Vishnu Flanked by His Personified Attributes Central India; 10th century Sandstone; 40 1/ 2 x 22 5/ 8 x 8 in. Krannert Art Museum and Kinkead Pavilion, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Gift of Ellnora D. Krannert, 1969-10-1

Vishnu Flanked by His Personified Attributes Central India; 10th century Sandstone; 40 1/ 2 x 22 5/ 8 x 8 in. Krannert Art Museum and Kinkead Pavilion, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign. Gift of Ellnora D. Krannert, 1969-10-1

Vishnu’s Weapons and Attributes In Hinduism, all deities wear distinctive costumes or carry special objects that signify aspects of their individual personalities. Recognizing these characteristic attributes as they appear in religious imagery is a field of knowledge that Western scholars call iconography. Because many Hindu sculptures represent the gods simply standing or sitting rather than engaged in narrative situations, an understanding of basic iconography allows us to identify them. In addition to his blue skin and straight posture, Vishnu can be identified by the four objects he holds—the discus or wheel (chakra), the lotus, the conch shell, and a club-like weapon called a mace (gada). Most gods and goddesses carry a favorite weapon that they use in battles against demons: for Vishnu these are the mace and most particularly the discus. The lotus and conch are not weapons, but like the chakra, they have symbolic importance which will be discussed in this section. For the worshippers of Vishnu, the god’s iconographic attributes are so important that sometimes they are revered as separate deities. In images they are often depicted in personified form as the god’s servants, standing at his side. Although other Hindu gods have weapons that are named and celebrated, in no other Hindu tradition are the god’s attributes represented figurally. Occasionally one of the objects will be left off of an image of Vishnu so he can make an expressive hand gesture, known as a mudra. The two most common mudras found on images of Vishnu are those that mean “do not fear” and “your wish is granted.” Vishnu Flanked by His Personified Attributes This complex image of Vishnu surrounded by other deities includes two figures of his attributes, who stand immediately next to the god. Shankhapurusha (the conch) and Chakrapurusha (also known as Sudarshana the discus) hold and gesture toward their emblems, which also appear in Vishnu’s two left hands. Vishnu carries the mace in his upper right hand, but he does not hold the lotus; instead he raises his lower right hand in the gesture that means “do not fear.” Above are small, seated figures of two major Hindu gods: bearded Brahma with his pot belly and Shiva with his snakes and trident. The various other figures are Vishnu’s attendants. Vishnu’s straight posture distinguishes him from the many bending, swaying bodies of those around him.

Krishna Mounting Garuda with Satyabhama Northern India, Rajasthan, Bundi, ca. 1730 Opaque watercolor, gold, and silver on paper, 10 3/8 x 8 in. Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Gift of Jane Greenough Green in memory of Edward Pelton Green, AC1999.127.32 © 2009 Museum Associates / LACMA / Art Resource NY

Krishna Mounting Garuda with Satyabhama Northern India, Rajasthan, Bundi, ca. 1730 Opaque watercolor, gold, and silver on paper, 10 3/8 x 8 in. Los Angeles County Museum of Art. Gift of Jane Greenough Green in memory of Edward Pelton Green, AC1999.127.32 © 2009 Museum Associates / LACMA / Art Resource NY

Garuda Every Hindu deity has an animal that he or she rides: Shiva has a bull, Durga has a lion, and Vishnu has an eagle, whose name is Garuda. These animal vehicles reflect aspects of the god’s character. Images of the animals are often enshrined just outside the entrance to the temple of their god so they can always face their master. They are worshiped for their exemplary service and for their proximity to the gods. The eagle is a particularly appropriate vehicle for Vishnu because like the god, it swoops down to earth from above, attacking his enemies with deadly precision. Images of Vishnu on Garuda depict the exciting moment when the god appears from above to save the day. Garuda is often depicted as part man, part bird, with a human face and arms in addition to wings, but with talons for feet and a beak-like nose. He was selected to be Vishnu’s vehicle when he delivered a vessel containing the nectar of immortality without tasting it himself, a sign of his great morality and self-control. Two of Vishnu’s avatars, Rama and Krishna, are said to have ridden on Garuda. Garuda is revered in some Buddhist sects as well, particularly in Nepal. With his speed, strength, flying power, and unswerving dedication to his lord, Garuda has been a popular emblem for kings and their armies for millennia, and the bird can be found on flags, thrones, and even airline logos from Mongolia to Bali. Krishna Mounting Garuda with Satyabhama In this painting, Garuda is about to take off carrying Krishna (one of Vishnu’s avatars) and one of Krishna’s wives, Satyabhama. In the story told by the painting, Krishna enlists Garuda to carry him to battle, where he will kill a demon using a particularly powerful bow and arrow. Because he is an earthly manifestation of Vishnu, Krishna has only two hands, which, here, are holding the bow and arrow; Garuda assists by carrying the conch and a sword and shield.

