TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEDICATION…………………………………………………………………...

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT…………………………………………………….....

ACRONMYS…………………………………………………………………....

1.0. INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………

2.0. AIM………………………………………………………………….

3.0. OBJECTIVES………………………………………………………..

4.0. ACTIVITIES ………………………………………………………...

4.1. BEEF UNIT…………………………………………………

4.1.1. Dehorning………………………………………...

4.1.2. Dipping…………………………………………..

4.1.3. Castration…………………………………………

4.1.4. Hoof management………………………………..

4.1.5. Weaning ………………………………………….

4.1.6. Pregnancy diagnosis………………………………

4.1.7. Record keeping…………………………………...

4.1.8. Slaughter of beef animals…………………………

4.1.9. Sale of beef animals……………………………….

4.2. DAIRY UNIT…………………………………………………..

4.2.1. Calf rearing……………………………………….

4.2.2. Feeding of calves and calving……………………

4.2.3. Calving sequence…………………………………

4.2.4. Care of the newly born…………………………...

4.2.5. Milking of cows………………………………….

4.3. SHEEP & GOAT UNIT……………………………………….

4.3.1. Routine management practices…………….........

4.3.2. Hoof management (trimming)…………………….

4.3.3. Inoculation/ Dossing …………………………......

4.3.4. Dipping…………………………………………….

4.4. PIG UNIT

4.4.1. Handling of piglets………………………………...

4.4.2. Iron injection……………………………………....

4.4.3. Teeth clipping …………………………………….

4.4.4. Castration………………………………………….

4.4.5. Veterinary care…………………………………….

4.5. POULTRY UNIT……………………………………………..

4.5.1. Requirements ……………………………………...

4.5.2. Brooding unit……………………………………...

4.5.3. Feeding…..………………………………………..

4.5.4. Debeaking………………………………………….

4.5.5. Identification of non-laying hens………………….

4.5.6. Record keeping……………………………………

4.5.7. Veterinary care ……………………………………

4.6. EQUINE UNIT……………………………………………….

4.6.1. Hoof management…………………………………

4.6.2. Equine brucellosis…………………………………

4.6.3. Equine Feeding……………………………………

4.6.4. Temperature checking ……………………………

4.7. GAME UNIT

4.8. RATION AND FEED FORMULATIONS

5.0. CHALLENGES/GENERAL OBSERVATION………………………..

6.0. RECOMMENDATION………………………………………………...

7.0. CONCLUSION…………………………………………………………

8.0. REFERENCES…………………………………………………………

DEDICATION TomyParents; Johnny Musalo &Cleopatra Mwaba,for their parentalsupport

andperseverance, andto my brothers and sisterswhomissed me during the vacation as

well as my friends

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT My gratitude gotoMr. & Mrs. Harvey, the owners & directorsofshiwa ngandu estates

and board chairs of Chambeshi water and sewerage company (CWSC).

Mr.Fastone,supervisor for beef and dairy sections. Mr. William, supervisor for small

animals and poultry units and Mr. Sunday, supervisor for the equine section,notonly for

their hospitality butalsoprovisionofallthetechnicalguidancewithoutwhichmystay at the

estatecouldhavebeeninvain.Allowmealsoacknowledge theroleplayedby thefollowing

individuals: Mr. Sikoki,Mr.V.Lungu, Mr.Bright, Mr. Munthali,Mrs.Lucky

andothermembersofstaff too many to

bementionedwhoimpartedinmethetechnicalknowledgeintheir specialties.

Further appreciation goes to myparentsandsiblingsforthespiritualandmoral

supportandtomycomrades, Mr. C Mwamba, Mr.N KabindaandMr.E.

Mwewa,formakingmyexperience favorable.

Finally,Iwould also liketoextendmygratitudeto theGovernmentof the republic of

Zambia (GRZ)fortheirlogisticalsupport via the bursaries committee (BC).

ACRONMYS AI Artificial Insemination

BC Bursaries committee PD Pregnancy Diagnosis GRZGovernmentof the republic of Zambia

UNZA UniversityofZambia

VMB VeterinaryMedicine-Biomedicals

COMESA Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa

SADC Southern Africa Development Community

EBA Everything but Arms

GDP Gross Domestic Product

INTRODUCTION

Zambia is endowed with a large land resource base of 42 million hectares of which only

1.5 million hectares is cultivated every year. There are abundant water resources for

irrigation and the country has 40 percent of the water in Central and Southern Africa.

The agricultural sector continues to be the backbone of the Zambian economy as it

contributes to the growth of the economy and also to exports. Primary agriculture

contribute about 35 percent to the country’s total nontraditional exports (all the

country’s exports other than copper and cobalt) and about 10 percent of the total export

earnings for the country. The sector also provides employment to 70 percent of the

labor force. As such, agriculture has continued to receive priority attention by the

government, through increased budget support aimed at increasing agriculture

productivity to ensure food security, income generation, creation of employment

opportunities and poverty reduction.

Given the vast resource endowment in terms of land, labor and water, Zambia

has the potential to expand its agricultural production. Furthermore the country is

bordered by eight countries and is a member of the Common Market for Eastern and

Southern Africa (COMESA) and the Southern African Development Community

(SADC) it has market access to the European Union through the Everything but Arms

(EBA) initiative, access to the US market through the African Growth Opportunities Act

(AGOA) and access to the Chinese and Japanese markets through various initiatives.

Furthermore the Government has embarked on a land development programme which

involves opening up new farming blocks for commercial development and expansion of

the agriculture sector.

Livestock Farming in Zambia: A recent parliamentary report

reviews the current state of livestock farming in Zambia. The livestock sector is worth

over $1.5bn in Zambia, accounting for around 35% of agriculture’ share of national

gross domestic product (GDP). The good news is that the sector has experienced stead

growth in recent years. Beef and dairy products are growing around 7% and 10%

annually respectively. The poultry industry has also doubled in size over the last ten

years. However, despite these positive trends the sector continues to face many

challenges which are helpfully highlighted in the report. These include inadequate

development funding and taxation reform from GRZ; rampant livestock disease

outbreak; poor disease control mechanisms; poor supply of breeding stocks; high cost of

cheap and long term finance; poor infrastructure such as roads, and a lack of processing

facilities in the form of abattoirs and milk collection centers, among others; high energy

costs; shortage and high cost of feedstock; absence of input support; inadequate and

inappropriate research; poor extension support; poor organization of marketing services;

and high number of levies on livestock and livestock products. There’s currently no

livestock development policy to deal with these challenges. The government is allegedly

in the process of developing one. But it’s unclear how robust such a policy is likely to

because one of the things that are clear from the report is that GRZ is working with poor

statistics. The exact numbers of livestock in the country are not known. Without proper

data it is challenging to formulate strategies that address the key problems.

