The final seed germination was calculated for each replication using the formula: G = (Germinated seed/Total seed) x 100. At the end of the experiments, seedling root and shoot length were measured, and their fresh weight was determined using electronic scale. The collected data were analysed statistically with ANOVA and differences between treatment means were compared using the LSD-test at probability level of 0.05.

Results

Germination and seedling growth of lettuce was significantly affected when extracts from plant biomass of Asteraceae species were applied (Table 1). The highest inhibitory potential was recorded in the treatments with E. annuus and C. canadensis leaf extracts, and S. oleraceus and T. vulgare stem and leaf extracts where reduction in germination ranged from 27.7 to 100%.

The extracts showed a stronger effect on the root length of seedlings which was reduced in the most treatments for over 50%. The exception was observed with C. jacea inflorescence and C. arvense root extract which had no significant effect, and C. canadensis leaf extract which promoted root length for 38.9%. Similarly, extracts showed different effect on shoot length of lettuce seedlings. Extracts from the plant parts of C. arvense, E. annuus and S. oleraceus, as well as T. vulgare leaf extract inhibited the shoot length from 17.4 to 100%. Lettuce seedlings fresh weight was decreased significantly in all treatments, with leaf extracts of E. annuus, S. oleraceus and T. vulgare, and C. arvense root extracts having the highest inhibitory effect.

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Table 1. Activity of water extract of the plant species from the Asteraceae family on germination and growth of lettuce

Means followed by the same letter within the column are not significantly different at P<0.05.

Water extracts from the plant biomass of Polygonaceae species showed considerable allelopathic effect on lettuce seed germination and seedlings length (Table 2). Negative effect on the germination was recorded in treatments with P. lapathifolium and F. convolvulus leaf extracts and P. aviculare stem extract, and ranged from 9.2 to 12%.

Table 2. Activity of water extract of the plant species from the Polygonaceae family on germination and growth of lettuce

Means followed by the same letter within the column are not significantly different at P<0.05.

Treatment Germination (%)

Root length (cm)

Shoot length (cm)

Fresh weight (mg)

Control 90.0 a 1.8 b 2.3 bc 15.9 a C. jacea stem 78.3 bcd 1.4 c 2.7 a 13.9 b

leaf 88.3 ab 0.7 de 2.3 bc 10.1 cd inflorescence 90.8 a 1.6 bc 2.6 ab 9.7 cde

C. arvense root 70.8 def 1.6 bc 1.3 g 6.2 g stem 85.8 ab 0.9 d 1.9 de 10.4 c leaf 68.3 def 0.4 fg 1.9 de 8.4 ef

C. canadensis stem 83.3 abc 1.5 c 2.6 ab 10.8 c leaf 60.0 f 2.5 a 2.3 bc 9.6 cde

E. annuus stem 74.4 cde 0.6 ef 1.7 ef 9.4 cde leaf 0.0 g 0.0 h 0.0 h 0.0 h

S. oleraceus stem 65.0 ef 0.3 g 1.2 g 8.7 def leaf 63.3 ef 0.3 g 1.5 fg 7.5 fg

T. vulgare stem 64.2 ef 0.9 d 2.1 cd 9.8 cde leaf 64.2 ef 0.3 g 1.3 g 7.4 fg

Treatment Germination (%)

Root length (cm)

Shoot length (cm)

Fresh weight (mg)

Control 90.0 a 1.8 a 2.3 b 15.9 a F. convolvulus stem 81.7 b 0.4 de 1.5 d 8.9 c

leaf 82.5 ab 0.3 e 1.4 d 8.3 c P. aviculare stem 81.7 b 0.7 b 1.7 cd 9.2 c

leaf 82.5 ab 0.6 bc 2.9 a 13.6 b P. lapathifolium stem 84.2 ab 0.6 bc 2.3 b 9.4 c

leaf 79.2 b 0.5 cd 1.8 c 8.7 c


27

Reduction in root length of lettuce seedlings was over 65% with all extracts, however F. convolvulus leaf had the highest inhibitory effect. Similarly, the extracts decreased lettuce shoot length up to 40%, while contrary P. aviculare leaf extract promoted shoot length for 26.1%. Seedlings fresh weight was significantly inhibited in all treatments, from 14.5% with P. aviculare leaf extract to 47.8% with F. convolvulus leaf extract.

Discussion

The search for allelopathic plants in order to determine allelopathy, its mechanism and the possibility of future exploitation is in focus of recent studies (Hong et al., 2003), and many crops and weed species have been observed to possess certain allelopathic properties (Batish et al., 2001). The results of the experiment revealed that among plant species from Asteraceae family E. annuus and S. oleraceus showed the highest inhibitory effect, followed by T. vulgare. Similar results were reported by other studies. According to Park et al. (2011) water extracts from leaves of E. annuus inhibited lettuce root hair development. Gomaa et al. (2014) reported negative effect of S. oleraceus dry shoots extract on crops and weeds, especially with higher extract concentrations, and revealed that phenols and alkaloids were the most abundant compounds. In experiment with S. oleraceus residues Hassan et al. (2014) confirmed its strong allelopathic effect through decrease in test species germination which could be attributed to the release of phenolics. Numerous other species from this family also showed considerable inhibitory potential, e.g. giant goldenrod (Solidago gigantea Ait.) extracts reduced germination and growth of both crops and weeds in Petri bioassay and pot experiment (Baličević et al., 2015), annual mugwort (Artemisia annua L.) oil decreased germination of common purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.) (Rahimi et al., 2015), while common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia L.) leaf residues negatively affected growth of lettuce (Vidotto et al., 2013).

On average, species from the Polygonaceae family equally affected lettuce seed germination, while F. convolvulus extracts had the highest negative impact on seedlings growth. This finding confirms the results of Gholamalipour Alamdari et al. (2013) who reported that water extracts of F. convolvulus inhibited germination, root and shoot length of wheat in the laboratory bioassay, as well as leaf area, leaf and stem dry weight in pot culture. Similarly, Souto et al. (1990) reported high inhibitory effect of P. lapathifolium against lettuce and clover, while according to Treber et al. (2015) and Baličević et al. (2013) stem and leaf extracts have both positive and negative effects on seedling length of different cultivars of soybean. Root exudates and leachate of the tops of P. aviculare, and soil collected under

Baličević et al.

28

dead plants supressed seed germination and seedling growth of Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers., Sporobolus pyramidatus (Lam.) Hitch., sorghum and cotton, indicating that allelopathy and the presence of inhibitory compounds are an important component of its interference (Alsaadawi and Rice, 1982). In addition to species of the Polygonum and Fallopia genus, species belonging to the genus Rumex, such as broad-leaved dock (R. obtusifolius L.), curly dock (R. crispus L.) and R. dentatus L., also exhibited allelopathic potential (Zaller, 2006; Pilipavičius et al., 2012; Anwar et al., 2013).

Plant parts differed in their allelopathic potential, however inhibitory effect was dependent on the plant species. For example, E. annuus and C. arvense leaves greatly reduced germination and lettuce growth, while stems and leaves of S. oleraceus had equal effect. Hong et al. (2003) also states that leaves, stems and roots of the tested plants all exhibited either negative or positive effect on radish germination but the degree varied among them and was species dependent. For example, all plant parts of L. glauca and M. azedarach reduced germination of radish, while only leaves of Tephrosia candida had significant negative effect on seed germination.

Allelopathic effect of plants is also dependant on the recipient species and its sensitivity to allelochemicals (Soltys et al., 2013). In the present research only lettuce seeds were used as test species. Although commonly used indicator species are of no agronomic importance as weeds (Romeo and Weidenhamer, 1999) and bioassay should be conducted with plant species associated with allelopathic plants including weeds (Wu et al., 2000), laboratory screenings under controlled conditions can give preliminary research on potential plants with high allelopathic effect.

Conclusions

Results of the experiment showed that all plant species have some degree of inhibitory potential, however it was dependant on both plants species and plant part. Among Asteraceae family, E. annuus and S. oleraceus had the highest inhibitory potential, while F. convolvulus proved to have the greatest negative effect among Polygonaceae species.

References

ABBASSI, F., R. GHORBANI, S. KHORRAMDEL, 2013: Allelopathy research in Iran: experiences, challenges, and prospects. In : Allelopathy: Current trends and future applications, Z.A. Cheema, M. Farooq, Abdul Wahid (Eds.), Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Germany, pp. 159–192.

ALSAADAWI, I.S., E.L. RICE, 1982: Allelopathic effects of Polygonum aviculare L. I. Vegetational patterning. Journal of Chemical Ecology, 8(7), 993-1009.


29

ANWAR, T., S. KHALID, Y. ARAFAT, S. SADIA, S. RIAZ, 2013: Allelopathic suppression of Avena fatua and Rumex dentatus in associated crops. Pakistan Journal of Weed Science Research, 19(1), 31-43.

BALIČEVIĆ, R., M. RAVLIĆ, T. ŽIVKOVIĆ, 2015: Allelopathic effect of invasive species giant goldenrod (Solidago gigantea Ait.) on crops and weeds. Herbologia, 15(1), 19-29.

BALIČEVIĆ, R., M. RAVLIĆ, D. GORIČKI, I. RAVLIĆ, 2013: Allelopathic effect of Polygonum lapathifolium L. on germination and initial growth of soybean. In: Jug, I., Đurđević, B. (Eds.), Proceedings and abstracts of the 6th International Scientific/Professional Conference Agriculture in Nature and Environment Protection, Glas Slavonije, Osijek, pp. 99-103.