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with

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ir Ya

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(act

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ca. 1

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The Ten Avatars of Vishnu w

ith Their Yantras B

atohi Jha (active ca. 1975–2000) E

astern India, Bihar, M

ithila region, Madhubani area, ca. 1975–82

Ink and opaque watercolor on paper, 20 x 59 3/4 in.

Asian A

rt Museum

. Museum

Purchase, 1999.39.45

© A

sian Art M

useum, S

an Francisco. Used by perm

ission. The A

vatars of Vishnu V

ishnu’s most distinctive trait is his choice to act through avatars. Each avatar is a m

ore limited, or distilled, m

anifestation of the god. They are less glorious, have finite bodies, som

etimes display hum

an weaknesses, and are usually m

ortal. When V

ishnu descends from

the heavens in the form of an avatar, it is as if he is reaching his hand dow

n: the hand is fully Vishnu but it is not the god in full.

Manifesting him

self as an avatar is really Vishnu’s signature m

ode of action: while other H

indu gods assume varied form

s, it is rare that those form

s are called avatars.

H

indu texts differ on the number of tim

es that Vishnu has descended to earth as an avatar, but the m

ost standard list includes nine past avatars and one scheduled to arrive in the future. The identities of the ten avatars changes as w

ell, in part because one of them,

Krishna, is believed by som

e to be more than a m

ere avatar. The list of ten is as follows:

Matsya the fish

Kurm

a the tortoise V

araha the boar N

arasimha the half-m

an half-lion V

amana the dw

arf P

arashurama the B

rahmin

Ram

a the king

Krishna the cow

herd prince

or B

alarama the brother of K

rishna or

Buddha the preacher

Kalki the avatar of the future

Som

e of the avatars are more popular or aw

e inspiring than others and are therefore worshiped separately. O

thers are really only m

entioned as part of the group. When all ten avatars are show

n together, often as small figures surrounding a central im

age of Vishnu,

they serve as illustrations of the god’s manifold pow

ers, or like verses in a hymn celebrating the m

any times that V

ishnu has saved the w

orld. The Ten A

vatars of Vishnu with Their Yantras

These paintings on paper were m

ade by mem

bers of a rural comm

unity known for its m

ural paintings. When their region w

as hit by a drought in the late 1960s, the artists of the m

urals were encouraged to raise funds by transferring their traditional designs to paper,

using non-traditional materials such as felt-tip pen. B

ecause many people in the region are w

orshippers of Vishnu, V

aishnava subjects are com

mon in their paintings. This painting show

s all ten avatars, in somew

hat jumbled order, each w

ith his special yantra, or sacred diagram

, below. Yantras are used in m

editation to help focus thought, and they are believed to embody the spiritual essence and

special powers of the deity.

Matsya Northern India, Eastern Himachal Pradesh; 11th century or later Schist, 14 5/8 x 12 1/8 x 3 3/4 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art. Purchased with funds contributed by Miss Anna Warren Ingersoll, Nelson Rockefeller, R. Sturgis Ingersoll, Mrs. Rodolphe Meyer de Schauensee, Dr. I. S. Ravdin, Mrs. Stella Elkins Tyler, Louis E. Stern, Mr. and Mrs. Lionel Levy, Mrs. Flagler Harris, and with funds from the bequest of Sophia Cadwalader, funds from the proceeds of the sale of deaccessioned works of art, the George W.B. Taylor Fund, the John T. Morris Fund, the John H. McFadden, Jr., Fund, the Popular Subscription Fund, and the Lisa Norris Elkins Fund from the Stella Kramrisch Collection, 1956-75-39

Matsya Northern India, Eastern Himachal Pradesh; 11th century or later Schist, 14 5/8 x 12 1/8 x 3 3/4 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art. Purchased with funds contributed by Miss Anna Warren Ingersoll, Nelson Rockefeller, R. Sturgis Ingersoll, Mrs. Rodolphe Meyer de Schauensee, Dr. I. S. Ravdin, Mrs. Stella Elkins Tyler, Louis E. Stern, Mr. and Mrs. Lionel Levy, Mrs. Flagler Harris, and with funds from the bequest of Sophia Cadwalader, funds from the proceeds of the sale of deaccessioned works of art, the George W.B. Taylor Fund, the John T. Morris Fund, the John H. McFadden, Jr., Fund, the Popular Subscription Fund, and the Lisa Norris Elkins Fund from the Stella Kramrisch Collection, 1956-75-39