Shiwa Ngandu is a grand English-style country estate and house in the Muchinga

province of Zambia, about 12 km west of the Tanzam highway and half-way between

Mpika and Chinsali. Its name is based on a small lake nearby, Lake Ishiba Ngandu

which in the Bemba language means 'lake of the royal crocodile'. The house itself is also

known as "Shiwa House". It was the lifelong project of an English aristocrat, Sir

Stewart Gore-Browne who fell in love with the country after working on the Anglo-

Belgian Boundary Commission determining the border between Rhodesia and the

Democratic Republic of Congo. From his boyhood, Gore-Browne had an ambition to

own an estate like that of his aunt, Dame Ethel Locke King, at Weybridge in England.

Although comparatively wealthy himself, he could not afford such an estate in Britain.

Land in Northern Rhodesia was very much cheaper for white settlers. At the boundary

commission he had come to admire the Bemba workers and so he travelled to their

country looking for a site. Arriving at Lake Shiwa Ngandu in April 1914 with his

Bemba servants and porters, he knew he had found it. World War I intervened but its

horrors only increased his desire to return to Shiwa Ngandu and achieve his dream.

Construction of the mansion and the farm began in 1920 when Zambia was the British

protectorate of Northern Rhodesia. The site was 400 miles from the nearest railhead, a

journey of many days over rivers and swamps

The estate had its own schools, hospitals, playing fields, shops, and post office. Workers

lived and are still living in brick-built cottages and the estate was ruled as a benevolent

autocracy — though by a man with a temper ferocious enough to justify the local

nickname of Chipembere which means 'rhinoceros'. Stewart Gore-Browne died in

Kasama, Zambia in 1967, and to this date is the only white man to have been given a

state funeral in the history of Zambia, with a eulogy given by then President Kenneth

Kaunda. After his death the estate was managed by one of his daughters, Lorna, and her

husband John Harvey. But only six months later in 1992, Lorna and John Harvey were

murdered at Shiwa Ngandu by three men who were caught and convicted.

Since the years following the murders the house fell into disrepair. Recently Shiwa

House has been partially restored and has opened five rooms for paying guests under the

name Shiwa Ngandu Manor House. An airstrip has been built for charter flights. The

estate's remote beauty is once more accessible to visitors. The grave of Sir Stewart is at

rest in the extraordinary African paradise he created. Lorna and John Harvey's sons have

reintroduced wildlife, and established a large cattle ranch. Poaching is under control, and

the estate is proving to be a significant source of employment in the area.

2.0. AIM Theaimofthepracticalwastofamiliarize theparticipantswithskillsinvarious livestock

productionandotherlivestock-relatedactivities such as Growing crops &

forageswhicharevery useful and of great value onafarm.

3.0. OBJECTIVES The main objective of the practical was to acquire skills in variousagricultural

activitiesimplementedat a farm.

Theobjectiveswere:

Toacquireskillsintheareaoffeed & ration formulationofvariousfarmanimal

species

To acquireskillsinbreeding,artificialinseminationandpregnancydiagnosis

To acquire knowledge and skills in the control and treatment of animal

diseases

Toacquireknowledgeinotheragriculturalrelatedactivitiesundertakenat a far

4.0. ACTIVITIES 4.1. BEEFUNIT

Shiwang’andu estate has a variety of beef cattle both exotic breeds purposed forCommercial

beef production such as Boran, Brahman, Bonsmara, Hereford and Sussex. And local breeds

such as Angoni, Barotse and Tonga.

4.1.1. DEHORNING

Cattle may be born horned or polled (hornless) however, the polled trait is genetically

dominant and polled off springs will result if either of the parents is naturally polled.

Principal reason for dehorning

Reduction of dangers of injury and associated financial losses due to hide damage

Reduction in spatial requirements when cattle are kept in confinements i.e. feedlot area,

through space or transportation.

Ease of handling and reduced risk of injury to handlers

Dehorning calves

Calves should be dehorned when the horn bud can be felt, but preferably with a mouth after

birth. The principal of dehorning is to cauterize the horn bud and the skin area surrounding it

Note: if the horn bud and the skin surrounding it is not properly cauterized, malformed horn

growth or scars will be produced.

Malformed horn Scared horn

Dehorning methods

Hot iron method

Caustic stick method

Collodion method

Dehorning older cattle

Horn growth up to 50mm can be removed close to the head with a sharp knife. Cautery

of the wound and the surrounding will prevent further growth. In a case where the horn

has grown with a wide base with hot iron, the use of a guillotine dehorner is

recommended. The blades of the instrument are sharp that not only is the horn base

gouged out, but also 5mm width of the skin surrounding it. This method is used to

remove fully developed horns.

The use of a surgical wire where a local anesthesia is used to block nerves that supply

the horn and its surrounding areas is also used.

Elasticated rings / rubber tubing’s are applied tightly to the horn base and these will

cause the horns to fall off. As a certain amount of discomfort is caused to the animal,

keeping the rubber ring in position may be difficult. Tetany may be introduced or set off

by this method.

4.1.2. DIPPING

Apart from the physical damage they cause, ticks are responsible for the transmission of

diseases such as east coast fever, theileriosis, red water, gall stickness, biliary fever, heart

water, spirochaetosis, and tick paralysis.

DIPPING USING A DIP TANK

Shiwa estate has a cattle dip tank with the capacity of 14,000 liters and that of 1,500 liters for

small animals

Shiwa estate 14,000 liters dip tank for cattleShiwa estates 1,500 dip tanks for small animals

THE DIPTANK AND REQUIREMENT CHECKLIST

Have a dip tank properly calibrated in liters (volume).

Provide a proper dip fluid measure

Measure the amount of water added

Prevent flood water from entering the tank

DIPTANK MANAGEMENT CHECKLIST

Check the level replenish if needed with thoroughly premixed dip solution. Agitate/stir

with a suitable tool weather replenishment is needed or not do not use cattle to

agitate/stir the dip solution.

Open the drainage pipe and close the flood water overflow from the drainage race.

