Ars Moriendi

A Guide to Dying Well

and

An Example In Sixteenth Century Spain

6.51.0 Compositional arts - Prose

Abstract

Spanish attitudes toward death in the 16th century focus on leading a good life and having a holy

death. The manner of a good death was popularized by Ars Moriendi literature. Confraternities

developed in sixteenth century Spain to aid their members in achieving the ideal death. At the

time of his death King Philip was pointed out as an example of someone who was appropriately

pious and died well.

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History and Culture

Since ancient times, death has been viewed as inevitable and natural. Death was

understood as the passage from this existence to the unknown. Preforming rituals when a person

dies is a uniquely human trait. The dead were thought to be among us and at times even able to

influence the living. In antiquity the dead were revered and feared, with certain holidays set

aside to pay homage to the departed, offering gifts to placate them, and persuade the departed

souls to not interfere with the lives of those still in this existence. The dead were impure so their

burials were away from human habitations, for fear that they would contaminate the living.

Ancient Egyptians buried their dead far from the city, to separate them from the living, allow

respect and reverence to be paid to the dead, not waste useful farm land, and protect the dead

from the seasonal flooding of the Nile.1 The ancient Romans deified the spirits of their departed,

and honored their burial places for fear that they might return. In the fifth century the Law of the

Twelve Tables insisted that no dead body might be buried or cremated inside the city, preserving

mandates of the thousand year old Roman code.2

Burial within the boundaries of the city was a profound Christian break from the pagan

practice of excluding the dead from the inhabited areas. Between the sixth century and the ninth

century Catholic churches began to allow burials in the city, particularly on the grounds of the

church. Some were even permitted to be buried inside the sanctuary. The incorporation of

cemeteries within the city limits is related to the Christian belief in resurrection, which maintains

that the faithful will be raised on the Last Day. The movement of cemeteries also shows a

rejection of what was deemed pagan superstition that was founded in fear of the dead. 3

1 Snape, 2 Harding, 260.

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As people lost their fear of the dead, more burials were located in churchyards, and even

in the sanctuary of city churches. Some of these early burials actually circumvented canonical

interdicts. When Saint Vaast (Vedast) died in February 540A.D. in Paris, the faithful who

thronged to the city to be present at his death proposed that his burial be in the Church of Notre

Dame which he had built. They found that they were unable to lift his body until Scopilio, a

pupil and close friend of Saint Vaast, prayed requesting that the dead priest allow the gathered

company to bury him in the place they have chosen, citing the late hour and the love of the

people. Saint Vaast was buried in the church near the episcopal throne he had occupied in life,

thus preserving his holy relics. As more venerated personages were buried in churches and

churchyards, people wanted to be buried near the saints, hoping that the saint’s presence would

help to prevent violation of their grave. The presence of the saint on the Last Day was also

thought to be advantageous to those who were resurrected nearby since the saints were

guaranteed immediate entrance into heaven.

Burial in sanctified ground was of paramount importance to the faithful of the Church.

Certain members of society were denied this privilege. The Council of Nice, 325A.D., forbade

the denial of absolution to anyone who requested it when in danger of death, or on their

deathbed. Those who died as a result of suicide or criminal act, and heretics were denied

Christian burial. Those who died alone, suddenly, or while traveling were suspect therefore were

denied Christian burial before the Council of Vaison, 422, 4 In some areas, knights who died in

tournaments were denied Christian burial, as their participation in an activity in which death was

probably constituted suicide.5 Persons who died unexpectedly or in childbirth were denied

interment in consecrated ground in some areas, as evidenced by the fact that the Council of

Rouen, 1074, declared that those who had died suddenly or in childbirth were not to be denied

4 Kerin, 16. 5 Kerin, 18.

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proper burial, unless they were determined to have committed suicide.6 Persons who laid hands

upon clerics were denied Christian burial. Excommunicated persons were to be avoided by the

faithful, and were denied their company even in death.

In literature throughout the medieval and renaissance period, the deaths of knights are

described in detail and a pattern emerges. There is frequently advance warning, almost a

premonition of one’s death. Several instances are in the Arthurian cycle. Gawain stated that he

would not live two days. After being hurt falling off his horse, King Ban fainted. When he

recovered, he announced that he knew his end had come. Tristan knew that he was about to die

when he was poisoned. Church documents record many priests who like Hervé at Saint-Martin-

de Tours and Augustine of Toulouse knew that they were about to die. Quixote comments to his

niece that he feels that death is near. Sudden deaths, without this warning, were seen as suspect

by some, but the thirteenth century bishop Gulielmus Durandus maintains that to die suddenly is

to die ‘solely by the judgment of God.’