BARRETO, R., R. CHARUDATTAN, A. POMELLA, R. HANADA, 2000: Biological control of neotropical aquatic weeds with fungi. Crop Protection, 19, 697–703.

BATISH, D.R., H.P. SINGH, R.K. KOHLI, S. KAUR, 2001: Crop allelopathy and its role in ecological agriculture. In: Allelopathy in agroecosystems, Kohli, R.K., P.S. Harminder and D.R. Batish (eds.). Food Products Press, New York, pp. 121-162.

CHOU, C.H., 1999: Roles of allelopathy in plant biodiversity and sustainable agriculture. Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences, 18(5), 609-636.

DE VILLEGAS, M.E.D., G. DELGADO, M. RIVAS, E. TORRES, M. SAURA, 2011: Implementation of an in vitro bioassay as an indicator of the bionutrient FitoMas E. Ciencia e Investigación Agraria, 38(2), 205-210.

FUJII, Y., S.S. PARVEZ, M.M. PARVEZ, Y. OHMAE, O. IIDA, 2003: Screening of 239 medicinal plant species for allelopathic activity using the sandwich method. Weed Biology and Management, 3(4), 233-241.

GHOLAMALIPOUR ALAMDARI, E., A. GHARANJIC, A. BIABANI, A.H. HAGHIGHI, 2013: Evaluating the allelopathic potential of (Polygonum convolvulus L.) on wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). Journal of Applied Research of Plant Ecophysiology, 1(1), 83-95.

GILANI, S.A., Y. FUJII, Z.K. SHINWARI, M. ADNAN, A. KIKUCHI, K.N. WATANABE, 2010: Phytotoxic studies of medicinal plant species of Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 42(2), 987-996.

GOMAA, N.H., 2012: Composition and diversity of weed communities in Al-Jouf province, northern Saudi Arabia. Saudi Journal of Biological Sciences, 19(3), 369–376.

GOMAA, N.H., M.O. HASSAN, G.M. FAHMY, L. GONZÁLEZ, O. HAMMOUDA, A.M. ATTEYA, 2014: Allelopathic effects of Sonchus oleraceus L. on the germination and seedling growth of crop and weed species. Acta Botanica Brasilica, 28(3): 408-416.

GRISI, P.U., S.C.J. GUALTIERI, M.A. RANAL, D.G. DE SANTANA, 2013: Phytotoxic activity of crude aqueous extracts and fractions of young leaves of Sapindus saponaria L. (Sapindaceae). Acta Botanica Brasilica, 27(1), 62-70.

HASSAN, M.O., N.H. GOMAA, G.M. FAHMY, L. GONZÁLEZ, O. HAMMOUDA, A.M. ATTEYA, 2014: Influence of Sonchus oleraceus L. residue on soil properties and growth of some plants. The Philippine Agricultural Scientist, 97(4), 368-376.

HESS, M., G. BARRALIS, H. BLEIHOLDER, H. BUHR, T. EGGERS, H. HACK, R. STAUSS, 1997: Use of the extended BBCH scale – general for the description of the growth stages of mono- and dicotyledonous species. Weed Research, 37, 433-441.

HONG, N.H., T.D. XUAN, T. EIJI, T. HIROYUKI, M. MITSUHIRO, T.D. KHANH, 2003: Screening for allelopathic potential of higher plants from Southeast Asia. Crop Protection, 22(6): 829-836.

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NORSWORTHY, J.K., 2003: Allelopathic potential of wild radish (Raphanus raphanistrum). Weed Technology, 17, 307-313.

PARK, K.A., K.C. SHIM, J.H. KIL, S.H. YEAU, 2011: Allelopathic effects of aqueous extracts from Eupatorium rugosum Houtt. and Erigeron annuus L. on radicles growth of Lactuca sativa and Raphanus raphanistroides. Allelopathy Journal, 27(1), 65-74.

PATTERSON, D.T., 1986: Allelopathy. In: Research Methods in Weed Science, Camper ND (Ed.), 3rd edition, IL, Southern Weed Science Society, Champaign, pp. 125-126.

PILIPAPIVIČIUS, V., K. ROMANECKAS, E. ŠARAUSKIS, E. VAICIUKEVIČIUS, P. KERPAUSKAS, 2012: Phytotoxicity effects of Rumex crispus L. grounded biomass on spring barley grain germination. African Journal of Agricultural Research, 7(12), 1819-1826.

RAHIMI, M., F BIDARNAMANI, M. SHABANIPOOR 2015: Effects of allelopathic three medicinal plants on germination and seeding growth of Portulaca oleracea. Biological Forum – An International Journal, 7(1), 1520-1523.

RICE, E.L., 1984: Allelopathy. 2nd edition. Academic Press, Orlando, Florida. ROMEO, J.T., J.D. WEIDENHAMER, 1999: Bioassay for allelopathy in terrestrial plants.

In: Methods in chemical ecology, Haynes, K.F. and J.G. Millar (Eds.), Kluwer Academic Publishing, Boston, pp. 179-211.

SIDDIQUI, S., S. BHARDWAJ, S.S. KHAN, M.K. MEGHVANSHI, 2009: Allelopathic effect of different concentration of water extract of Prosopis juliflora leaf on seed germination and radicle length of wheat (Triticum aestivum Var-Lok-1). American-Eurasian Journal of Scientific Research, 4(2), 81-84.

SINGH, H.P., D.R. BATISH, R.K. KOHLI, 2003: Allelopathic interactions and allelochemicals: New possibilities for sustainable weed management. Critical Review in Plant Sciences, 22, 239-311.

SOLTYS, D., U. KRASUSKA, R. BOGATEK, A. GNIAZDOWSKA, A., 2013: Allelochemicals as bioherbicides - Present and Perspectives. In: Herbicides – Current Research and Case Studies in Use. Price, A.J. and J.A. Kelton, (eds.), CC BY, pp. 517-542.

SOUTO, X.C., L. GONZÁLEZ, M. REIGOSA, 1990: Preliminary study of the allelopathic potential of twelve weed species. Actas de la Reunión de la Sociedad Española de Malherbología, 199-206.

SUJATHA, S., B. JOSEPH AND P.S. SUMI, 2010: Medicinal plants and its impact of ecology, nutritional effluents and incentive of digestive enzymes on Spodoptera litura (Fabricious). Asian Journal of Agricultural Research, 4(4), 204-211.

TREBER, I., R. BALIČEVIĆ, M. RAVLIĆ, 2015: Assessment of allelopathic effect of pale persicaria on two soybean cultivars. Herbologia, 15(1), 31-38.

VIDOTTO, F., F. TESIO, A. FERRERO, 2013: Allelopathic effects of Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. in the invasive process. Crop Protection, 54, 161–167.

WESTON, L. A. (1996.): Utilization of allelopathy for weed management in agroecosystems. Agronomy Journal, 88, 860–866.

WU, H., J. RATLEY, D. LEMERLE, T. HAIG, 2000: Laboratory screening for allelopathic potential of wheat (Triticum aestivum) accessions against annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum). Australian Journal of Agricultural Research, 51(2), 259 – 266.

ZALLER, J.G., 2006: Allelopathic effects of Rumex obtusifolius leaf extracts against native grassland species. Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection, 20, 463-470.


31

MULCHING WITH ALLELOPATHIC CROPS TO MANAGE HERBICIDE RESISTANT LITTLESEED CANARYGRASS

Tasawer Abbas1*, Muhammad Ather Nadeem1, Asif Tanveer1, Naila Farooq2, Ali Zohaib1

1Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040 (Pakistan) 2Institute of Soil and Environmental Sciences, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040

(Pakistan) Corresponding author Email: [email protected]

Abstract

Allelopathic crops can provide organic alternative to manage herbicides resistant littleseed canarygrass (Phalaris minor Retz.)

We used mulch of four potential allelopathic crops, including sorghum, maize, sunflower and rice at 0, 6, 9 and 12 tons ha-1 to manage herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass. Repeated pot experiment was conducted under greenhouse at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, from November, 2015 to March, 2016. Results revealed that significant inhibition in emergence percentage, shoot length, root length and dry biomass of littleseed canarygrass was observed three weeks after mulch application of four allelopathic crops. This inhibition was sustained with time and caused significant reduction in plant height, dry biomass, spike length and number of seeds produced per plant at maturity. Mulches of sorghum, maize, sunflower and rice at 12 tons ha-1 caused up to 38, 25, 29 and 41% inhibition in plant height, dry biomass, spike length and number of seeds per plant respectively. Weed control efficiency of four allelopathic crop mulches was ranging 20 to 25% at mulch dose of 12 tons ha-1. However, mulches at lower doses caused growth stimulation in few growth traits. On the base of this study we conclude that these allelopathic crop mulches can be used to control herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass due to their strong phytotoxic potential and may provide basis to develop natural herbicides to control this grass.

Keywords: allelopathic mulching, herbicide resistance, organic weed control, Pharalis minor Retz.

Introduction

Littleseed canarygrass (Phalaris minor Retz.) is the most important weed of winter crops, especially wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) in Pakistan and many other countries (Yasin & Iqbal, 2011). Its mimicry with wheat crop made control of this grass totally dependent to post-emergence herbicides. Repeated use of herbicides developed resistance against various herbicides in littleseed canarygrass in different part of the world (Heap, 2016). Recently

10.5644/Herb.16.1.04

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cross resistance has been also reported in this grass (Heap, 2016). Due to heavy yield losses caused by littleseed canarygrass in wheat control of this weed is essential to sustain wheat production (Chhokar & Sharma, 2008). Depending upon the density, emergence time and competition duration of littleseed canarygrass, yield losses due to this grass in wheat ranging from 25 to 100% (Chhokar & Sharma, 2008; Chhokar et al., 2006).