Have available a prolonged stick with which to help your calves

Have sample bottles available if dip wash testing is required

Lock up dip concentrates in a cool place, avoid under the sun.

Periodic breaks may be necessary during dipping to allow the scum removal.

CATTLE MANAGEMENT CHECKLIST

Do not dip in wet weather

Rest and water cattle before dipping

Dip in groups-according to age/size

Ensure that animals are completely submerged

Ensure continuous through movement because overcrowding may cause injuries and

drowning.

Allow dip wash to drain thoroughly from animals- a 25m draining race at a walking

pace should be sufficient.

Allow cattle to dry in a holding paddock before returning them to grazing

Count cattle and ensure that all are dipped except…….

DIPPING EXCEPTIONS

Cows close to calving

Calves

Animals with open wounds

Animals with abnormal skin conditions

POST DIP CHECKLIST

Lock up all dipping utensils

Remove scum from dip wash surfaces

Record tank level

Close drainage race opening, open overflow and clean the race. Clean the foot bath.

Seal dipping area to avoid accidental entry of stock.

After draining the dip tank, it is re-filled with clean water.

Then lime is added

Then afterwards a dip of particular interest that is capable of combating the

suspected/diagnosed ticks should be added

A prepared diptankGood ventilated dip tank to allow fresh air

Animals being directed to the dip tankAnimals after dipping, drying up in the holding crush pen

ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF DIPPING

SPRAY RACES

Effective spray races are acceptable alternatives to dip tanks. However, a similar precaution

and restriction apply. This mechanism makes use of the sweating ability of animals. Here the

dip is poured on the back of the animal along the vertebral column, starting from the lumbar

to the thoracic region. The dip then spreads to the rest of the body by means of sweating.

Pouracide was used as a covering liquid for cattle, it control ticks on cattle. Protect against

house flies and biting flies. Control gesigsvliee. Biting and sucking lice and dead

sandtampans, cattle basement. Rain fast convenient. Residual effect. Strookaanwending

Pouracide-covering liquid dip for cattle Graduated Measuring bottle

Being instructed on how to dip using pouracideDipping animals in a crush pen

4.1.4. CASTRATION

Intact male calves grow faster than the castrated ones, but this advantage is offset by the

greater shock that the animals experience at a later age. Male beef animals are castrated to:

Prevent undesired mating.

Produce cattle of more docile temperament.

Produce cattle that meet the market specifications.

The age of castration is determined at the stage when the animal can be easily handled but it

should be between birth and 6 months. In adult animals, a handling device such the tilt easy

castration. There are three methods of castration:

Knife castration

This is the only method that gives full assurance of sterilization because the testicles are

removed completely. This method can be used by any age but on animals beyond 12months

without anaesthesia is hence requiring veterinary assistance.

The animal should be firmly restrained on the ground. The scrotum and the handler’s hands

must be washed with any disinfectant suitable. The testicles are then palpated and once held,

the scrotum can be cut in two ways:

For very young animals with little testicles, the lower third of the scrotum is cut off.

The testicles are exposed by applying pressure at the point of attachment of the scrotum

to the abdomen.

For animals with more developed testicle, a lateral incision is made through the scrotum

to expose the testicles. A large opening is encouraged to allow ease drainage of the

wound. The cord is cut with the scraping action over a distance of about 2-3 cm with

the knife held at an angle. This which reduces bleeding. After this the wound should be

treated with a suitable wound oil or powder to reduce infection. Fly repellants can also

be used.

Elastrator (rubber ring) castration

This method is used before the calf is a week old. The rubber elastrator ring should be applied

with care to ensure that both testicles are completely through the ring. The ring should be

close to the body, thus constricting the spermatic cord. Although this method works, it does

not give total certainty of complete sterilization.

Burdizzo castration

This method of this procedure is derived from the name of the instrument used. The

instrument used is called burdizzo. In this procedure, both the spermatic cord and the blood

vessels leading to the testicles. This is done when the spermatic cord and the blood vessels

have developed superficially.to distinguish between the in calves, usuallyit’s done at the age

of 3 months. Calves are castrated either by lying down or standing. Each spermatic cord is cut

individually but the pressure marks slightly offset at different levels to allow blood to

circulate to the rest of the scrotum. After the jaws have been closed over the spermatic cord,

the testicle is given a sharp jerk to ensure complete severance. As further insurance, the

spermatic cord may be severed again this time below the first position.

A burdizzo must be kept with its mail closed because this weakens the instrument. Burdizzos

that are not efficient are a common cause of stag downgrading at the slaughter. The efficiency

can be checked by choosing the jaws of the jaws of the instrument over a piece of a string

held between two pieces of writing paper. If the string is not completely severed, it is

advisable to have the bearing of the burdizzo checked.

4.1.5. CATTLE HOOF MANAGEMENT

Bad hoof health is an increasing and expensive problem in intensive dairy and beef

productions all over the world. Preventive interventions are important in order to obtain a

sustainable production, both from an economical and animal welfare aspect. Hoof disorders

are possible to prevent by a correct management and early detection of affected animals,

regular claw trimming and a clean and dry environment are also essential. There is a high

correlation between low production and cattle that are not capable of waking comfortably to

the feed bunk or out into the bush pasture to graze. Also lame cows spend more time down

and often in soil areas so they are generally dirtier and if its diary, their udders become more

susceptible to mastitis from the opportunistic pathogens in dairy environments. And when it

comes to reproduction, cows that are lame will not show heats or many times stop

reproductive cycling.

Regular claw trimming

To trim the claws of cattle the animal was sedated using a general anesthesia. We used

Xylazine 2% injectable solution. Each ml solution contains 20mg Xylazine (as Hcl).

Xylazine- Directions for use in cattle

Sedation 0.2ml/100kg bw

Minor surgery 0.5ml/100kg bw

Major surgery 1.00ml/100kg bw

Since the animal was weighing 400kg 1ml of Xylazine was injected intramuscularly-IM,

noting that the practice was sedation.

Deformed hoof Sedated bull

Trimming the hoof

4.1.5. WEANING

What is weaning?

This is the process where calves are separated from their Dams to aid management. Weaning

enables supplements to be preferably used (fed) and herd size to be controlled for pasture

management.