Once the dying person accepted that their death was imminent, he was expected to

assume the attitude for death, lying on his back so he could look toward heaven, arms crossed

over his chest, with his feet to the east, and his head to the west. Resting in this position he was

then expected to recall the things and people he has loved. In the Song of Roland, the hero

thinks of the lands he conquered, France and Charlemagne, his lord. He does not spend any

thought on his betrothed, Aude, who collapsed and died when she heard of his death. Neither

does he reflect on his parents. His cleric Archbishop Turpin regrets “How cruel is death! Never

again shall I see the mighty emperor.” Regret for life often accompanies these memories, but

does not prompt him to avoid his immanent death. The dying man is then expected to ask for

forgiveness from his friends and say his farewells while commending them to God. Gawain asks

King Arthur to send word to Lancelot that he salutes him, and requests that Lancelot visit his

6 Kerin, 22.

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grave. Then he discusses the spot for his burial. Gawain asks to be buried in Saint Stephen’s

Church in Camelot, alongside his brothers. Then the dying man commends his soul to God in

his last prayer. First he makes confession. Roland asks for forgiveness for all the sins he has

committed in his whole life. The second part of commendation is the Commendatio Animae.

Roland asks that His Father save his soul from all dangers and the sins he has committed. All

that remains at that point is to await the end.

Ars Moriendi - The Manual for a Good Death

The manuals which instructed men on preparing for the ideal, a good death, developed

over several centuries. One of the first appeared in the thirteenth century. The Dominican friar

Laurent wrote Le Somme le Roi for Philip III which included a chapter ‘coment on aprent a bien

morir’ (learn how to die well) which discussed the link between vices and virtues. Blessed

Henry Suso, in 1334 wrote Horologium sapientiae which discussed the sad fate of the

unprepared soul. In the second part of Dominican Dirk van Delft’s Da Tafel, titled “Sumerstuk,”

there is a chapter in which Delft lists the eight rules for ‘ars vivendi’ (the art of dying). The

Opusculum, written by Jean de Gerson, 1363-1429, included a section entitled “de arte

Moriendi.” The Opusculum was addressed to priests and lay persons who cared for the poor and

sick and instructed them on the appropriate care of dying persons. It can be viewed as the first

catechism of the Christian faith. This work is the connection between the compendium of faith

in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries and the Ars Moriendi of the fifteenth century.

William Caxton translated Ars Moriendi from a French edition, abridged and reprinted as Arte &

Crafte to Knowe Well to Dye.7

Ars Moriendi refers to two related fifteenth century texts: Tractates, Artis Bene Moriendi

and the famed block printed books of the same name. Both of these documents instruct the

Christian in the practical technique of dying both “well and surely” to the glory of God and for

7 Beaty, 8.

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the salvation of their own soul. Tractates, written between 1414 and 1418, was ordered by the

Council of Constance. It follows the pattern of Opusculum Tripartium, 8

Tractates, Artis Bene Moriendi, was divided into six chapters. Chapter one exhorts the

Christian to recognize the significance of a good death and to apply himself to learning the art of

dying. The next chapter describes the five major temptations: unbelief, despair, impatience, vain

glory, and attachment to relatives and earthly possessions, then discusses how to triumph over

them. The third chapter poses a series of questions to assist the dying person in establishing their

faith. Chapter four urges the dying man to imitate Christ as he faced death, providing prayers of

various lengths. The gathered Christians are admonished to aid the dying person in chapter five.

The final Chapter lists prayers for the intercession on behalf of the dying person ensuring the

safe departure of his soul.

The block printed books consist of eleven woodcuts depicting the deathbed temptations

of Moriens, a dying Everyman. Each woodcut is accompanied by a page of text, indicating that

the book was designed for both the illiterate and literate Christian. Demons, angels, the Virgin

Mary, and even Jesus himself are present in the room of the dying man. These books were

printed throughout Europe, in England and from Germany to Spain. There were more than three

hundred manuscripts in Latin and western vernaculars. More than five hundred editions were

published before 1500.

The book was intended to be learned while one was in good health and kept available for

the time of necessity. Each temptation is accompanied by God’s side of the argument, drawn

from the scriptures and interpreted by the Church. The temptations are unbelief, despair,

impatience, pride and avarice. The five inspirations which protect against them are faith, hope,

love, humility and detachment.

8 Beaty, 52-3.

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Unbelief is shown with the demons draping a cloth in front of the saints, interfering with

Moriens seeing them.

Faith shows the saints and angels surrounding Moriens.

Despair is characterized by one of the demons holding a dagger and one of the demons

holding a document.