The Matsya Avatar Vishnu’s first descent to earth was as a fish, named Matsya. The world was very new, consisting primarily of oceans, so the fish form was appropriate. The progression of the first five Vishnu avatars parallels modern models of evolution, with each avatar more physically and intellectually complex than the previous one. Matsya receives relatively little attention from worshippers, but he is always included in lists and depictions of the avatars. Matsya is celebrated for two heroic deeds: retrieving the sacred texts known as the Vedas and saving the ancestor of all humans from a great flood. In the first story, Matsya comes at the request of the god Brahma, who is the keeper Hinduism’s most ancient scriptures, the Vedas. A demon named Hayagriva had stolen them and hidden them at the bottom of the ocean. Matsya swims down, defeats Hayagriva (who is sometimes said to have hidden the Vedas in the conch shell that became one of Vishnu’s favorite objects) and returns the texts to their rightful guardian. The second story is much like that of Noah and the Ark, but it begins when Manu, the progenitor of all men, finds a small fish and takes care of it. With Manu’s assistance, the fish grows and grows until it is absolutely enormous. The fish reveals himself to be an avatar of Vishnu and then rewards Manu for his kindness by warning him that a great deluge is coming. He tells Manu to bring the most learned Hindu sages, plus two of each type of animal, aboard a boat and then tether it to the great fish. With Matsya’s help, Manu and his passengers survive to repopulate the earth. Matsya This image of Matsya is probably from a series of reliefs depicting the avatars that would have appeared on the walls of a Vishnu temple. The fish’s watery locale is suggested by the lotus plant that rises up behind him to provide flower-thrones for the figures above. Although damage to these small figures makes them difficult to identify, it is most likely that the central figure is the god Brahma, the keeper of the four Vedas, who are represented in figural form in pairs at either side of the god.

C

hurn

ing

the

Oce

an

Nor

ther

n In

dia,

Pun

jab

Hills

, Man

kot,

ca. 1

700

Opa

que

wat

erco

lor o

n pa

per,

8 1/

16 x

10

7/16

in.

Mus

eum

Rie

tber

g, Z

uric

h. F

orm

er c

olle

ctio

n A

lice

Bon

er, R

VI 1

249

Churning the O

cean N

orthern India, Punjab H

ills, Mankot, ca. 1700

Opaque w

atercolor on paper, 8 1/16 x 10 7/16 in. M

useum R

ietberg, Zurich. Former collection Alice B

oner, RV

I 1249

The Kurm

a Avatar

Am

ong Vishnu’s avatars, K

urma the tortoise has the least developed personality and as a result he is probably the least w

orshiped. H

owever the tortoise (also called a turtle—

Sanskrit does not differentiate between the tw

o) participates in one of Hinduism

’s most

important stories.

The legend begins not long after Creation, w

hen an important sage cursed the gods, causing them

to lose some of their pow

ers to the dem

ons. The gods approach Vishnu for help, and he tells them

to churn the ocean much as people churn cream

for butter. They tie a giant snake, Vasuki, around a m

ountain so they can spin the peak as a churning paddle. Vishnu becom

es Kurm

a the tortoise to support the m

ountain on his back. Then, using Vasuki as a rope, the gods and demons pull back and forth, causing the m

ountain to spin atop K

urma’s shell. This scene, a sort of divine tug-of-w

ar, became a very popular subject for sculptors and painters, especially in

Cam

bodia, where several m

onumental representations of the story can be found.

The resulting churning produces fourteen magical things, including the nectar that grants im

mortality to anyone w

ho drinks it. The gods and dem

ons are supposed to share the nectar, but Vishnu fools the dem

ons out of their portion by assuming the form

of a beautiful w

oman, M

ohini, who asks to be allow

ed to hold it and then disappears when they give it to her. A

s a result, the gods gain imm

ortality and the dem

ons do not. The Mohini story is perhaps the only tim

e that Vishnu assum

es the form of a w

oman, and she is som

etimes

described as one of his avatars. C

hurning the Ocean

This painting represents the Kurm

a story. Kurm

a is shown at the bottom

center, partially hidden by the churning ocean, with a stylized

mountain on his back. A

s if Kurm

a’s identification with V

ishnu was not clear enough, a figure of the god appears atop the m

ountain, overseeing the proceedings. B

rahma, yet another figure of V

ishnu, and Shiva pull on the serpent at one side, w

hile three demons pull at

the other side. Above are som

e of the fourteen magical objects generated by the churning of the ocean: am

ong them are the goddess

Lakshmi and the elixir of im

mortality, w

hich is in one of the vase-shaped vessels.