Weaning age

Calves are normally weaned between the age of 7-8 months

Calves should be weaned before body score condition of the cow declines below 2.5

Where grazing and supplementation is restricted i.e. years of drought; weaning should

be brought forward to cow body condition score of 3.0 and calves subsequently hand

reared

Weaning at less than 5 months of age will retard the calf growth

In years of plenty or suitable supplementation and grazing of cows, weaning can be

delayed to 9-10 months and this has the following advantages:

a) Calves will be heavier (weight) than their earlier weaned counterparts

b) Calves will adjust more readily when separated from cows whose milk flow is

greatly reduced

c) Cows dry up more easily when milk flow is at a low level

4.1.6. PREGNANCY TEST

PREGNANCY DIAGNOSIS (PD): Pregnancy diagnosis (PD), is carried out by a competent

persons, 6-10 weeks after the end of the bulling season. The benefits of PD are:

Helps culling and selection

Enables selective feeding of the breeding herd according to pregnancy status and age

thus reduces the feed bill

Enables early detection and treatment of infertility problems

Abnormalities of the reproductive organ can be detected when the PD is done and

appropriate action taken.

It can serve as an indication of calf loses from birth to weaning where there is no

accurate record of births

Help to prevent slaughter of in-calf animals, which is a crime.

4.1.7. RECORD

KEEPING

CATTLE IDENTIFICATION

Ideally, any method of marking animals for identification or recording should be permanent,

easily applied and clear enough to read from a distance.

METHODS OF MARKING CATTLE

Many different methods and combinations are used to identify animals, since no ideal method

has yet been found.

BRANDING

Branding involves cauterization of the skin to kill the hair follicles and so leave a visible scar.

Branding irons require skillful use. Over-cauterization restricts the blood supply to the

enclosed area and results in a wound that heals very slowly.

HOT IRON BRANDING

Good, hot brands are permanent and can be read from a fair distance though they may be less

satisfactory if the animals’ skin is very wooly.

Examples of Brands

Letter brands: SE- Shiwa

Estates Number brands: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9.

Heating the iron bars Practicing Branding

Number brand (right pelvic limb thigh) Letter brand (left pelvic limb thigh)

EAR TAGGING

These come in many designs, but none have yet been approved to meet the twin requirements

of permanency and legibility at a distance. Ear tags can therefore not be used as a permanent

form of identification, but are useful aids to management. At shiwa estates we were using

plastic flag shaped tags. Flag-shaped ear tag: two discs joined through the ear, one or both

bearing a wide, flat plastic surface on which identification details are written or printed in

large, easily legible script.

Ear

tagging equipmentinserting the tag onto a machine

Practicing ear tagging Calf after inserting the tag

EAR NOTCHING

Ear notching is the practice of cutting a small (usually triangular) section out of the edge of

an animal’s ear in order to identify the owner of that animal, similar to branding of horses and

cows. It is commonly performed on very young animal, six weeks old or less. Accuracy is

good and less cost of operation & less maintenance required for notching machine. Each ear

is broken up into sections from the base around to the top of the ear. Each section can have no

more than 2 notches in it and then they are added up on each ear to determine the number. It

isn't practiced as much now as in the past since ear-tags and tattooing are more readily

available.

Ear notching utensils A Just ear notched calf

An ear notched calf with healing oil applied on the notches

4.1.8. Slaughter of beef animals • Stunning: this involves the procedure of straining and locating the site where shooting

by euthanasia has to be done • Bleeding: this involves cutting all the structures that run along the neck such as the

jugular veins, carotid artery, trachea, esophagus etc. • Dehiding: involves the removal of the hide or animal skin

• Evisceration: involves the removal of the thoracic and abdominal viscera or contents all the way from the mouth through to the anus.

• Inspection: checking if the meat is fit for human consumption. This is basically done by checking the lymph node, liver, spleen and lungs.

• Storage – cold room

4.1.9. Sale of beef animals • On-hoof -live weight • On-hook - dressed weight

4.2. DAIRY UNIT

4.2.1. CALF REARING

Production of the individual herd depends on the production of the calves. Annual calf crop

provide herd develop meat and through selection of the best calves, there is genetic

improvement made to cows. Milk production is considered to be the by-the way product of

calf rearing, hence it’s very important on the dairy farm. Poor management practices during

the early life of a calf affects the performance as it grows into a cow. Due to this, a good

manager has to set the following as part of his goals for good calf rearing. At shiwang’andu

farm estate, these goals are set and strictly followed in order to achieve maximum production

and objective achievements. Milk used for both farm use and market. These goals include;

Obtaining a healthy vigorous cow

Obtain a cow with good body capacity for roughage.

Obtain a cow heat that produces the first calf at 2.5 years.

Obtain a long living cow.

Obtain a growth rate of about 400-600g/day on average.

The live-weight of cows in the dairy section at shiwang’andu farm estate is above 550kg.

Changes to calf welfare begins with timing the conception of the core cow through

pregnancy. Even after calving, management to a cow must be continued to ensure re-

conception every after a year.

4.2.2. FEEDING OF CALVES AND SPEEP CALVING

Initially, a pregnant cow is either carrying a cow or a bull but the assumption is that it is

carrying the replacement heifer. Care and good management of a calf starts as early as when

the mother cow is pregnant. The gestation period of a cow is 287 days which is

approximately 9 months. Two months before calving at the pregnancy age of about 7months,

a cow is dried off using drug which is injected directly into the udder through the teat

papillae. Dry off period is a time when the dairy cow is stopped from being milked in order to

prepare it for parturition and postpartum care for the calf such as suckling. In the last 2-3

weeks, the cow must be seamed up, this is done by giving it extra feed to prepare it for

calving. Pregnant cows should not either be overfed or underfed. They should be given

enough time to exercise because the body and nutrition status of a cow in late pregnancy

influences the calf birth and survival.

4.2.3. THE CALVING SEQUENCE

The cow is taken into a clean paddock

When the calving age is nearly due, the cow is taken into a clean paddock usually a week

before the actual day of parturition. To know that the cow is about to calve, there are a

number of sign that the cow itself puts on and these help the farmer to know that their cow is

due, but one of its prominent sign is that 1-2 weeks before calving, the udder becomes

swollen beyond usual. When this is observed, the cow is then into a clean paddock.

About 24hours before calving, the body temperature decreases

When it a day before parturition, the body temperature reduces due to……/. This is a sign

also important as tells the farmer to prepare for necessary requirements to ensure that the

cow’s delivery is successful.