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Hope is characterized by a rooster, a man on a cross, and a horse with rider on the floor.

Impatience shows Moriens with an overturned table beside his bed.

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Love shows the saints attending to Moriens.

Pride shows the demons offering crowns to Moriens.

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Humility includes a huge demon on the floor with people in his mouth, a dove in the

hands of one of the saints, and a document above the head of Moriens’ bed.

Avarice is represented by demons calling Moriens’ attention to a large house and

magnificent horse.

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Detachment is shown by Moriens’ attention being drawn to Jesus on the cross, and being

shielded from the sight of an amorous couple.

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The final woodcut shows Moriens at the moment of his death, holding a candle, and

smiling. His soul emerging from the top of his head is being welcomed by angels to heaven in

the presence of Christ on the cross.

Together they instruct the faithful Christian in the proper way to prepare for the

temptations which are always present and pressing to take a soul just before a man’s death.

Confraternities: a way to a Good Death

Confraternities were established as groups of lay persons who would pray and offer

suffrages – masses, vigils and other offices for the dead – to help ensure that their members

achieve the rewards of heaven.9 They were not governed by the Church but often had a

relationship with a particular monastery or church. The Confradio de Los Santos Angeles was

founded in the fifteenth century and gained extreme popularity because of its special rituals ‘pro

remedial animae,’ for the souls of the deceased. The members of the confraternities shared the

chore of praying for the souls of their members in order to shorten their time in purgatory. The

Council of Trent had met to clarify the tenets of the Church in the face of the Protestant

reformation. The Council defined the relationship between faith and works in salvation, in

opposition to the Protestant doctrine of justification by faith alone. The Catholic position is that

faith alone relies on the vain confidence in divine mercy, but no one can know who have

received the grace of God. The Council reaffirmed that mortal sin causes one to forfeit the grace

of God. The sacrifice of the Mass was to be offered for both the living and the dead alike to

assist in their passage from purgatory to heaven. The confraternities afforded their members the

opportunity to optimize the effect of the masses which were said for their members. Members of

confraternities also had the responsibility to attend the funeral masses for their fellow members,

9 Erie, 134.

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since the mass was so important in securing salvation. Paying for masses to be said for the

departed became a big business for churches.

Another way that confraternities shortened the time that members had to spend in

purgatory was by giving alms. Alms were associated with the wealthy, so humble people gave

as much as they could in order to appear more wealthy. Confraternities collectively gave alms to

the poor. Their efforts made life bearable for the poor of early modern Spain and gave the

wealthy and the commercial classes the opportunity to ensure a positive balance in what they

owed to God, thereby shortening their stay in purgatory.

Don Felipe as an Example of a Good Death

A good death is described in many period documents. First and foremost, the Christian

must profess their faith and seek God’s pleasure. They must be a true Christian, which means is

in good standing with the Roman Catholic Church. They have the responsibility to dispose of all

their worldly goods before they can be considered for admission to heaven. Arrangements

should be made for the disposition of their earthly body, including their funeral mass. Even

those of modest means are expected to give alms to the Church and the poor. A good Christian

should never die alone, if they are at home, their family and friends, and even strangers should be

on hand to help them resist the great temptations which the Devil sends to those who are at

death’s door. It is very important that a priest attend the terminally ill person, administering the

final rites of the church. Mourners need to say prayers for their soul’s release from purgatory.

Don Philip’s Will

Don Philip, as is required for a "good death" wrote a will in 1594 when he was still well.

He did add some codicils a later. Felipe showed much concern for his funeral arrangements, and

for pious bequests. He gave his soul up to God, his body to the earth, professed his faith in the

Roman Catholic Church, asked forgiveness, and begged the saints to intercede on his behalf, in

proper form as all good Catholic Spaniards were expected to. "Philip addressed so many

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intercessors that his list of advocates nearly matches name for name the total list of those pin

owed by all Madrid testers."10 In addition to Mary, he called upon: the angels Michael, Gabriel,

his guardian angel, and all the angels in heaven; the New Testament saints John the Baptist, Peter

and Paul, James (the patron saint of Spain), Andrew, John the Evangelist, Philip (his name saint),

Mary Magdalene (the patroness of sinners), and Anne; Patristic era saints Lawrence and Jerome

(both significant to the Escorial), and George (patron of Catalonia); monastic leaders Benedict,

Bernard, Dominic, and Francis; and the local saint Diego de Alcala.