Varaha Rescuing Bhu Devi Southern India, Kerala; c. 14th–15th century Bronze; 13 x 7 3/4 x 5 1/8 in. Brooklyn Museum. Gift of Paul E. Manheim, 78.259.1

Varaha Rescuing Bhu Devi Southern India, Kerala; c. 14th–15th century Bronze; 13 x 7 3/4 x 5 1/8 in. Brooklyn Museum. Gift of Paul E. Manheim, 78.259.1

The Varaha Avatar Vishnu descends as Varaha at the request of Manu, the ancestor of men, because the earth is sinking into the ocean, leaving little solid land. The Varaha avatar is a giant wild boar, a form suitable for digging down into the ocean in order to sniff out the earth beneath. While some people might think of swine as dirty or humble animals, Indian hunters have long admired wild boars for their strength and bravery. Indeed, religious texts and imagery treat Varaha as a dashing superhero, with a muscular body and gallant personality. Varaha dives into the ocean, grabs the earth—who is typically shown as the goddess Bhu—and emerges, usually with the goddess hanging from one of his tusks or seated on his shoulder. He places the earth on the surface of the ocean, where she remains to this day. Some literature speaks of a romantic relationship between Varaha and Bhu. In many accounts, Varaha is also responsible for defeating a demon named Hiranyaksha, who wants the earth to drown. The boar and demon do battle in the ocean, but Hiranyaksha is no match for Varaha. Varaha is one of Vishnu’s more popular avatars. The boar appears prominently among the sculptures on Vishnu temples, and sometimes has temples of his own.

Narasimha Kills Hiranyakashipu, with an Earlier Episode Below Bangladesh; c. 1100–1200 Carbonaceous chloritic phyllite 29 x 16 x 6 1/2 in. Asian Art Museum. Gift of the Connoisseurs’ Council, 1997.4 © Asian Art Museum, San Francisco. Used by permission.

Narasimha Kills Hiranyakashipu, with an Earlier Episode Below Bangladesh; c. 1100–1200 Carbonaceous chloritic phyllite 29 x 16 x 6 1/2 in. Asian Art Museum. Gift of the Connoisseurs’ Council, 1997.4 © Asian Art Museum, San Francisco. Used by permission.

The Narasimha Avatar Vishnu assumes the hybrid form of the man-lion Narasimha in order to kill a particularly powerful demon named Hiranyakashipu, who is the brother of the demon killed by Varaha. As is often the case with Vishnu’s demon foes, Hiranyakashipu gains power thanks to a misstep by another god. After Hiranyakashipu practices yoga and meditation for thousands of years, the god Brahma offers to reward his efforts with his choice of blessings. The demon asks that he be invincible to man or beast, indoors or out, on earth or in the heavens. Brahma has no choice but to grant the request, and Hiranyakashipu uses his newfound invincibility to conquer both earth and the heavens, seeking revenge for his brother’s killing. The gods turn to Vishnu for help. Surprisingly, the demon’s son, Prahalada, is a devout worshipper of Vishnu. The father mocks his son’s dedication and one day he asks, “If Vishnu is everywhere, is he even in this column holding up the roof?” When the son answers yes, Hiranyakashipu kicks the column and Vishnu instantly emerges from it in a ferocious form, with the body of a man and the teeth and claws of a lion. Narasimha—who is neither man nor beast—drags Hiranyakashipu to the threshold—neither in nor out—and places him upon his divine lap—between earth and heaven. He rips open Hiranyakashipu’s abdomen and pulls out his entrails, putting an end to the demon’s reign of terror. Frenzied, bloodthirsty Narasimha is the most fearsome of Vishnu’s avatars. However, the man-lion enjoys a relatively large following, and Indian warriors have long compared themselves to him, hoping to emulate his decisive victory over a seemingly invincible opponent. Narasimha Kills Hiranyakashipu, with an Earlier Episode Below This image shows Vishnu defeating Hiranyakashipu twice over: tearing into his entrails and then stomping on him with one foot. The sculptor expresses some of the god’s awesome, furious energy by showing Narasimha with six arms instead of the usual four: he raises two of them in a gesture of victory. Below the main scene, smaller figures depict the earlier episode in which the demon kicks the pillar and Narasimha emerges. The praying figures at either side are the demon’s son Prahalada and his descendants, accompanied by the donors of the sculpture.

Vamana Receiving Water Northern India, Punjab Hills, Mankot, ca. 1700–1725 Opaque watercolor, gold, and silver-colored paint on paper, 11 5/16 x 8 13/16 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art. Alvin O. Bellak Collection, 2004-149-32

Vamana Receiving Water

Northern India, Punjab Hills, Mankot, ca. 1700–1725 Opaque watercolor, gold, and silver-colored paint on paper, 11 5/16 x 8 13/16 in. Philadelphia Museum of Art. Alvin O. Bellak Collection, 2004-149-32