The shine fluid is secreted from the vagina

This is just a confirmation that parturition is about to start. The vulva starts widening and the

cow starts pushing. The first part to appear is the fetal membrane as it widens the birth canal

and thereafter, it bursts to release some fluid also called the water bag. The fetal membrane

then appears with the front claws and the nose of the calf.

Assistance is only given when the animal finds it difficult to give natural birth. This is done

by tying disinfected ropes to the legs and pull them forward. There are also postpartum

complications such as retained placenta which needs the veterinarian to help the animal

remove the placenta physically via vagina.

4.2.4. CARE OFA NEWLY BORN CALF

After birth, the navel is disinfected with iodine or copper sulphate depending on what is

available. Carbonic solution is also a considerable option to use as a disinfectant. These

prevent infection and assist healing of the umbilicus. It must be ensured that the calf is

breathing normally and if not, assist by cleaning the nasal cavity by tickling the nose using a

piece of straw. The calf should be given colostrum for 12-24 hours to gain protection against

prevailing infection. Naturally, passive immunity is acquired through the antibodies

immunoglobins G and M (1gG and 1gM) that exist in colostrum, no transfer of antibodies.

No transfer of antibodies from the mother to the fetus occur.

4.2.5. MILKING OF THE COW

Milking is done twice a day, in the morning around 05:00 hrs. And in the afternoon around

16:00hrs. There are about 16 milking cows at the farm and all of them are Friesian breed

implying that the milk production is very high. On average, each animal produces about 12

liters per milking session. Before milking the animals are first brought into the milking pallor

and given feed to reduce their attention when milking. Usually the hind limbs are tied

together although some animals can be milked without tying them. Before actual milking

starts, the milk is tasted for mastitis. Mastitis is simply the inflammation of the mammary

gland. Causes of this may be mechanical, chemical or bacterial. Milk with mastitis is not

good for consumption either by animals or human beings. Each teat has to be tested

individually. A faster way of testing for mastitis is squeezing milk direct from the udder

ontoa clean gumboot. If the milk has mastitis, it will be sour like and will show some spots on

the boot. In the absence of mastitis, the milk will easily slip over the boot. The udders are

then washed with water and the salve cream is applied to soften them. This is so to reduce

injury due to friction of the teat as milking is done. Clean milking buckets are used for

collection.

Dairy cow being milked.

This kind of milking is usually used for small scale farmers where milk production is not in

high volumes. Shiwang’andu being a commercial farm and a recognized milk supplier to big

companies such as parmalat, a mechanized way of milking which uses the machine called the

De Larvel automatic milking machine is employed.

The automatic milking machine

This machine uses pressure on its operation. It has some adjusting knobs that facilitates

pressure which is very useful in sucking the milk from the udders. The machine has four teat

holders which with pressure hold the teat and suck the milk into the collecting buckets.

After milk from both hand milking and the de larval machine is collected, it is then filtered

into clean milk containers using the milk filters.

Preparation and sieving of milk through the filter paper.

After the milking and filtering is done, the milk is then processed either for storage awaiting

to sold or distributed to the farm workers and animals in need.

4.3. SHEEP/GOAT

4.3.1. Sheep and Goat Routine Management Practices The following routine management practices should be carried out on a Sheep and Goat

Farm:

The ewes and nannies should be left alone at lambing and kidding time and only be

assisted in cases of difficulty.

Assistance should be carried out by an experienced shepherd or Veterinarian.

However, hygienic arrangements such as clean hands, disinfections and provision of

antibiotics should be met before any assistance is rendered.

The lambs and kids should be castrated (rendering of the male animal unproductive

either by surgical removal of testicles or cutting the blood supply using a bloodless

castrator) when they are one or two weeks of age if they are not required for breeding

purposes.

The simplest method is to use the elastrator and rubber ring around the seminal cords to

cut off blood and nerve supply to the testicles and causing the testicles to slough off.

The alternatives are to crush the seminal cords with the burdizzo pincers or to surgically

remove the testicles through an incision made at the base of the scrotum (or purse).

Castration is not necessary if the sheep and goats will be sold at 6 - 8 months of age.

Weaning should be carried out at 4 - 5 months of age but where the sheep and goats are

herded (shepherded) it may be difficult to put this into practice.

Hoof / foot trimming involves cutting of the outer horny part of the hoof where it has

overgrown by using hoof-trimming knives.

Overgrown hooves are a problem during the rainy season and the condition is related to

foot-rot.

A foot-bath containing copper sulphate or formalin may be used to control foot-rot.

When goats have foot-rot the wall of the claws will often be under-run exposing all the

tissue underneath.

4.3.2. Hoof trimming

The aim of hoof trimming is to produce a flat beaming surface for the claw and to make sure

that there are no foreign bodies in the hoof.

The Hoof Trimming Knife

An overgrown hoof and the correct shade after hoof trimming. It is also done to check for

foot-rot. Foot-rot can be identified first as necrotic areas between the claws which smell bad.

As foot-rot progresses the claws may be underrun. By this time the affected sheep and /or

goat will be very lame. In a flock, the sheep and goats animals that kneel graze must be

suspected. When trimming the hooves, care must be taken not to cause any bleeding.

Bleeding occurs when a cut is made into the live tissue.

4.3.3. INOCULATION & DOSSING

INNOCULATION

Inoculations are administered subcutaneously, this may be done anywhere on the body but an

area of loose skin which is accessible when the animal is standing in the race is preferable

such as the neck and behind the shoulder.

Inoculation gun mounted to a vaccine bottleTesting the inoculation gun

Injecting sheep subcutaneously in the axilla (standing position). Injecting sheep subcutaneously in the axilla (lateral recumbency).

Note: inoculations are given to reduce the possible transmission of infectious diseases,

equipment should be sterilized by heating and needles changed as frequent as practically

possible. Do not chemicals to clean needles and syringes.

DOSING

Drug in liquid form may be administered by mouth using a long necked bottled syringe or a

dossing gun. When administering a drench, raise the animals head slightly and slowly

administer the fluid into the side of the mouth allowing the animal to swallow freely. If the

animals head is raised too high or if the tongue is pulled out, it interferes with normal

swallowing and could cause the drench to enter the lungs. The resulting pneumonia can be

fatal. Dosing guns should be checked periodically for accuracy.