Allelopathy may provide environmentally safe organic alternative to chemical weed control as allelochemicals are easily decomposable, hardly contain halogenated atoms and quite safe for the environment (Duke et al., 2000; Petroski, & Stanley, 2009). Allelopathic potential of different crops has been successfully explored to control various weeds both under controlled and field conditions (Cheema & Khaliq, 2000; Farooq et al., 2013). In this regard several crops including sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.), sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.), rice (Oryza sativa L.), maize (Zea mays L.) have been used for managing weeds in field crops because of higher concentrations of phytotoxic chemicals released from these crops (Cheema et al., 2009; Jamil et al., 2009; Jabran et al., 2010). Allelochemicals present in these crops may be used as source of natural herbicides to control littleseed canarygrass (Cheema et al., 2000). Javaid et al. (2010) reported that allelopathic crop mulches caused significant inhibition of littleseed canarygrass.

Recent increases in herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass demands alternative strategies to control this grass to ensure sustainable wheat production. Presently fenoxaprop-P-ethyl resistant littleseed canarygrass has been evaluated as first resistance case in Pakistan (Abbas et al., 2016). In addition to this environmental concerns to use of chemical herbicides lead us to investigate new potential weed control strategies such as allelopathic weed control. Therefore, these studies were planned to investigate the potential of four allelopathic crop mulches such as sorghum, maize, sunflower and rice to control herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass. Wheat crop is grown after the harvest of these crops and their crop residues may easily become available as a source of allelopathic mulch to manage littleseed canarygrass in wheat. Limited studies are available to control resistant littleseed canarygrass with the use of allelopathic crop mulches. In addition the influence of these mulches was studied on the seed production potential of this grass. Number of seed produced per plant have significant role in the evolution and spreading of resistance.


Two parallel pot studies were conducted in a greenhouse at the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan, from November, 2015 to March, 2016. The greenhouse was located about 31.25o

Mulching with allelopathic crops to manage herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass

33

N latitude, 73.09o E longitude and altitude of 184 m. The mean minimum and maximum temperatures in the greenhouse during the experiment were 18 ± 2°C and 26 ± 2°C, respectively. The relative humidity ranged from 45-60%. Crop residues free soil was collected from research fields near the Department of Agronomy, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad. Each pot was filled with fifteen kg of soil (30 cm diameter and 45 cm depth). Soil was sandy loam with 1.20% organic matter contents and pH of 7.8. Physico-chemical analysis of soil has been given in table 1.

Table 1. Pre-sowing physico-chemical analysis of soil.

Feature Sand Silt Clay Class pH Electrical conductivity

Organic matter

Total N

Available P

Available K

Unit % % % - - d Sm - 1 % % ppm ppm

Value 40 29 31 Loam 7.8 2.99 1 .2 0 0 .4 4 5 .1 2 1 2 7

Four allelopathic mulch treatments including 0, 6, 9 and 12 tons ha-1 (0, 1.8, 2.7, 3.6 g/pot) were spreaded on the surface of each pot after sowing of littleseed canarygrass seeds. Twenty seeds of littleseed canarygrass were sown in each pot at uniform depth. The experiment was laid out in completely randomized design having four replications and reshuffled each week in order to achieve uniform growth conditions for all plants. Twenty one days after sowing emergence percentage was evaluated and five plants from each pot were randomly selected to collect data about plant height, root length and seedling dry biomass. Uniform number of plants (ten in each pot) were kept growing till the maturity. At start 1.3 liter of tap water was applied to each pot and then throughout the experimental period the pots were kept moistened. At maturity the plant height, seedling dry biomass, spike length and number of seeds per spike were recorded. Weed control efficiency (WCE) was calculated with the formula (Singh et al., 2013).

, where x = weed dry weight in control and y = weed dry weight in mulch treated.

Repeated experiment gave statistically similar results therefore data were pooled before statistical analysis. When the treatment effect was significant at the 5% level, the multiple mean comparison treatments were completed and letter groupings generated using least significant difference (LSD) at the 5% level of significance. The validity of normal distribution and

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constant variance assumptions on the error terms was verified by examining the residuals (Steel et al., 1997).


Effect of allelopathic crops mulches on emergence and seedling growth of herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass

Results about effect of allelopathic mulches of maize, rice, sorghum and sunflower exhibited that different doses (0, 6, 9 and 12 tons ha-1) caused significant inhibition of littleseed canarygrass emergence and seedling growth (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Effect of allelopathic mulches of different crops on emergence and early seedling growth of herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass. Bars

indicate standard error of mean.

Increase in rate of inhibition was caused by increasing the dose of mulch material presenting that the inhibition was proportional to mulch concentration. Growth stimulation in some growth traits was observed when mulch at 6 tons ha-1 was applied. All the allelopathic crop mulches caused significant inhibition of emergence percentage of littleseed canarygrass. Pots

Emer

genc

e %

Shoo

t len

gth

(cm

)

Roo

t len

gth

(cm

)

Dry

bio

mas

s (g

plan

t -1)


35

with sorghum mulch at 12 tons ha-1 showed maximum inhibition in emergence that was followed by sunflower mulch at same dose. Significant inhibition in shoot length was also observed by mulch material; higher inhibition (60.28%) was observed where sorghum mulch was applied at dose of 12 tons ha-1. Maize, rice and sorghum mulches at 6 tons ha-1 cause increase in shoot length, maize at 9 tons ha-1 also caused increase in shoot length. Comparatively less inhibition in root length of littleseed canarygrass was noticed as compared to other growth traits in result of mulch material application. Four tested allelopathic crop mulches caused significant reduction in root length at 12 tons ha-1. Highest inhibition in root length (10.68%) was observed in pots where maize mulch was applied at 12 tons ha-

1 as compared to control. However crops mulches at 6 tons ha-1 increased the root length. Dry biomass results showed that allelopathic crop mulches caused considerable reduction in dry matter produced. Minimum dry biomass (2.46 g plant-1) was observed at higher mulch dose. Compared to control, residues mulch of maize, rice, sorghum and sunflower at 12 tons ha-1 caused 34.96, 53.75, 47.55 and 19.73% inhibition in dry biomass, respectively.

Inhibition in littleseed canarygrass was observed as the result of mulch application because mulches alter soil temperature, reduces light interception, physically hinders the emergence through the release of phytotoxic chemicals. Abbas et al., (2014) reported that allelochemicals plant different plant species have potential to reduced emergence percentage, shoot length, root length and dry biomass. Allelopathic mulches have been observed in the inhibition of littleseed canarygrass in previous findings (Batish et al., 2007). Cheema et al., (2000) stated that weeds in cotton can be successfully reduced by the application of sorghum mulch, with 96.6% reduction in weeds dry weight. In addition to viable weed control plant mulches are important as compared to other inorganic mulches because they are also important in preventing water loss, improving soil structure and become part of soil after their decomposition.

Effect of allelopathic crops mulches on the growth and reproductive potential of herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass

All allelopathic crop mulches caused significant inhibition in plant height, dry biomass, spike length and number of seeds per plant at littleseed canarygrass maturity. At higher mulch doses significant inhibition was observed (Figure 2). No significant inhibition in measured traits was observed at 6 tons ha-1 allelopathic mulches. However, significant inhibition was recorded with mulches at higher doses (9and 12 tons ha-1). Inhibition in plant height, dry biomass, spike length and number of seeds per plant at 12 tons ha-1 was up to 37.72, 25.11, 29.08 and 41.41% respectively.

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Figure 2. Effect of allelopathic mulches of different crops on growth and reproductive potential of herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass. Bars

indicate standard error of mean.

Sorghum mulch caused more inhibition as compared to maize, rice and sunflower mulch. Decrease in growth was due to its growth inhibition at early seedling stage. Findings are supported by Jabran et al. (2010) and Cheema et al. (2000). They reported that littleseed canarygrass can be controlled with the use of allelopathy. Reduced vegetative growth and size of spikes might me possible cause of reduced seed production potential. Constant inhibition was observed over time and ultimately caused reduced growth and number of seeds per plant. Literature on seed production ability of littleseed canarygrass after exposure to allelochemicals is absent.

Weed control efficency of allelopathic mulches of different crops to control herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass

Weed control efficiency of four different allelopathic crops revealed that mulches at 12 tons ha-1 gave significant control of littleseed canarygrass. However, mulches at rate of 6 to 9 tons ha-1 did not give any considerable

control of this grass. At 12 tons ha-1 mulch dose of maize, rice, sorghum and

Plan

t hei

ght (

cm)

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s (g

plan

t -

Spik

e le

ngth

(cm

)

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f see

ds p

er


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sunflower gave 23, 20, 21 and 25% weed control efficiency respectively (Figure 3).

Figure 3. Weed control efficency of allelopathic mulches of different crops to control herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass. Bars indicate

standard error of mean.

Hormesis caused due to allelopathic mulches

Present studies also revealed that growth stimulation in some traits of littleseed canarygrass was observed at lower doses of allelopathic crop mulches. Growth promotory effect (hormesis) of allelochemicals can be justified by foregoing studies which shown that different toxicants including allelochemicals produced hormesis at low doses in all groups of organisms including higher plants (Duke et al., 2006; Abbas et al., 2015). It has been reported that different allelochemicals including caffeic acid, chlorogenic acid, phenolics and ferulic acid caused hormesis at lower doses (Farooq et al., 2013). Abbas et al., (2016) stated that littleseed canarygrass presented hormetic response to lower doses of toxicants.