The Vamana Avatar In his first fully human avatar, Vishnu comes to earth as a dwarf in order to seize power from a demon named Bali. Like Hiranyakashipu, who is his great-grandfather, Bali has risen through righteous means, making elaborate ritual sacrifices and honoring priests of the Brahmin caste in exchange for more and more might. He eventually usurps the throne from the king of the gods, Indra, who goes to Vishnu for help. Vamana dresses in the humble clothes of a young Brahmin scholar and approaches the demon. Because Bali owes his great powers to Brahmins he is very respectful to Vamana and asks him what he might do to gain his blessings. The dwarf asks him for a parcel of land, only as big as he can cover in three steps. Bali snickers at the apparently puny request and grants it to him, despite the warnings of his advisor, who senses Vamana’s true identity. All of a sudden the dwarf reveals himself to be Vishnu, gigantic and powerful. The god takes three steps, covering all the earth with the first, all the sky with the second, and all the heavens with the third. Vishnu becomes master of all creation and Bali loses everything, although Vishnu later gives him a small kingdom to rule. Trivikrama, literally The God Who Takes Three Steps, is perhaps Vishnu’s most ancient identity, celebrated in the first Hindu scriptures. This grand form of Vishnu is not illustrated as often as one might expect, in part because it is impossible to do justice to the scope of the story. Vamana Receiving Water When Vamana first arrives at Bali’s compound, the demon pays his proper respects to the small Brahmin by washing his feet. Then, when consenting to the dwarf’s request for three paces of land, Bali again pours water, but this time into Vamana’s hands, a gesture of wish-granting often used in ancient India. This painting illustrates this moment, emphasizing the fact that even though Bali has been corrupted by excessive power, he is a devout and deferential demon. Vamana carries the parasol of a wandering ascetic, made from leaves. In this image, Bali’s advisor tries to stop his master.

Parashurama Mola Ram (1743–1833) Northern India, Punjab Hills, Garhwal, ca. 1780 Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 8 9/32 x 10 23/32 in. The San Diego Museum of Art. Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990:1314

Parashurama Mola Ram (1743–1833) Northern India, Punjab Hills, Garhwal, ca. 1780 Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 8 9/32 x 10 23/32 in. The San Diego Museum of Art. Edwin Binney 3rd Collection, 1990:1314

The Parashurama Avatar Parashurama, the vengeful Brahmin, is perhaps Vishnu’s least sympathetic avatar, but he represents an important and very traditional Hindu belief in the necessity of maintaining order and balance among the classes. He descends because all of earth’s kings, who are members of the warrior or Kshatriya caste, have become intoxicated with their own power and are failing to acknowledge the superiority of the priestly or Brahmin caste. His enemy is not a demon, but an entire level of society. Born to the sage Jamadagni and his wife Renuka, Parashurama’s unyielding sense of right and wrong is quickly proven when his father commands him to kill his less-righteous mother. Parashurama uses his favorite weapon, the parashu or battle axe, to behead her. Jamadagni offers his son a wish as reward, and Parashurama requests that his mother be restored to life. Later, King Kartavirya, a member of the increasingly powerful warrior caste, visits Parashurama’s family compound and steals their most prized possession, a wish-granting cow. Parashurama tracks down the king and kills him by cutting off the king’s many arms, but the king’s sons avenge their father’s death by killing Parashurama’s then-elderly father. Parashurama, furious, vows to punish members of the warrior caste, and while he does not manage to remove them all from the earth he does leave their people sufficiently humbled. Parashurama This painting tells the complex tale of Parashurama by combining several episodes into one scene. The blue-skinned warrior-priest uses his namesake parashu axe to sever the many limbs of the treacherous king Kartavirya. The figure of Parashurama has only two arms, a sign that they are earthly manifestations of Vishnu, something close to human. The painting shows the death of Parashurama’s father even though this occurs later in the story, and it shows the wish-granting cow fleeing the violence of the battle, her magical powers indicated by the tiny wings on her back. The cow is one of the wonderful objects created by the churning of the ocean, part of the story of the Kurma avatar.

Rama Southern India, Tamil Nadu, probably Kaveri River Delta; Chola period, c. 11th century Bronze; 30 x 13 1/2 x 9 3/4 in. (76.2 x 34.3 x 24.8 cm) Philadelphia Museum of Art. Purchased with the W.P. Wilstach Fund, the John D. McIlhenny Fund, and with funds contributed by the Women’s Committee of the Philadelphia Museum of Art in honor of their 100th anniversary, W1982-106-1

Rama Southern India, Tamil Nadu, probably Kaveri River Delta; Chola period, c. 11th century Bronze; 30 x 13 1/2 x 9 3/4 in. (76.2 x 34.3 x 24.8 cm) Philadelphia Museum of Art. Purchased with the W.P. Wilstach Fund, the John D. McIlhenny Fund, and with funds contributed by the Women’s Committee of the Philadelphia Museum of Art in honor of their 100th anniversary, W1982-106-1