Startect de-wormerSheep in a holding pen waiting medication

Administering startect de-wormer orally using a syringe

4.3.4. DIPPING

Goats in a spraying race

4.4. PIG UNIT

Shiwa ngandu estate has a piggery unit and the main breeding stock kept is the Large White

breed as well as some large black breed

Piggery house at shiwa estate

Large black breed large white breed

BreedingBoars are kept in different pens from sows and they are only brought to the sow’s

penwhen heat signs are observed. Once mating had been successful, the boar is taken back to

its pen. The signs of heat in the soar are:

Frequent urination

Enlargement of the vulva

Reduced appetite

Presence of clear mucus around the vagina

Frequent grunting Restlessness

Gilts are transferred to a farrowing pen when they were about to conceive. Gestation in pigs

takes about 3months 3weeks and 3days (115days).

FeedingThe Pigs at the farm are given a pig ration formulated. Each pig is given 2.5kg of the

ration once a day. Provision of water in waterers is ad lib because pigs consume 10% of their

own body weight in water per day and even more during hot weather. Piglets were allowed

to suckle from the mother for 6weeks. Weaning was thereafter done once and the piglets

were transferred from a farrowing pen to fattening pen where formulated feed were

provided.

4.4.1. Handling of Piglets

During handling, the piglets are caught from behind and held by grasping the hind leg above

the hock and then lifted by placing the other hand under its chest

4.4.2. Iron injection

Piglets are normally born with relatively low levels of iron which cannot be replenished by

the sow’s milk in adequate amounts. This can result in several clinical signs which are

associated with iron deficiency e.g. paleness and uneven growth. Iron dextran injection

(200mg/piglet) was given intramuscularly on the 6th day. Indicatedthat iron preparations can

be administered between 3rd and 7th day of life. This results in greater weight gains at four

weeks.

4.4.3. Teeth Clipping

Clipping piglets’ teeth is done to prevent them from biting the sow in their fight to get hold

of one of her teats and suckle. Bites to the teat can result in the sow preventing her young

from feeding or germs infecting the udder. This can be done as soon as possible after birth

using forceps or clippers.

During clipping, a piece of wooden stick is used to have the piglet’s jaws open. Thereafter,

teeth are cut as close as possible to the gums using a nail cutter while avoiding the injuring

the tongue.

4.4.4. Castration

Castration of male piglets was done using surgical procedures. This was done to boost

growth and therefore, enhance meat (pork) production.

Veterinary Care

The majority of swine diseases are caused by endemic and opportunistic pathogens and

diseases usually occur when pathogen population in the environment is great enough to

overcome the animal’s resistance or when the stressor decreases the animal’s

resistance. In order to avert the pathogens risk of causing diseases, the farm followed strict

sanitary measures and also used all-in all-out type of rearing.

The pens were cleaned with chlorinated water everyday around 06hours. The waterers were

also washed with chlorinated water as a way of disinfecting them. The sties had foot baths at

the entrance which had chlorinated water to prevent transferring parasites or pathogens into

the house. The foot-baths were used to decrease microbiological contamination of foot-ware

4.5. POULTRYUNIT

Poultry Farming, commercial raising of chickens, turkeys, ducks, and geese for their meat,

eggs and feather. Shiwang’andu estate has a poultry unit that keeps layers and village

chickens. Of great importance the estate has concentrated on layers as it is the estates third

profitable unit to Game and Beef production. The layers are reared for the production of eggs

sold to a wide customer base of the northern and Muchinga provinces as the farm has a

central location.

4.5.1. REQUIREMENTS

There are a number of ―requirements‖ by which animals should be managed so that the best

performance is achieved. These requirements are the keys to good management and may be

used to test the management of a poultry enterprise in relation to the standard of its

management. These requirements are called principles. The importance of each principle

changes with the situation and thus the emphasis placed on each may alter from place to

place and from time to time. This means that, while the principles do not change, the degree

of emphasis and method of application may change. The Principles of poultry husbandry are:

Use of good quality and right class of stock

Provision of good housing

Maintenance of good health

Nutrient for economic performance

Good stockperson ship

Maximum use of management techniques

Use of records

Good marketing price

Systems ofrearingbirdsat the farm-deep litter

4.5.2. BroodingUnit

Dayoldchicks that are bought fromthehatcherywere transferredtoabroodinghousesusing

hatching trays. Thechicks werekeptinthehouseforabout3weekswithtemperaturesmaintainedat

37oC.

Brooder house preparation Brooding heat light

Brooder setup

Theactualmethodofprovidingheattothechicksvariesbutmaybeaccomplishedby

controlledheatingoftheentirebuildingorprovidingheatusing heating lamps.

Thefarmusedbothtypesof broodingsystemsthoughthelamps usedwere electric.

Alternatively,charcoalcanalsobeusedby small-scalefarmers who cannotafford

highlymechanized equipment- in this case charcoal was used in times of power load

shedding. Temperaturefortheday-old chicksisregulatedatabout35ocwiththetemperatures

beinggraduallyreduceduntilaboutthethird-forthweekwhennoartificialheatingis

used.Thechicks’behaviorisobservedtocheckwhetherthetemperaturesare

coldortoohote.g.crowding ofchicksatoneangleindicatedthatwherethechicks

areisbetterthantheothersides.

4.5.3. Feeding

Inthebroodinghouse, thechicksaregivenchickmashmostly farm-made though at

timescommercialfeedisusedwheneverthefarmlackedrawmaterials.

Therearedifferencesintermsoffeedingregimesofthebirds largely duetothe purpose

ofthebirds.Broilersaregivenbroilerstarterfromday 1to21andthen Broilerfinisher

fromday22topointofsale/slaughter.Layersaregivenchickmash fromday

1toweek10,followedbyGrowers mashuptoweek18(pointoflay)and, thereafter,Layersmash

fromweek19tothetimewhen thebirdsareculled. Parent stockaregivenbreedersmash.

4.5.4. Debeaking

Debeaking isdoneusinganelectricdebeaking machinebetweenweek16and17in

ordertoavertcannibalism.Cannibalisminbirdshasbeenindicatedtooccurasa resultofshortage

offeedandmineraldeficienciesinthebirds.Only athirdofthe upperbeak istrimmed.

Timingisimportant because debeaking themduring thelayingperiodcould

negativelyimpactonlayingsincetheprocessisstressful.Debeakingisonlydone

onhenssincecocksalso usetheirbeaks whenmountinghensduringcopulation.