Conclusion

Based on this study we conclude that maize, rice, sorghum and sunflower mulches have significant phytotoxic potential to inhibit growth and reproductive potential of herbicide resistant littleseed canarygrass. These mulches can be used to control this grass and allelochemicals from these crops may be used to develop natural herbicides to handle the challenge of herbicide resistance.

Wee

d co

ntro

l effi

cenc

y (%

)

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CHHOKAR, R.S., R.K. SHARMA. 2008. Multiple herbicide resistance in littleseed canarygrass (Phalaris minor); A threat to wheat production in India. Weed Biol Manag. 8, 112-123.

DUKE, S.O., N. CEDERGREEN, R. BELZ, E. VELINI. 2006. Hormesis: is it an important factor in herbicide use and allelopathy? Outlooks Pest Manag. 17, 29-33.

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JAVAID, A., S. SHAFIQUE, S. SHAFIQUE. 2010. Herbicidal activity of Withania somnifera against Phalaris minor. Nat. Prod. Res. 24, 1457-1468.

PETROSKI, R.J., D.W. STANLEY. 2009. Natural compounds for pest and weed control. J Agri Food Chem. 57, 8171- 8179.

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SINGH, R. K., S. R. K. SINGH, U. S. GAUTAM. 2013. Weed control efficiency of herbicides in irrigated wheat (Triticum aestivum). Indian Res. J. Ext. Edu. 13, 126-128.

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Abbas et al.

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41

RESPONSE OF MAIZE/BEAN INTERCROP ON PRE APPLIED HERBICIDES

Zvonko Pacanoski1 and Alirami Saliji2

1Faculty for Agricultural Sciences and Food, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje, R. Macedonia

2 PhD student at the Faculty for Agricultural Sciences and Food, Ss. Cyril and Methodius University, Skopje, R. Macedonia

Abstract

In an attempt to alleviate a labour problem for weeding in maize - bean intercropping, impact of several pre-emergence herbicides on weed control, injury and yield were evaluated at different rates in Tetovo locality, Republic of Macedonia, in 2012 and 2013. No visual maize injures were determined by any herbicide rates in the both year. Dimethenamid + terbuthylazine treatments caused minimal bean injury (11% or less), but isoxaflutole alone and in combination with pendimethalin caused serious bean injuries (19-40%) evaluated 14 and 28 DAT. In both years, no significant differences were recorded between maize yield in all studied herbicides (except linuron in 2013) and weed-free control. Only isoxaflutole alone and when it was applied with pendimethalin significantly decreased bean yield compared to the weed-free control.

Keywords: maize/bean intercrops, herbicides, weed control, maize/bean injury, maize/bean yield

Introduction

Farmers practise different cropping systems to increase productivity and sustainability (Hauggard-Nielsen et al., 2001). One of them is intercropping which is a type of mixed cropping and defined the agricultural practice of cultivating two or more crops in the same space at the same time (Ofori and Stern, 1987; Butorac, 1999; Kostov, 2003). Maize has been recognized as a common component in the most intercropping systems. It seems to dominate as the cereal component of intercrop and it is often combined with different legumes (Anil et al., 1998; Maluleke et al., 2005). Legume–cereal intercropping, especially maize-beans intercropping, is common throughout Central and South America (Singh et al., 1986), Peruvian Andes, East and Southern Africa (Giller, 2001). This intercropping, as well, is a common practice on small farms in the Republic of Macedonia, particularly in Polog Valley, where climbing types of beans and maize are planted together. Farmers commonly use maize-beans intercropping to secure

10.5644/Herb.16.1.05

Pacanoski and Saliji

42

food production by averting risk, and to maximize utilisation of land and labour, through decreasing the weed population and their competitive ability (Tsubo et al., 2005). Intercropping increase light interception by the weakly competitive component and can, therefore, shorten the critical period for weed control and reduce growth and fecundity of late-emerging weeds (Baumann et al., 2000). A number of weed controlling methods are available in maize-bean crops production, but their affordability predominantly depends on the financial power of small-scale farms (Moody and Shetty, 1981). Farmers can control weeds by cultural means, such as crop rotation, inter- and intra- row cultivation, which are more affordable to them than the chemical ones. Herbicides are not widely used in the agro-ecological condition of Polog valley, especially under intercropping, although weeds can be effectively controlled by use of them. Ashton and Monaco (2003) reported that work done in the communal areas, showed that the use of herbicides, combined with tine tillage, is a better and cheaper option for controlling weeds by smallholder farmers. Herbicides increase the capacity of smallholder farmers to deal effectively with weed pressure, especially during the critical weed free period.

One problem of using herbicides in a maize/bean intercrop is that there is a limited selection of herbicides that will control weeds without also injuring one or both of the crops. Sprague et al. (1999) reported 55% injury to corn from isoxaflutole applied at 132 g ai/ha, and Wicks et al. (2007) reported 67% injury from isoxaflutole applications in field corn. Weed competition caused large reductions in maize/bean yield. For example, Sangakkara and Stamp (2006) reported that the most harmful damage on growth and yield of maize have a way that weeds alone decreased from 32 to 59% maize yield. Also, Dalley et al., (2006) reported that weed competition with maize during the growing season, reduced maize yield more than 90%. Weed interference reduced yield of white bean 43-85% compared to the weed-free (Soltani et al., 2013).

Taking into consideration necessity of chemical weed control for stable maize-bean crops production, the objective of this study was to estimate influence of herbicides on maize-beans yield and injury effect, as well.


The field studies were conducted in Tetovo locality, Republic of Macedonia, in 2012 and 2013 on Fluvisol sandy loam with 10.50% coarse, 63.10% fine sand, 26.40% clay+silt, 2.66% organic matter and pH 6.7. The seedbed was prepared by moldboard plowing in the autumn followed by two passes with a field cultivator in the spring. Before seeding in the spring,

Response of maize/bean intercrop on pre applied herbicides

43

fertilizer was incorporated at rates indicated by soil tests. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with four replicates, and harvest plot size of 20 m2. The field studies were carried out with local bean variety “Tetovec” and maize hybrid “ZPSC 677” which were seeded in a well-prepared seedbed at a seeding rate of 40 kg/ha and 20 kg/ha, respectively, on April 26th , 2012 and May 1st , 2013, respectively. The interrow spacing was 70 cm and seeding depth was about 5 cm. Treatments included linuron (Linurex 50 SC, 500 g a.i./L, Agan Chemical Manufacturers Ltd., Israel) at 2.5 L/ha, pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC, 330 g a.i/L, BASF Agro B.V., Arnhem, NL, Switzerland) at 5.0 L/ha, dimethenamid plus terbuthylazine (Akris, 280 g a.i./L + 250 g a.i./L, BASF SE, 67056 Ludwigshafen, Germany) at 2.5 and 3.0 L/ha, isoxaflutole (Merlin WG, 75 g a.i./kg, Bayer Crop Science, Monheim am Rhein, Germany) at 0.135 kg/ha, pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC, 330 g a.i/L, BASF Agro B.V., Arnhem, NL, Switzerland) at 5.0 L/ha plus isoxaflutole (Merlin WG, 75 g a.i./kg, Bayer Crop Science, Monheim am Rhein, Germany) at 0.135 kg/ha, and pendimethalin (Stomp 330 EC, 330 g a.i/L, BASF Agro B.V., Arnhem, NL, Switzerland) at 5.0 L/ha plus linuron (Linurex 50 SC, 500 g a.i./L, Agan Chemical Manufacturers Ltd., Israel) at 2.5 L/ha.

All herbicides were applied post-sowing, preemergence (PRE) with a CO2-pressurized backpack sprayer with 300 L/ha water. Untreated and weed-free controls were included in the studies, as well. The control plots were left untreated during the entire experimental period. Weed-free control was maintained by 2 hoeing and hand weeding. Hand-weeding was initiated at weeds emergence and continued as needed to maintain weed-free plots.

Maize/bean crop injuries were estimated visually using a of 0 to 100% scale, where 0% = no maize/bean injuries and 100% = all maize/bean plants death (Frans et al. 1986). Maize/bean plant injuries were rated 14 and 28 days after treatment (DAT).

Maize/bean crop yields were determined by mechanically harvesting from 1m2 from each plot. Maize was mechanically harvested at physiological maturity and yield was adjusted to a 15% moisture level. Bean yield was determined at crop maturity (i.e., 90% golden pods) by mechanically harvesting and recording the weight of the harvested sample (after removing any non marketable material). Yields were adjusted to 18% moisture.

Data collected for two years studies were subjected to the analysis of variance (ANOVA). Treatment mean differences were subjected to statistical analysis applying LSD-test at 0.05 probability level (Steel et al., 1997).