The Rama Avatar Rama the prince is one of Vishnu’s most important and revered avatars. He is the hero of the Ramayana, an immensely popular epic recorded in Sanskrit about 300 BCE and later retold in every Indian dialect and in countless pageants, films, and television series. Rama comes to earth to defeat the demon king Ravana, who had been granted a wish that he would be invincible to man or god (but not a man-god, a mythic loophole like that found in the Narasimha story). Because Rama is presented as history’s greatest ruler—level-headed, brave, and morally blameless—he became a model for all Hindu kings and for the royal courts of several Southeast Asian countries as well. Rama is the son of a king who has several wives. He is the rightful and appropriate heir to the throne, but one of the king’s wives arranges for him to be exiled to the wilderness so her son can rule instead. Ever virtuous, Rama makes the best of his exile and lives happily in the forest with his wife, Sita, and brother Lakshmana. Then the king of the demons, Ravana, kidnaps Sita and takes her to his kingdom on the island of Lanka. Rama befriends a clan of monkeys and with their help he locates Sita. After a long war, Rama’s troops vanquish the demons. The term of his exile ends, so he assumes his father’s throne and rules well for many years, although he is not accompanied by his wife because her righteousness has been called into question after the time she spent with the demons. Despite the popularity of his story, Rama did not enjoy a strong sectarian following until the fourteenth century or later, and there are few if any early temples dedicated solely to him. However, today he is adored by many as the promoter of good Hindu values and as a foe to enemy invaders.

Krishna and Radha with Scenes from Krishna’s Life in the Background Northern India, Rajasthan, Jaipur, ca. 1880 Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 14 x 10 1/4 in. Asian Art Museum. Gift of Elton L. Puffer, 2004.47 © Asian Art Museum, San Francisco. Used by permission.

Krishna and Radha with Scenes from Krishna’s Life in the Background

Northern India, Rajasthan, Jaipur, ca. 1880 Opaque watercolor and gold on paper, 14 x 10 1/4 in. Asian Art Museum. Gift of Elton L. Puffer, 2004.47 © Asian Art Museum, San Francisco. Used by permission.

Krishna as Avatar and God In early lists of the ten avatars, Krishna appears as number eight, but in later lists he often does not appear at all. This is because Krishna attracted a very wide following, and among his devotees he is considered far more than an avatar. For the worshippers of Krishna, he is equivalent or identical to Vishnu, the god in full rather than one of his more specific manifestations. Krishna’s earthly biography is more extensive and detailed than that of any other avatar, even Rama. Krishna is born into a royal family. His evil uncle, Kamsa, learns that he is destined to be killed by his nephew, so Krishna’s parents send their infant to the countryside for protection. There he is reared by an adoptive family in a cowherding community. Krishna is a naughty child, but it soon becomes clear that he is superhuman, and he is much beloved by the cowherds (gopas) and milkmaids (gopis). He spends his youth carousing in the pastures and fighting the occasional demon. As Krishna grows older, his divine charisma makes him irresistible to the women of the community, and Krishna engages them in all sorts of flirtatious and sexual exploits. Devotees of Krishna often use romantic love as an analogy for their feelings about the god, and the ups and downs of the relationship between Krishna and his favorite, Radha, are explored in great depth by India’s poet-saints. Krishna eventually leaves the pastures, kills his uncle, and assumes his rightful throne. The Bhagavad Gita, one of Hinduism’s most important scriptures, is preached by Krishna during this mature period. Krishna’s name appears in many ancient texts, but his sectarian following developed somewhat later, so there are not many temples or sculptures dedicated to the god before about 1000 CE. However Krishna’s devotees would become some of India’s most avid patrons of the arts, commissioning innumerable shrine images, paintings, and ritual objects to celebrate their charming god.

Krishna and Radha with Scenes from Krishna’s Life in the Background This painting shows Krishna and Radha elevated in shrine-like settings, with the accoutrements of worship presented before them. Although Radha is often used as an analogy for the devotee, infatuated with God despite his occasional wrongdoings, she is also worshiped as a goddess. Like Rama’s wife Sita, Radha is considered an avatar of Vishnu’s wife Lakshmi. Krishna and Radha complete and complement each other. This painting invites us to wonder at the couple through the multiple tiny scenes in the background that remind us of Krishna’s deeds.

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ours

e of

the

Yam

una

with

His

Plo

w

Pro

babl

y fro

m a

n ill

ustra

ted

man

uscr

ipt o

f the

Das

hava

tara

N

orth

ern

Indi

a, P

unja

b H

ills, p

ossi

bly

at C

ham

ba, c

a. 1

760–

65

Opa

que

wat

erco

lor a

nd g

old

on p

aper

, 7 5

/16

x 11

3/1

6 in

. B

rook

lyn

Mus

eum

. A. A

ugus

tus

Hea

ly a

nd F

rank

L. B

abbo

tt Fu

nds,

36.