4.5.5. IdentificationofNon-Layinghens

Identification oflayinghensisdoneinordertocullallnon-layingones.The

followingfactorsforlayingbirdsarelookedforwhenobservingthebirds:

Headtobeneat and clean

Eyestobebrightandprominent

Combandwattleslarge andbrightred

Venttobeopenandmoist

Abdomentobedeep,softandpliable

Thepubicbonestobeflexibleandwideapart

Physicalexaminationisalsodoneby checkingthespacebetweenthepelvicbones andthatbetween

thepelvicandthekeelbones. Alllayingchickensaccommodated at

leastthreefingersandfourfingersbetweenthepelvicbonesandthepelvicandthe

keelbonesrespectively.

4.5.6. RecordKeeping

Ineachhouse,records werebeingtakeninordertomonitor mortality,feed

consumption,drugandvaccineusageandsales.

4.5.7. VeterinaryCare

Vaccinationsandtreatmentsaredoneasaprophylactic measureandasaway of

gettingridofaprevalentinfectionrespectively.Vaccinationsare carriedoutinorder

togenerateimmunity inthebirdssothatintheeventthataviralattackoccurs,the

chickensshouldalreadyhavestrongsystemofdefense. Atthefarm,vaccinations

aredoneagainstInfectious BursalDisease (Gumboro), NewcastlediseaseandEA-

poxusingBursine-2,LasotaandTrempoxrespectively at differentunits.

Vaccination programs

Days Disease/action Type of Vaccine Vendor Route of

administration Hatchery Mereks/gumboro/

Newcastle

TAD

Marek’s/Newcastl

e(HB1)+IB

(H120)

Hatchery Inject/spray

4 Coccidiosis Paracox 5(if not

in feed)

Vet Oral –drinking

water

14 Gumboro Bursine-2 Vet Oral

21 Newcastle LaSota Vet Spray

35 EA-Pox/newcastle Trempox/talovac

105 ND

Vet Wing stab-right

4.6. EQUINE UNIT

There are 21 horses at the farm 4 young ones and 17 elder ones. The horses are kept separately in their own boarding stales and are never mixed in the same paddocks with cattle. This is so because there are some diseases that can easily be transmitted from bovines to equines for example, fistulous withers which is caused by brucellosis in cattle

4.6.1.HOOF MANAGEMENT

Horses can also be sedated to clean their hooves especially young ones that are not yet fully

trained as well as those that are violent. However, all the horses that we managed to care for

were trained enough and hence no sedation was required.

Xylazine- directions for use in horses

Intravenously-IV Sedation 4ml/100kg bw

Intramuscularly-IM Sedation 10ml/100kg bw

Hoof management is done every 3 weeks to remove

Hoof cleaning utensilsRemoving dirty from the hoof frog and sole

Trimming the hoof Trimming the hoof sole and frog

Trimming the hoof wall

4.6.2. EQUINE BRUCELLOSIS

The horse suspected to have brucellosis due to two consecutive abortions.

4.6.3. FEEDING

After an equine has given birth, the foal is fed on milk for the minimum of two to three months then

after, it is introduced to creep feeding. They are weaned at the age between three to four months.

Before this, the foul entirely depend on the milk from the mare and sometimes milk

Foal suckling

Weaning the may be so stressful especially to the foal due to the fact that it will miss the mare.

Despite this, the foal has to be prepared for weaning. Normally the way of weaning is by separating

the foals from the mare for a period of time until they get used.

Horses are fed mainly on roughage and also concentrate sometimes. At shiwang’andu farm, horses

graze in open areas which are not very protected from dust and wind. When giving feed

concentrate to horses, it is important to wet the feed with water. This is so because horses are so

susceptible to dust and the fact that their respiratory system is complicated rending them very

vulnerable to dust and wind which brings about respiratory problems.

Horse grazing green watered areas plus hay (Good)horses feeding in dusty graze lands (Bad)

Feed concentrates are given to the horses around 06:30 AM and around 15:30 PM

The horse feeding on wet concentrate alone in its standing pen

4.6.4. TEMPERATURE CHECKING

As the horses are being fed in the morning, the temperature is measured in order to check if

there are horses which are not in healthy conditions. Temperature is the major indication of

how healthy the horses are. The thermometer is first reset and then placed in the anus after

which, the temperature is taken.

Temperature being checked

The horses are brushed every morning to remove the dust and to make them shine and clean.

This is so because the horses are used riding by tourists who frequently visit the farm.

4.7. GAME UNIT

Shiwang’andu estate is not only specialized in farm operations/ production, but it has vast

land that provides a suitable habitat to about 21 different game species. Thus, it’s not just a

farm but also has a private game reserve. Because of this as well as the presence of the

mighty shiwa manor house that has up to 72 rooms and a private aircraft landing space, most

people especially whites go for game viewing, safaris and many other different activities that

are found there especially when the hunting season is advertised. The game animals that are

found there are:

Most of the game animals are ruminants with few selected options such as birds. These

animals are mostly killed at the farm on orders. During the hunting season, most animals are

killed, skinned and their skull are used for making trophies. These trophies are usually sold

outside the country to the tourists who usually visit the farm.

Impala meat inspection Impala liver worm inspection

The skinned head of a lechwe to be used for making trophies.Skinned lechwe head

(a) (b)

(a)Removing flesh from the head after boiling it in water to remain with the skull

(b)Drying the skull and the hide in the sun with pure- fine salt to make trophies

Whenever game animals were killed, the carcasses and internal organs were given to us to

carry out all kinds of inspection and skinning with respect to our objectives and furthermore.

Game activities at the farm are well regulated and inspected although a number of challenges

such as pouching by the local people, cripple the ability of its massive expansion.

Sometimes, game animals is given feed concentrate similar to that of cattle since they are

also ruminants. Feeding of game meat seemed a surprise and wastage of feed but it was

explained that feed is dropped in well recognized areas where each specie usually graze

from. This is not done always but it’s used as a way of supplementing when the green

grasslands are dry during the hot season. In cases where an animal gives birth and it dies,

their offspring are usually tamed and feed just like a domestic animals.

l

An orphan Ireland groomed among the goats

Well organized game counting is done in respective game camps by specialized and skilled

ZAWA staff. This was difficult to learn because it not a common happening.

4.8. FEEDS AND RATIONS

Feed Rations Shiwa Estate

Mineral pack with each color signifying a different species.