44


Maize/bean intercrop injury: No visual maize injures were determined by any herbicide rates in the both year, and consequently none of the applied herbicides reduce maize grain yields (Table 1). But, dimethenamid + terbuthylazine treatments and isoxaflutole alone and in combination with pendimethalin caused visibly bean injures. In the both years, dimethenamid + terbuthylazine applied at 2.5 and 3.0 L/ha caused minimal bean injury (5-8%, and 9-11% at 14 DAT, and 2-6% and 3-7% at 28 DAT, respectively), mainly transient chlorosis on the first leaves. Injured plants recovered as the season progressed without adverse effect on bean yield. From the other side, isoxaflutole alone and in combination with pendimethalin caused serious bean injuries in both years. Injury symptoms included reduced growth, leaves bleaching, and hlorosis followed by necrosis. Non-recovered injured plants significantly affected bean yield. In 2012, isoxaflutole alone and when it was applied with pendimethalin caused 27 and 21% bean injury, respectively, at 14 DAT. Crop bean injury increased over time, and by 28 DAT, injury was 36 and 25%, respectively. Similar situation was recorded in 2013. Isoxaflutole alone and when it was applied with pendimethalin caused 32 and 19% bean injury, at 14 DAT, and 40 and 27%, respectively at 28 DAT (Table 2). Similarly, visible injury symptoms on snapbean included leaf bleaching and stunting, and injury ranged from 40 to 90% in plots treated with 53 g and 210 g/ha isoxaflutole, respectively (Felix and Doohan, 2005). Isoxaflutole reduced shoot dry weight and yield as much as 81 and 44% in cranberry, 52 and 39% in black, 53 and 19% in kidney, and 42 and 19% in white bean, respectively (Robinson et al., 2006). Similar variations in injury have been reported by many other authors in different crops with isoxaflutole. Isoxaflutole 75 g a.i./ha caused unacceptable crop injury to vegetable soybean. (Pornprom et al., 2010). Similar, Isoxaflutole plus atrazine caused as much as 28% injury and decreased plant stand, biomass and yield of soybean as much as 7, 49 and 42%, respectively (Soltani et al., 2011a).

Maize/bean yield: Weed competition caused large reductions in maize/bean yield. Comparison of untreated and weed-free control indicated that weeds reduced maize yield by 52% and 83%, and bean yield by 63% and 77% in 2012 and 2013, respectively (Table 2). Many studies have demonstrated that maize and bean have an increased likelihood of yield loss from weed competition (Blackshaw et al., 2000; Amador-Ramirez et al., 2001; VanGessel et al., 2000; Evans et al., 2003; Williams and Masiunas, 2006; Soltani et al., 2007; Silva et al., 2009). Dalley et al., (2006) reported that weed competition with maize during the growing season, reduced maize


45

yield more than 90%. Weed interference reduced yield of white bean 43-85% compared to the weed-free (Soltani et al., 2013). Other studies have shown yield losses of 40-71% in dry bean (Wall, 1995; Blackshaw and Saindon, 1996), 75-87% and in green beans (Pacanoski and Glatkova, 2014).

Table 1. Maize/bean crop injury 14 and 28 DAT.

Treatments Rate

(L;kg/ha)

Maize injury (%) Bean injury (%)

2012 2013 2012 2013 14

DAT 28

DAT 14

DAT 28

DAT 14

DAT 28

DAT 14

DAT 28

DAT Untreated control ------- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Weed-free control ------- 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Linuron 2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pendimethalin 5.0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Dimethenamid + Terbuthylazine 2.5 0 0 0 0 5 2 8 3

Dimethenamid + Terbuthylazine 3.0 0 0 0 0 9 6 11 7

Isoxaflutole 0.135 0 0 0 0 27 36 32 40 Pendimethalin + Isoxaflutole 5.0+0.135 0 0 0 0 21 25 19 27

Pendimethalin + Linuron 5.0+2.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

However, the removal of the competitive effect of the weeds led in an increase of the participation of the yield components of the maize and bean and as a result the maize/bean production also increased. Generally, maize and bean yield was markedly affected by herbicide efficacy throughout the investigation period. All of the herbicide treatments significantly (P<0.05) increased maize and bean yield compared with the weedy control (Table 2). According Kibata et al., (2002), herbicide treatments increased the yields of maize/bean intercrop (maize by 53% and beans by 94%) as well as the net benefits by 61%.

In both years, no significant differences were recorded between maize yield in all studied herbicides (except linuron in 2013) and weed-free control (Table 7). Similary, dimethenamid + terbuthylazine applied at 4.0 L/ha and dimethenamid + terbuthylazine applied at 4.0 L/ha + one mechanical hoeing, respectively produced maize yields that were equivalent to the weed-free control (Bogdan et al., 2011). The improvement in grain maize equivalent yield under the treatment of pendimethalin 0.5 kg/ha a.i and pendimethalin 0.5 kg/ha a.i + hand weeding (45 DAS) was in a tune of 47 and 63% over the treatment weedy check (Shah et al., 2011). Applied in both years of the study, combinations of herbicides Afalon Dispersyjny 450 SC + Dual Gold


46

960 EC resulted in increase in corn yield for 67 and 68%, respectively, compared with the control object (Sulewska et al., 2012). All studied flufenacet plus isoxaflutole rates increased maize yield over the non treated check 93 to 114% (Grichar et al., 2005).

No one of the herbicide treatments reduced bean yield in 2012 and 2013 when compared with untreated control; however, the isoxaflutole alone and when it was applied with pendimethalin significantly (P<0.05) decreased bean yield compared to the weed-free control (Table 2). Despite minimal bean injury, bean yield in dimethenamid + terbuthylazine treatments was not significantly higher than that of the weed-free control. Only linuron in both years and pendimethalin in 2013 had significantly lower yield than the weed-free control because of domination and poor control of Echinochloa crus-galli and Solanum nigrum, respectively. Study of Wall, (1995) has shown yield losses of 40% - 71% in white bean when broadleaf weeds such as Amaranthus retroflexus and Chenopodium album were not adequately controlled. Blackshaw and Esau (1991) also reported 71% - 85% yield losses in pinto bean when Amaranthus retroflexus and Chenopodium album were left uncontrolled. In other studies, linuron applied PRE at the various doses did not cause any adverse affect on the yield of cranberry, kidney and white beans, while only linuron at 2500 g/ha reduced the yield of black bean by 16% compared with the non-treated control (Soltani et al., 2011b).

Table 2: Effect of herbicide treatments on maize/bean yield in both years.

Treatments Rate

(L;kg/ha) Maize yield (kg/ha) Bean yield (kg/ha)

2012 2013 2012 2013 Untreated control ------- 4998e 1749e 712e 432f Weed-free control ------- 10389ab 10247bcd 1918a 1872ac Linuron 2.5 9900a 9661a 1728b 1724b Pendimethalin 5.0 10032a 9889ab 1896a 1656b Dimethenamid + Terbuthylazine 2.5 10285ad 10203bcd 1964a 1888ac

Dimethenamid + Terbuthylazine 3.0 10687bcd 10548cd 1988a 1944c

Isoxaflutole 0.135 10815bcd 10624d 1020c 965d Pendimethalin + Isoxaflutole 5.0+0.135 10710bcd 10395cd 1185d 1060e

Pendimethalin + Linuron 5.0+2.5 10244ad 10168bc 1923a 1872ac

LSD at 0.05 721.37 438.24 101.45 79.50

a-f Means followed by the same letter within a column are not significantly differentaccording to Fisher’s Protected LSD at P<0.05.


47

Conclusion

Based on this study, weed management is an important factor in profitable maize-bean crops production. Unsuccessful weed control can result in almost the total loss of the maize-bean yield. In view of these encouraging results, application of herbicides suited for every floristic situation led to a minimization of yield losses, and, in same time, increasing quality and quantity of maize-bean crops. But, this study indicate, as well, that adequate weed control and acceptable maize-bean yields in Polog valley can be achieved with preemergence herbicides that will effective control weeds without or minimal injuring one or both of the crops, such as dimethenamid + terbuthylazine and pendimethalin + linuron. Despite excellent weed control, isoxaflutole alone and in combination with pendimethalin caused serious bean injuries which significantly decreased bean yield compared to the weed-free control. Because of that, isoxaflutole can not be accepted as solution for safe weed control in maize-bean intercrop under agro-ecological conditions in Polog valley, Republic of Macedonia.

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51

WEED COMMUNITY RESPONSES TO AGRICULTURAL MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS IN TRANSPLANTED CABBAGE

(BRASSICA OLERACEA VAR. CAPITATA)

Edita Štefanić1, Slavica Antunović2, Božica Japundžić-Palenkić2 and Ivan Štefanić1

1Faculty of Agriculture, J.J. Strossmayer University, Kralja P. Svačića 1D, Osijek, Croatia, 2College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, Slavonski Brod, Croatia,

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

This study evaluated the effect of different weed management options for transplanted cabbage in North-eastern Croatia. Residual weed communities were assessed at the end of growing season after the effect of different weed managements: (i) chemical; ii) mechanical; iii) mulch and iv) control treatments; had become evident. The dominant species were Cynodon dactylon and Setaria glauca, while Convolvulus arvensis, Galinsoga parviflora and Cirsium arvense were also abundant in 2009, and Digitaria sanquinalis and Echinochloa crus-galli in 2010. Although reduction of species richness was observed with mechanical cultivation, no clear tendency towards the increase or decrease of any weed functional group in relation to management practice was found. Overall, canonical correspondence analysis indicated that the major variations in species composition were associated with mechanical cultivation (axis 1), followed by floristic differences in control vs. each treatment plots (axis 2).

Keywords: transplanted cabbage, weed control, dominance-diversity, multivariate analysis, North-eastern Croatia

Introduction

Weed vegetation is a very dynamic system capable to a quick respond to all human activities, and recent studies have increased our understanding of the importance of management factors in determining the composition of weed community (Kolarova et al., 2014, Menalled et al., 2001).

Interference from weeds is not acceptable in vegetable production. They are perceived as unwanted because they compete for limited resources, reduce crop yields, and force the use of a large amounts of human labor and technology to prevent even greater crop loss (Brainard et al., 2004). Therefore, development of improved weed management option for vegetable production requires more knowledge on how various weed species respond to changing agronomic practices. A clear understanding of how different

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agricultural practices interact with one another is a key component in recommending management practice that will maintain weed abundance while reducing dependence on herbicides (Mortensen et al. 2000).