250

Balaram

a Diverting the C

ourse of the Yamuna w

ith His Plow

P

robably from an illustrated m

anuscript of the Dashavatara

Northern India, P

unjab Hills, possibly at C

hamba, ca. 1760–65

Opaque w

atercolor and gold on paper, 7 5/16 x 11 3/16 in. B

rooklyn Museum

. A. Augustus H

ealy and Frank L. Babbott Funds, 36.250

The B

alarama A

vatar The list of avatars grow

s less uniform after Krishna, w

ith some texts and im

ages including Krishna’s brother B

alarama, others including

the Buddha, and still others listing both. Where B

alarama is included today, he is celebrated alm

ost entirely as Krishna’s brother.

How

ever Balaram

a has very ancient origins as a hero-deity, and he has an interesting, not entirely laudable, personality.

B

alarama is born before K

rishna and is delivered to the same pastoral com

munity, so they grow

up together. In paintings he is identified by his w

hite skin. Most accounts say that K

rishna is the incarnation of Vishnu, and B

alarama, his lifelong supporter, is the incarnation of

the giant serpent, Shesha, on w

hom V

ishnu created the cosmos. Because of B

alarama’s association w

ith Shesha, he is often depicted

with a cobra hood behind him

.

K

rishna is mischievous, but he rarely m

akes mistakes; Balaram

a by contrast is impulsive and som

etimes brash. Later in life he

develops a fondness for wine that only exacerbates his problem

s. How

ever, Balaram

a is Krishna’s constant companion and supporter

and he is often the only one who know

s that Krishna is divine.

Balaram

a’s signature deed, performed after Krishna has left the cow

herds, is the plowing of the Yam

una River. B

ecause of this act, B

alarama is usually depicted holding a plow

, which is shaped like a long sickle or hook. This attribute suggests the god’s origins as an

agrarian deity. B

alarama D

iverting the Course of the Yam

una with H

is Plow

Balaram

a’s signature deed takes place after he and Krishna have established a new

life as rulers of their uncle’s kingdom. B

alarama

returns to the pastures of his youth and starts to drink large quantities of wine. After a w

hile he becomes hot; he orders the R

iver Yam

una to come closer so he can have a sw

im. W

hen the river does not move, B

alarama takes his plow

and digs it deep into the ground, dragging the river closer. C

hanging the course of the Yamuna clearly requires great strength, but the act is essentially selfish

and impulsive. S

ome texts place Balaram

a in a better light by saying that after his bath he dragged the river all over India, bringing m

uch-needed water to the land

The

Bud

dha

Avat

ar

Pag

e pr

obab

ly fr

om a

n illu

stra

ted

Das

hava

tara

ser

ies

Nor

ther

n In

dia,

Pun

jab

Hills

, Bas

ohli

or N

urpu

r, ca

. 170

0 O

paqu

e w

ater

colo

r, go

ld, a

nd b

eetle

win

gs o

n pa

per,

8 1/

32 x

11

13/1

6 in

. Th

e S

an D

iego

Mus

eum

of A

rt. E

dwin

Bin

ney

3rd

Col

lect

ion,

199

0:10

48

The Buddha A

vatar P

age probably from an illustrated D

ashavatara series N

orthern India, Punjab H

ills, Basohli or N

urpur, ca. 1700 O

paque watercolor, gold, and beetle w

ings on paper, 8 1/32 x 11 13/16 in. The San D

iego Museum

of Art. E

dwin B

inney 3rd Collection, 1990:1048

The B

uddha Avatar

According to som

e texts, Vishnu’s ninth avatar is the Buddha, ancient founder of the B

uddhist religion. He is the last of the past avatars

and can indeed be traced to a historical period, around 500 BC

E, when an Indian prince nam

ed Siddhartha preached an alternative to

Hinduism

. At first glance, the inclusion of the B

uddha in the list of avatars appears to be a ploy by Hindus to claim

or absorb their rival religion. H

owever, H

indu accounts of the Buddha avatar are not at all flattering to Buddhism

. The Vaishnava account has V

ishnu descend as the Buddha because a group of dem

ons and other lowly types have been gaining an

inappropriate degree of power and spiritual sophistication through study of sacred H

indu texts. The Buddha avatar mingles w

ith these w

ould-be sages and convincingly speaks of a different creed. They begin to practice his new, false religion, and im

mediately they lose

all of their powers. B

ut they are so entranced by the Buddha’s w

ords that they continue to follow him

. The Buddha avatar does not receive any real attention am

ong Hindus. H

e has no single heroic deed that can be celebrated, and his only w

eapon is his false preaching, so he is usually depicted simply standing or sitting, som

etimes looking like the B

uddha of Buddhist

temple im

agery (with cranial bum

p and snail-shell curls) and sometim

es just looking like a sage. Paintings often depict the Buddha as a

temple icon, installed on an altar and receiving w

orship. The less lively or compelling depictions of the Buddha are likely designed to

ensure that Vishnu’s follow

ers will not listen to this avatar’s m

isleading message.