Section No color DCP SALT MINER

ALS-

Standard

premixes

METHIONI

NE

LYSIN CAROTEN

OID

PREMIX

TOTAL

Dairy 1 Brown 5 5 1 0 0 0 11

Sow/Boar 2 Grey 8 6 2 1 1 0 18

Pig

Grower

3 Green 2 4 1 0 0 0 7

Goat dairy 4 Red 5 5 1 0 0 0 11

Mature

Layer

5 Blue 15 5 1 1 1 0.5 23.5

Chicks

Grower

6 Yello

w

12 4 2 2 1 0 21

Horse 7 purple 5 5 1 0 0 0 11

1. Dairy Mix

To 11kg mineral pack add

Ingredients Weight (kg)

Maize bran 560

Farm soya 100

Sunflower 100

Cotton cake 150

Lime 25

TOTAL 946

2. Sow/Boar mix

To 18 kg mineral pack add

Ingredients Weight(kg)

Ground maize 500

Farm soya 100

Sunflower 150

Wheat/rice bran 100

Lime 11

Fish meal 5

Anti-bacterial 0.5

TOTALS 884.5

3. Pig Grower mix

To 7kg mineral pack add

Ingredients Weight (kg)

Under grade Maize 200

Sunflower 100

Rice bran 100

Lime 2

Anti-bacterial 0.4

TOTAL 409.4

4. Goat Dairy mix

To 11kg mineral pack add

Ingredients Weight (kg)

Maize bran 150

Farm soya 75

Rice Bran 200

Lime 12

TOTAL 448

5. Mature layer mix

To 23.5 kg mineral pack add

Ingredients Weight(kg)

white maize 175

under grade maize 175

Farm soya 50

Bought soya 100

Sunflower 200

Wheat/rice bran 100

Lime 50

Fish meal 5

Grit 50

Anti-bacterial 0.2

TOTALS 928.7

6. Chicks Grower mix

To 21 kg mineral pack add

Ingredients Weight(kg)

Ground maize (white+undergrade) 400

Farm soya 50

Bought soya 100

Sunflower 150

Wheat/rice bran 200

Lime 15

Fish meal 9

Grit 0

Anti-bacterial 0.4

TOTALS 945.4

7. Horse (equine) mix

To 11kg mineral pack add

Ingredients Weight (kg)

Maize bran 150

Farm soya 75

Rice Bran 150

Lime 5

TOTAL 391

SUMMARY OF RATION FORMULATIONS

Ingredients Dairy Sow/Boar Pig

Grower

Goat

Dairy

Mature

Layer

Chick

Grower

Horse

Ground

maize

0 500 0 Or

340/350

0 0

Bought

maize

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

white maize 0 0 0 0 175 200 0

Under

grade maize

0 0 200 0 175 200 0

Maize Bran 560 0 0 150 0 0 150

Farm soya 100 100 75 50 50 75

Bought

soya

0 0 0 0 100 100 0

Cotton cake 150 0 0 0 0 0 0

Sunflower 100 150 100 0 200 150 0

Wheat/rice

bran

0 100 100 200 100 100 150

Lime 25 11 2 12 50 15 5

Grit 0 0 0 0 50 0 0

Fish meal 5 0 0 5 9 0

DCP 5 8 2 5 15 12 5

Minerals 1 2 1 1 1 2 1

Methionine 0 1 0 0 1 2 0

lysine 0 1 0 0 1 1 0

Carotenoid

premix

0 0 0 0 0.5 0 0

Salt 5 6 4 5 5 4 5

0 0.5 0.4 0 0.5 0.4 0

TOTALS 946 884.5 409.4 448 928.7 945.4 391

Feed and ration formulation

The farm has driven much of its efforts in any agriculture activities except in small irrigation

of the pasture for the animals to supplement especially I the dry season when pasture

becomes scarce.

Irrigation of the field for grazing

Maize, soy bean, wheat and sunflower are also cultivated in the rainy season. The main

purpose of cultivating these crops is to provide a cheaper supply of the much needed

ingredients for feed formulation of various farm animals.

Silage made at the farm to feed cattle

Much grazing is from natural pasture since most of the grazing land is in a swamp like

because of Lake Shiwa.

Dry Wheat stalks being fed to the animals after mixing with molasses.

For ruminants, a cheaper source of the very much needed ammonia which enhance the

rumen ecology is obtained from poultry manure. The most ideal method that is used at shiwa

ngandu estates is the use of maize bran as litter. This when changed is then taken and used in

formulating feeds for cattle.

Maize bran poultry litter being collected for use as a source of ammonia for ruminants

When formulating / making feed, the ingredients are all measured to ensure that they are in

their right proportions or amounts. It is important to ensure this because any excess or

deficient ingredient would affect livestock production negatively or might even cause

diseases or lead to malfunctions. After measuring the ingredients, all of them are put into a

mixer for about 5 minutes in order to thoroughly mix the feed so that there can be no

selective feeding.

Weighing balancefeed mixer

5.0 CHALLENGES/GENERALOBSERVATION Thefollowingwerethechallengesandgeneralobservationswhichweremade:

PoornutritioninPiggery, Goats and sheepunits

Absence of footbaths around the farm

Animal species left too open such that they mix a lot

Lack of controlling the grazing sites i.e. sandy or swampy areas

6.0 RECOMMENDATION

Owing to the general observation and thechallenges thatwereencounteredduringmy stay

period at shiwa ngandu estates, Iwould,therefore,liketo

makethefollowingrecommendation:

Thereisneedforthestationtoconstruct and put to use footbaths in order to help curb

unnecessary diseases. Thereisneedforthefarm estatetoexpandthefieldsoffoddercropsonareas

whicharenotbeingused.E.g.Rhodesgrass, Lucerne, star grass Napier

grassorusingalleycroppingthus having leucanea inalleyswithgrasspastures.

The estate needs more paddocks I order to prevent transmission of diseases among

animal species i.e. brucellosis due to mixing horses and cattle at the farm. This would

also help to prevent game animals infecting farm livestock.

Restricting the grazing areas: horses that graze from sandy areas usually develop

respiratory disorders that prove to be fatal because horses do not use their mouth to

aidbreathing. And cattle in too dumpy areas/ water logged areas to prevent disease and

Cattle being stuck in the mud.

7.0 CONCLUSION

Thepurpose ofthecoursewasachievedthroughanumberofactivitiescouldnotbe

doneduetotimeconstraintandseasonality oftheactivities.Thestaywasquite

educativeandanumberofskillswereacquired.

8.0 REFERENCES

9.0 APPENDICES