Field experiments were conducted in village Slobodnica near Slavonski Brod (45°09'28.9"N 17°55'35.3"E) in the North-eastern part of Croatia on pseudogley soil with pH 8.45 and 2.07% of organic matter content. Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) cv. “Futoški” was grown after red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during 2009 and 2010 respectively. Each year the experimental area was moldboard plowed to a depth of 20 cm and prepared for cabbage transplantation. For that purpose, rows were properly opened using a hand hoe and one-month old cabbages (3-4 leaf stages) were then hand transplanted in 55 cm rows with 50 cm inter-rows on 4 July 2009 and 18 July 2010. Fertilization, insect and disease management practices were as standard for cabbage production in Croatia.

The experiment was designed as a randomized complete block with four replicates. The individual plot size was 5 x 3 m. The experiment evaluated different weed management options i) chemical; ii) mechanical; iii) mulch and iv) control. For chemical control post-plant application of metazachlor (2 l ha-1) was applied 10 days and 12 days after cabbages had been transplanted in 2009 and 2010 respectively. Mechanical inter-row cultivation was tested as a sole treatment 3 weeks after the cabbage was transplanted. Chopped wheat straw was applied as mulch over the soil surface shortly after the young cabbage plants were placed on the field at a rate of 5 t ha-1. Control plots were left un-weeded throughout the growing season.

Weed relative abundance was calculated for each year and for each sampled square meter at the end of growing season. A relative abundance value for weed populations was calculated as a synthetic importance value in order to overcome the patchy nature of weed communities (Derksen et al. 1993). Relative density was calculated as a number of individuals for a given species within 1m2 for each plot divided by the total number of individuals within the plot. Relative frequency was calculated as the proportion of square meters in which the species was present per plot divided by total frequency of all species. Finally, relative abundance was calculated by plot for each weed species as follows: (relative density/relative frequency)/2.

Rank-abundance curve (Whittaker, 1967) for the each treatments and year, were develop by plotting cumulative relative abundance values against the rank of the species. Rank-abundance plot simultaneously show both

Weed community responses to agricultural management systems in transplanted cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata)

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components: species number and evenness, and are often more sensitive measure of environmental effect than only using species richness (Magurran, 1988).

The relative influence of agricultural management system on weed community composition and abundance was analyzed with Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). This widely used multivariate technique (Klecka, 1980) was performed to determine the association between species composition and investigated weed management options. To reduce the importance of less abundant species, a down-weighting of rare species were applied prior to ordination. Ordination of plot data was conducted using CANOCO 5 Software (ter Braak & Šmilauer, 2012) and restricted permutations were used in the Monte Carlo permutation test at 500 iterations.


Natural weed community occurred on investigated location was comprised of grass and dicot weed species of varied perennation and were typical weed flora in cultivated fields of that region. A total of 31 species belonging to 15 families were identified in the field (Table 1). The number of dicotyledonous species (27) was greater than that of monocotyledonous (4). Asteraceae (6) and Poaceae (4) were the most numerous families from dicotyledonous and monocotyledonous, respectively. Regarding life cycle, annual species were the most numerous (18), followed by perennial (12) and biennial weeds (1).

The primary species over the duration of the study were Cynodon dactylon and Setaria glauca, while Convolvulus arvensis, Galinsoga parviflora and Cirsium arvense were also abundant in 2009, and Digitaria sanquinalis and Echinochloa crus-galli in 2010 (Table 1). Rank-abundance plot of relative abundance provides further description of weed community diversity (Figure 1). The reduction of the species number (richness) in mechanical treatment was observed in both years. Previous studies have also detected an increase in weed species abundance in less disturbed agroecosystems (Van Elsen, 2000). Environmental conditions at time of planting and field preparation might create conditions that encourage or inhibit certain weed species (Cousens & Mortimer, 1995, Shirani Rad et al., 2014).

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Table 1. Latin binomial name, functional groups and mean species relative abundance in transplanted cabbage for site years.

Latin binomial name Family name Func. group Rel. abnd. (%) Mfa L.Cb. 2009 2010

Achillea millefolium L. Asteraceae D P 0.01 - Amaranthus retroflexus L. Amaranthaceae D A 0.54 2.19 Ambrosia artemisiifolia L. Asteraceae D A 0.09 0.04 Bellis perennis L. Asteraceae D P 0.04 - Calystegia sepium (L.) R. Br. Convolvulaceae D P - 0.03Capsella bursa-pastoris (L.) Med. Brassicaceae D B 0.37 0.04 Chenopodium album L. Chenopodiaceae D A 1.02 1.33 Chenopodium polyspermum L. Chenopodiaceae D A 1.66 0.03 Cirsium arvense L. (Scop.) Asteraceae D P 4.10 0.23 Convolvulus arvensis L. Convolvulaceae D P 6.09 1.21 Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. Poaceae M P 10.75 10.49 Digitaria sanquinalis L. (Scop.) Poaceae M A 2.55 11.06 Echinochloa crus-galli (L.) PB. Poaceae M A 2.90 9.05 Galinsoga parviflora Cav. Asteraceae D A 5.92 4.32 Hibiscus trionum L. Malvaceae D A - 0.09Lamium purpureum L. Lamiaceae D A 0.59 -Mentha arvensis L. Lamiaceae D P 1.32 - Polygonum aviculare L. Polygonaceae D A - 0.04Polygonum persicaria L. Polygonaceae D A 0.08 0.34 Portulaca oleracea L. Portulacaceae D A 0.65 2.03 Potentilla reptans L. Rosaceae D P 0.25 - Rorippa sylvestris (L.) Bess. Brassicaceae D P 0.69 - Setaria glauca (L.) PB. Poaceae M A 6.27 11.37 Solanum nigrum L. emend. Miller Solanaceae D P 0.33 0.01 Sinapis arvensis L. Brassicaceae D A - 0.02Sonchus oleraceus L. Asteraceae D A 3.73 0.16 Stachys palustris L. Lamiaceae D A 0.73 0.20 Stellaria media (L.) Vill. Caryophyllaceae D A 0.55 - Trifolium repens L. Fabaceae D P 0.04 - Veronica hederifolia L. Scrophularaiaceae D P 0.19 - Veronica persica Poir. Scrophularaiaceae D A 0.41 - Func. group = functional group; aMf: morphotype; D: dicotyledons; M: monocotyledons; bLC: life cycle; A: annual; B: biennial; P: perennial Rel. abnd. (%) = relative abundance (%)


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Figure 1. Dominance-diversity curve for each treatment as measure of cumulative species abundance.

Regarding evenness, few weed species dominated in each treatment, which was shown by the slope of the rank abundance plot. In the first year all curves were more similar across the experiment, while in the second year mechanical cultivation increased the abundance of dominant weeds.

Specific weed species responses to the various treatments and their interactions are presented diagrammatically in CCA biplots (Figure 2). Vector length indicates the strength of the association of a weed species with a given variable (weed control treatments). In the first year axis 1 explained 34,4% of variation (Figure 2 A) and corresponded to difference between floristic compositions in mechanical treatment. The second axis explained further 13,2% of total variation and separate control from treatment plots. Same pattern appears in the second year (Figure 2 B). Axis 1 explained 29,6% of variation and separate mechanical cultivation from other treatments in experiment. Second axis with 9,7% of variation also divided control from treatment plots.

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A

B

Figure 2. Ordination diagram of canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showing the correlation between weed relative abundance and different

management practices; A: (2009) X axis = canonical function 1 (eigenvalue = 0.419); Y axis = canonical function 2 (eigenvalue = 0.234) and B: (2010) X

axis = canonical function 1 (eigenvalue = 0.110); Y axis = canonical function 2 (eigenvalue = 0.018). Species codes refer to Bayer codes (Bayer 1992).

Species codes refer to Bayer codes (Bayer 1992).


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Mechanical treatment had the highest impact on the species composition. Well done cultivation in booth years uproots young weeds and badly damages perennial weeds. Other research also confirmed that keeping weeds out early in the season is very important for all cole crops and no effect of cabbage growth occurred when weeds are removed from transplanted cabbage prior to rapid growth (Brainard et al., 2013). Residual vegetation that develops after cultivation allows some late emerging weeds to develop, but the emergence dates of these weeds in relation to the crop are at a competitive disadvantage (Haterman-Walenti & Auwarter, 2006).

Although species have often been grouped in their response to agronomic practices (Derksen et al., 1993), in this study it did not generally occur. For example: in the first year perennial weeds Convolvulus arvensis and Potentilla reptans were positively correlated with mechanical cultivation, while next year perennials did not show dependence on this management practice. However, perennial monocot Cynodon dactylon, a dominant plant species in this study, was associated with mulch in the first year, and in the second year did not show dependence on any of examined weed control options. Swanton et al. (1993) also found no clear tendency towards the increase or decrease of any weed functional group in relation to the management practice.

References

BRAINARD, D.C., R.R. BELLINDER & A.J. MILLER, 2004: Cultivation and interseeding for weed control in transplanted cabbage. Weed Technology 18, 704-710.

BRAINARD, D.C., R.E. PEACHEY, E.R. HARAMOTO, J.M. LUNA, A. RANGARAJAN, 2013: Weed Ecology and Nonchemical Management under Strip-Tillage: Implications for Northern U.S. Vegetable Cropping Systems. Weed Technology, 27(1), 218-230.

COUSENS, R. & M. MORTIMER, 1995: Dynamics of weed population. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge UK.