Kal

ki A

vata

r N

orth

ern

Indi

a, P

unja

b H

ills, M

anko

t, ca

. 170

0 O

paqu

e w

ater

colo

r on

pape

r, 8

1/16

x 1

1 in

. M

useu

m R

ietb

erg,

Zur

ich.

For

mer

Col

lect

ion

Alic

e Bo

ner,

RVI

121

3

K

alki Avatar

Northern India, P

unjab Hills, M

ankot, ca. 1700 O

paque watercolor on paper, 8 1/16 x 11 in.

Museum

Rietberg, Zurich. Form

er Collection A

lice Boner, R

VI 1213

The K

alki Avatar

Vishnu’s final avatar has not yet arrived. H

indus believe that we are currently living in a decadent period, w

hen all that is good in creation is gradually dissolving in preparation for the great D

estruction that will end it all. This last phase in the cycle of existence began

on the day that the Krishna avatar died. The B

uddha, with his false m

essage preached to fools, is an appropriate avatar for this era of ignorance and poor m

orals.

The last avatar, Kalki, w

ill usher in the end of this phase and the beginning of the new, better era. H

e will be born to a B

rahmin fam

ily, and he w

ill receive his training under an earlier avatar, Parashuram

a, who is said to rem

ain on earth. The god Shiva w

ill grant Kalki a

magical w

hite horse that can change its shape, a parrot that knows everything about the past and the future, and a pow

erful sword.

Kalki w

ill then use these assets to go to battle against the forces of delusion and sloth. He w

ill kill most of the w

orld’s lackluster population, saving only a handful of righteous individuals to repopulate the earth in the next era.

K

alki is not extensively worshiped except as part of the larger group of avatars. H

e is always depicted w

ith his horse and sword (his

trusty parrot rarely appears) and sometim

es with a groom

who attends the horse. H

e often wears the arm

or of a warrior, but he is rarely

shown actually carrying out his bloody task.

Vish

nupa

da

Wes

tern

Him

alay

as, p

roba

bly

Nor

ther

n In

dia

or P

akis

tan,

ca.

500

La

pis

lazu

li, 2

x 4

3/8

x 3

3/4

in.

Col

lect

ion

of A

ntho

ny d

’Offa

y, L

ondo

n

Vishnupada W

estern Him

alayas, probably Northern India or P

akistan, ca. 500 Lapis lazuli, 2 x 4 3/8 x 3 3/4 in. C

ollection of Anthony d’Offay, London

W

orshiping Vishnu V

ishnu assumes m

any different forms to address the needs of the cosm

os. Sim

ilarly, his worship assum

es many different form

s to address the needs of his follow

ers. Hinduism

is ever evolving, adding new ideas and practices to its already rich traditions. S

ome of

these additions are sectarian, based on the teachings of an influential religious leader. Others are regional, developed out of local

traditions that are often not Hindu in origin. S

till others are the product of economic, political, or technological change.

This section of the exhibition explores some of the w

ays that Vishnu has been w

orshiped over the centuries. It includes images that

depict the people who pray to V

ishnu and the places where they pray, and it includes the objects that they have used w

hen they pray. A

lthough it is dizzying in its diversity, the selection of objects barely scratches the surface of Vaishnava tradition.

In addition to the many visual form

s not represented here, there are many, m

any Hindu practices that do not include the use of any art

at all: traditions such as meditation and yoga, V

edic sacrifice, the study and recitation of sacred texts, music and dance, m

edicine, astrology, learned debate, charitable acts, and any num

ber of daily prayers, annual festivals, and rites of passage that are performed in

homes throughout the w

orld using nothing more than a pot of w

ater or the flame from

an oil lamp.

Vishnupada W

hile much of H

indu worship takes place before an icon of a god or goddess, there are som

e situations in which the depiction of the

divine in figural form is considered inappropriate or m

isleading. One of the em

blems often used to stand in for the full body of V

ishnu is his footprints, or m

ore often, his feet (pada). Vishnu’s feet are particularly significant because he took the three steps across earth, sky,

and heaven. The emblem

plays dual roles: as footprints they celebrate the influence and presence of the god, while as feet, they

celebrate the part of the god closest to his lowly follow

ers. To touch someone’s feet is a gesture of hum

ility and respect, so followers

often bow dow

n to touch Vishnupada that have been enshrined. S

ome people choose to w

ear the footprints of Vishnu on a pendant,

close to their heart.