DERKSEN, D.A, G.P. LAFOND, G.A. THOMAS, H.A. LOEPKY & C.J. SWANTON, 1993: Impact of Agronomic Practices on Weed Communities: Tillage Systems. Weed Science 41, 409-417.

HATTMAN-VALENTI, H.M & C.P. AUWARTER, 2006: Broadleaf Weed Control in Transplanted Cabbage. North Central Weed Science Society Proceeding 61:134.

KLECKA, W.R., 1980: Discriminant analysis. Sage Publications, Beverly Hills, CA. 71. KOLAROVA, M., L. TYŠER, J. SOUKUP, 2014: Weed vegetation of arable land in the

Czech Republic: environmental and management factors determining weed species composition. Biologia, 69/4, 443-448.

MAGURRAN, A.E., 1988: Ecological Diversity and its Measurements. Princeton University Press, Princeton.

MENALLED, F.D., K.L. GROSS, M. HAMMOND, 2001: Weed aboveground and seedbank community responses to agricultural management systems. Ecological Applications, 11(6), 1586-1601.

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MORTENSEN, D.A., L. BASTIAANS & M. SATTIN, 2000: The role of ecology in the development of weed management systems; an outlook. Weed Research 49, 49-62.

SHIRANI RAD, A.H., Z. BITARAFAN, F. RAHMNI, T. TAHERKHANI, A. MORADI AGHADAM, S. NASRESFAHANI, 2014: Effect of planting date on spring rapeseed (Brassica napus L.) cultivars under different irrigation regimes. Turkish Journal of Field Crops, 19 (2); 153-157.

SWANTON, C.J., D.R. CLEMENTS, D.A. DERKSEN, 1993: Weed succession under conservation tillage: a hierarchical framework for research and management. Weed Technology 7, 285-297.

ter BRAAK, C.J.F. & P. ŠMILAUER, 2012: Canoco Reference Manual and CanoDrow for Windows User’s Guide. Biometris, Wageningen and České Budĕjovice.

van ELSEN, T., 2000: Species diversity as a task for organic agriculture in Europe. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 77, 101-109.

WHITTAKER, R.H., 1967: Gradient analysis of vegetation. Biological Reviews 42, 207-264.


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ECONOMIC ANALYSIS OF WEED CONTROL IN TRANSPLANTED CABBAGE (BRASSICA OLERACEA VAR. CAPITATA)

Edita Štefanić1, Ivan Štefanić1, Slavica Antunović2, Božica Japundžić Palenkić2

1Faculty of Agriculture, J.J. Strossmayer University, Kralja P. Svačića 1D, Osijek, Croatia, 2College of Slavonski Brod, Dr. Mile Budaka 1, Slavonski Brod, Croatia,

e-mail: [email protected]

Abstract

Aboveground weed biomass, species density and cabbage yield were influenced by applied weed management treatments. Significantly lower biomass and species density were recorded on plots with mechanical cultivation 3 weeks after transplanting. Post-emergence chemical application did not manage to control late emerging weeds, particularly summer annuals. Organic mulch also failed to protect transplanted cabbage from weeds, particularly allowing grass weeds to develop above the straw layer. The most effective method for transplanted cabbage in highly infested north Croatian fields was mechanical cultivation which had the highest yield and the only positive net return.

Keywords: transplanted cabbage, weed control, economic benefit, North-eastern Croatia

Introduction

Compared to other arable crops, vegetables compete poorly with weeds during the early part of their life cycle due to initial slow growth (Labrada, 1994). This particularly corresponds for crops grown in wide rows that do not have enough canopies to shade out weeds. Moreover, in such crops, marketed by size, any competition with weeds can make a significant impact on marketability and profit.

Herbicides are important tools for producing high yield and high quality of cabbage as well as for other cole crops. However, the number of herbicides for weed control in cabbage is rather limited, and there are not sufficient options to provide control of different weed species that compete with crop (Hopen, 1995). Accordingly, many researchers are devoted to study effect of herbicide application, timing and cabbage tolerance (Dillard et al., 2004, Sikkema et al., 2007). Haterman-Walenti & Auwarter (2006), for example, compared application timing of post-emergence treatments in transplanted cabbage and concluded that application at 3 weeks after transplanting was greater than 85%, compare to unsuccessful weed control at 7 WAT. This is in line with many studies that have been conducted to

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determine critical weed free period for cabbage. Investigations have shown this to be between two and four weeks in seeded cabbage (Miller & Hopen, 1991) or at least 3 week after transplanting (Weaver, 1984).

However, the awareness of producers and consumers of possible side effect of chemicals has been increased over recent decades. This had result in research programs on weed control in which the emphasis is mainly on reduce or exclude herbicide use. To replace herbicide in conventional farming, alternative options must have acceptable efficacy compared to herbicides. In vegetable crops, both living and dead mulch systems have shown beneficial effects (Hoyt, 1999, Sinkevičiene et al., 2009, Bryant et al., 2013, Caliskan et al., 2013).

Mechanical control as a sole option in organic vegetable farms or in combination with herbicides as integrated weed control strategies has also been an active area of research (Leinonen et al., 2004, Melander et al., 2015). However, cultivation is most effective for weed control when properly timed.

An additional factor motivating the development of ecologically based weed management strategies is the need to increase farm profitability. Increases in yield and reduction in production costs would seem to bode well to profitability (Bell et al., 2000).

Therefore, the primary objective of this study was to examine the impact of different management option on structural weed community complexity, as well as efficacy and economic benefits of weed control in transplanted cabbage on small family farm.


Cabbage (Brassica oleracea var. capitata) cv. “Futoški” was grown after red clover (Trifolium pratense L.) and potato (Solanum tuberosum L.) during 2009 and 2010 in village Slobodnica near Slavonski Brod (45°09'28.9"N 17°55'35.3"E) in the eastern part of Croatia at the south of the Panonian plain. Cabbage was transplanted in the field at 3 - 4 leaf stage in a 55 cm rows with 50 cm inter-rows on 4 July 2009 and 18 July 2010. All agrotechnical operations followed standard cabbage production in Croatia (Matotan, 2004).

In a complete randomized block design four different management options for small family farms were evaluated: i) conventional (high external chemical input); ii) mechanical (no external chemical input, cultivated); iii) mulch (no external chemical input, organic mulch only) and iv) control (doing nothing). For chemical control post-plant application of metazachlor (2 l ha-1) was applied 10 days and 12 days after cabbage has been transplanted in 2009 and 2010 respectively. Mechanical inter-row cultivation was tested as a sole treatment 3 weeks after cabbage was transplanted.

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Chopped wheat straw was applied as mulch over soil surface shortly after the young cabbage plants were place on field at a rate of 5 t ha-1. Control plots were left un-weeded throughout the growing season.

Weeds were sampled by means of four randomly selected square meters in each main plot at the end of growing season. Weeds were cut at ground level, separated by species, counted and dried at 600C to constant mass. Marketable cabbage heads were harvested from the whole plots and the yield was expressed as kg per ha.

Data were first tested for homogeneity of variance prior to statistical analysis by plotting the residuals. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was then performed on weed density, aboveground biomass and species diversity. These variables were compared across the four systems using repeated measures ANOVA model, with year as repeated measure (SPSS Inc, 2009, Chicago). To meet the assumptions of the ANOVA model, density and biomass data were log transformed, and yield data were square-root transformed prior analysis. Means were compared with Tukey post hoc test (P < 0.05) when necessary. Back-transformed means and confidence limits are reported to aid interpretation.

Finally, an economic comparison of weed control vs. the effect on cabbage yield and incremental rate of return was constructed using partial budget, dominance, and marginal analysis method (Bell et al., 2000). Cabbage production costs were from data compiled for the year immediately preceding our experiment.


Total weed biomass, species density and cabbage yield were influenced by applied treatments (Table 1, Figure 1). Significantly lowest aboveground weed biomass and species density were recorded on plots where mechanical cultivation was performed 3 weeks after transplanting. This confirms the results of Haterman-Walenti and Auwarter (2006) with successful weed control at 3 weeks after transplanting.

Post-em chemical application (two weeks after cabbage was transplanted) did not achieve satisfactory control. Although herbicide is applied inside of critical weed free period, it did not manage to control late emerging weeds, particularly summer annuals. Some other studies, however, reported that chemical weed control could give a more consistent control of weeds for the duration of the crop (Hoyt et al., 1996, Delpeche & Isaac, 2013).

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Table 1. Repeated-measures ANOVA for the effect of agricultural management options on weed biomass, weed density and cabbage yield.

Dependent variable Effect df F Value P > 0

Weed biomass treatment 3 12.327 0.001 year 1 67.575 0.000 treatment * year 3 6.600 0.007

Weed density treatment 3 4.382 0.027 year 1 27.397 0.000 treatment * year 3 2.100 0.154

Cabbage yield treatment 3 42.723 0.001 year 1 2.746 0.123 treatment * year 3 7.504 0.004

Although, the present trend towards the restriction of frequent and intensive disturbances and herbicides had lead to promote mulch as an alternative weed control option, straw mulch also did not satisfied weed control, allowing grass weeds (Cynodon dactylon, Setaria glauca and Echinochloa cruss-galli) to emerge and develop above the straw layer. Aboveground weed biomass on plots with mulch were significantly higher compared to other investigated options (Figure 1). This is in accordance with previous studies where the effect of soil mulching with wheat straw did not provide satisfactory weed control (Sinkevičiene et al., 2009). However, density in the second year of our study was the lowest, but not significantly different from the mechanical option.

Significant year effect and year by treatment interaction (Table 1, Figure 1) was particularly visible in the second year of the experiment having much higher development of aboveground weed biomass. Besides the influence of applied weed management, amount of precipitation in the second year (data not shown) could favored the development of weed biomass. It is possible to speculate on the possible causes for observed differences.


63

A

B

C

Figure 1. Effect of agricultural management systems on shifts in weed community in transplanted cabbage: (A) impact on aboveground weed

biomass; (B) impact on weed density; (C) impact on cabbage yield. Bars with different letters are significantly different (P < 0.05)

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Table 2. Return on investment form different weed management in transplanted cabbage.

Treatment Chem. Mech. Mulch Contr.

2009 Yield (kg/ha-1) (Y)(A) 7925 14950 7700 8075 Unit price (kn kg-1) (B) 2.5 2.5 2.5 2.5 Gross return (kn ha-1) (C=A+B) 19813 37375 19250 20188 Growing costs (kn ha-1) (D) 28809 28809 28809 28809 Weed control costs (kn ha-1) (E) 308 700 4000 0 Harvest cost (kn ha-1) (F) 1738 3300 1694 1782 Total variable costs (kn ha-1) (G=D+E+F)

30855 32809 34503 30591

Net return (kn ha-1) (H=A-G) -11043 4566 -15253 -10404Breakeven yield (kg ha-1) (I=G/B) 12342 13124 13801 12236 Rate of return (%) (J=H/Gx100) -36 14 -44 -342010 Yield (kg/ha-1) (Y)(A) 10850 33025 1330 2225 Unit price (kn kg-1) (B) 2.75 2.75 2.75 2.75 Gross return (kn ha-1) (C=A+B) 29838 90819 3658 6119 Growing costs (kn ha-1) (D) 28809 28809 28809 28809 Weed control costs (kn ha-1) (E) 333 700 4000 0 Harvest cost (kn ha-1) (F) 2398 7260 286 484 Total variable costs (kn ha-1) (G=D+E+F)

31540 36769 33095 29293

Net return (kn ha-1) (H=A-G) -1703 54050 -29438 -23174Breakeven yield (kg ha-1) (I=G/B) 11469 13371 12035 10652 Rate of return (%) (J=H/Gx100) -5 147 -89 -79

• Std. yield 35000-60000 kg ha−1

• (B) Growing costs: 48000 seedlings/ha−1 = 14400 kn; fertilization = 5629 kn ha−1;Total machinery expenses = 8780 kn ha−1

• (D) Harvest costs: (packaging materials and labor based on wage of 22 kn hour−1)• Exchange rate for Croatian kuna (kn) on June 2nd 2009 is 7,334341 kn for 1 €; on

June 1st 2010 is 7,265498 kn for 1 € (Source: Croatian National Bank atwww.hnb.hr)

The highest yield was recorded on plots with mechanical cultivation, followed by intermediate in conventional herbicide control, while mulch and


65

control plots had significantly lower yield in first year (Figure 1). In second year significant differences were visible between highest yields in mechanical treatment compare to other investigated weed control options. Mechanical cultivation was therefore, the most effective method for weed control throughout the study. This treatment increased cabbage yield by providing slightly better control during the critical 3 week period of weed competition (Weaver, 1984), particularly for controlling the weeds after they emerge between rows (Melander et al., 2015).

Impact of crop-weed interaction on yield loss is essential to integrate weed management programs into the design of the cropping system that promote adequate profits. Therefore, experimental data from both years were finally used in partial budget analyses to compare costs vs. benefits and to calculate net return from investment in weed control. The only positive net return (4566 kn ha

−1 in 2009 and 54049.8 in 2010) was obtained with

mechanical weed control (Table 2). The return was higher in 2010 than 2009, because of the significantly higher yield. This was probably also influenced by favorable weather condition after the cabbage was transplanted in the second year of study.

In conclusion, this experiment showed that different agricultural management system for transplanted cabbage had significant impact on weed biomass, weed density, cabbage yield and net return. The most effective method for transplanted cabbage in highly infested north Croatian fields was mechanical cultivation with highest yield and with only positive net return.

References

BELL, C.E., B.E. BOUTWELL, E.J. OGBUCHIEKWE & M.E. McGRIFFIN, 2000: Weed Control in Carrots: The Efficacy and Economic Value of Linuron. HortScience 35, 1089-1091.

BRYANT, A., D.C. BRAINARD, E.R. HARMOTO & Z. SZENDREI, 2013: Cover Crop Mulch and Weed Management Influence Arthropod Communities in Strip-Tilled Cabbage. Environmental Entomology 42, 293-306.

CALISKAN, S., C. ERDOGAN, M. ARSLAN & M.E. CALISKAN, 2013: Comparison of organic and traditional production systems in chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.). Turkish Journal of Field Crops, 18 (1), 34-39.

DELPECHE, M.A. & W.P. ISAAC, 2013: Soil Solarization for Managing Weeds in Cabbage Brassica Oleraceae var. Capitata in Trinidad and Tobago. Agricultural Science 1, 45-54.

DILLARD, H.R, R.R. BELLINDER & D.A. SHAH, 2004: Integrated management of weeds and diseases in a cabbage cropping system. Crop Protection 23, 163-168.

HATTMAN-VALENTI, H.M & C.P. AUWARTER, 2006: Broadleaf Weed Control in Transplanted Cabbage. North Central Weed Science Society Proceeding 61:134.

HOPEN, H.J., 1995: Herbicide Available for Comercial Cabbage Producers during 1965-94. HortTechnology 5, 25-26.

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HOYT, G.D., 1999: Tillage and Cover Residue Affects on Vegetable Yields. HortTechnology 9, 351-358.

LABRADA R., 1994: Weed management in vegetable crops. In: Labrada R, Caseley JC and Parker C (Eds.) 1994: Weed Management for Development Countries: FAO Plant Production and Protection Paper 120, 282-291.

LEINONEN, P., A. SAASTAMOINEN & J. VILMUNEN, 2004: Finger weeder for cabbage and lettuce cultures. 6th EWERS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control, Lillehammer, Norway, 8-10 March.

MATOTAN, Z., 2004. Suvremena proizvodnja povrća. Nakladni zavod Globus. pp 448. MELANDER, B, B. LATTANZI & E. PANNACCI, 2015: Intelligent versus non-intelligent

mechanical intra-row weed control in transplanted onion and cabbage. Crop Protection 72, 1-8.

MILLER, A.B, & H.J. HOPEN, 1991: Critical weed-control period in seeded cabbage (Brasica oleracea var. capitata). Weed Technol. 5, 852-857.

SIKKEMA, P.H., N. SOLTANI, W. DEEN & D.E. ROBINSON, 2007: Effect of s-metolachlor application timing on cabbage tolerance. Crop Protection 26, 1755-175.

SINKEVIČIENE, A., R. JODAUGIENE, R. PUPALIENE & M. URBONIENE, 2009: The influence of organic mulches on soil properties and crop yield. Agronomy Research 7, 485-491.

SPSS Inc. Released 2009. PASW Statistics for Windows, Version 18.0. Chicago: SPSS Inc. WEAVER, S., 1984: Critical period of weed competition in three vegetable crops in relation

to management practices. Weed Research 24, 317-325.


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Instruction to Authors in International Journal Herbologia

One copy of manuscript in English should be submitted by e-mail or as a hard (paper) copy and a compact disc.

Manuscripts should be computer typed in MS Word, single spaced, on the page (paper) format of B5, font of Times New Roman, font size 12 (address of the authors, keywords and list of references with font size 10). The text lines should be justified. The length of the paper can be up to eight pages.

The paper should start with the title of the article, the names of each author, his/her institution, address and e-mail address.

Abstract would not exceed 300 words or 20 lines. Keywords, up to two lines long, should be listed below the abstract.

Main text includes intruduction, materials and methods, results and discussion. Footnotes should be avoided. SI units should be used. Reference list should be ordered alphabetically. Examples: AUTHOR, X.Y. & Z.Q. AUTHOR, 2001: Title of article, Journal title in Italics, 12, 78-84. Or: AUTHOR, A., B. AUTHOR, 1998: Book title (ed. GH Editor). Publisher, Place, Country.

Figures and tables should be numbered consecutively and should have an appropriate caption or legend.

Scientific names and Latin words et al. should be in italic. When a plant name is repeated, it can be abbreviated, e.g. C. album. For crop plants, common English names are used, but the scientific name can be given in parentheses at the first mention in the main text, e.g. oats (Avena sativa). Both British and American forms of common names can be used (e.g. corn and maize, alfalfa and lucerne etc.), up to the choice of the author. For herbicides and other chemicals, in Materials and methods, one should state common approved names and trade names, e.g. glyphosate (Roundup 360 a.i. L-1, Monsanto), and thereafter only trade names. Dose of herbicides shouldbe expressed in terms of active ingredient (e.g. a.i. ha-1).

The aim of this jorunal is to publish new research results on weed biology, ecology, harms inflicted by weeds to agriculture and other activities and the environment, as well as all the measures of weed control and their effects on the environment.

The Herbologia publishes primarily original scientific papers from weed science and weed control. It also publishes review articles on the subject.


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Referees of the papers in the Herbologia Vol. 16, No. 1

Ivica Đalović, Novi Sad Katerina Hamouzova, Prague Gabriella Kazinczi, Kaposvar Mira Knežević, Osijek Vaclav Kohout, Prague Milena Simić, Belgrade

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vol. 16, no. 1, 2016 herbologia, - anubih - naslovna out as the second cause of species extinction...

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