Suffrages, prayers of intersession for the souls of the departed, were an important part of

a good Christian's will, and Philip was generous. He charged the Hieronymite fathers of the

Escorial to perpetual duties, and laid responsibilities upon clerics elsewhere. He asked for a true

novenario, masses to be said by every priest at the Escorial for his soul for the nine days

following his death. Additionally he asked for 30,000 masses (10,000 requiem masses, 10,000

masses of the Passion of Christ, and 10,000 masses of Our Lady) to be said for his soul as

quickly as possible (lo mas presto que se pueda) at whichever Franciscan monastery could do it

with the most devotion. In addition he asked for 2,000 masses to be said for the souls in

purgatory, with a special prayer at the beginning and end of each for his own soul. Philip added

more in a codicil. Every single day until the second coming of Christ, above the mausoleum at

the Escorial, a mass was to be said for his soul. He further directed the Hieronymites to add a

prayer for his soul to each of their canonical hour, seven times each day, and to add perpetual

anniversary masses on the days of his death and birth, as well as those of both of his parents and

his wife Anne, the mother of the heir to the throne. He added anniversary masses to be said for

eight other relatives including three of his other wives and his son Don Carlos who predeceased

him. This totaled over 7,000 masses per year. Additionally he requested that two monks be in

prayer around the clock in perpetuity at the basilica in the Escorial.

10 Erie, 284.

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The giving of alms was expected of all good Christians. Philip bequeathed clothing for

100 poor persons, 10,000 ducatos for dowries for poor girls with preference given to his servants,

30,000 ducatos for the ransom of captives with preference to be given to Spanish soldiers, and

2,000 ducatos to the shrines at both Montserrat and Santiago for the purchase of new silver

lamps. His request for a papal jubilee, a year of universal pardon, and plenary indulgence, a

remission of all temporal punishments for any sins he had committed, so that his soul might be

more acceptable to God, was granted by the Pope including papal jubilees to be celebrated at the

Escorial on the feasts of St. Philip and St. James.11

Philip's death was seen by his contemporaries as a lesson in humility, death, religion and

the monarchy. Philip's death was memorialized by many eye witnesses, including the titular

head of the church in Spain, the archbishop of Toledo, because it embodied so many of the good

Catholic qualities. One of Philip's personal chaplains, Antonia Cervera de la Torre, was

commissioned by the archbishop to interview persons who were eye witnesses and publish a full

account of the monarch's death.

Don Philip’s Death

The Ars Moriendi tells how the Christian must resist the intense temptations which are

present for the person who is facing death. Don Philip faced his death with dignity, patience, and

faith. On Tuesday, 30, 1598, though his physicians and advisors protested, Don Philip moved

from Madrid to the Escorial. He was gingerly carried out in the special chair designed for him.

11 Erie, 284.

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Though it would have only taken a few hours by horseback, it took six days. On July 6 Philip’s

son, the future Philip III and his daughter Isabel Clara Eugenia met the king at La Fresneda from

whence they traveled the last bit of the journey and made their entrance into the Escorial. On

Wednesday July 8, Don Philip toured the Escorial though it was obvious to those present that he

was not well. He spent the next few days inspecting and supervising the arrangement of his

relics.

On July 22, Don Philip was carried to his bed for the last time. That night he developed a

high fever, and began a long, painful demise. For the next fifty-three days Don Philip lay on his

back, unable to be moved or touched without pain. His gout and arthritis caused him increased

pain. Philip developed tertian fever, which caused him to cycle through fever and chills. He had

sores on his hands and feet which became so bad that they had to be lanced. A festering abscess

on his knee which never healed had to be lanced without any anesthesia. His dropsy, or edema,

caused his abdomen and joints to fill with fluid. His back was covered with bedsores as he lay

immobile. Finally he was ravaged by diarrhea about half way through his final confinement.

Because touching or moving him was so painful, Philip was left in his own refuse until a hole

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was cut in his bed. Philip was even plagued by lice in his final days. Philip was known for his

fastidious habits, so these indignities caused him much humiliation.

Philip is continually praised for his composure through all of this. He was continually

seen to act with pride and magnanimity and even conducted official business. Philip watched

much of the business conducted at the Escorial from his sick room. He had his bed positioned so

he could witness the daily mass at the high altar. He spent his infirmity praising God, begging

for forgiveness for his sins, and reciting psalms. He is reported to have said “This is no time to

stop praying… lest death catch me sleeping.” He asked that the passion narratives be read

repeatedly to him, which seemed to bring him comfort. Toward the end of August, realizing that

his end was near, Phillip spent three days confessing to his personal prelate, Diego de Yepes. So

pious was Philip that when Yepes suggested using a shortened form of extreme unction, that he

refused and insisted upon the complete prayer. He wanted to have his hands washed and his

nails trimmed for the sacrament. When he felt his own death was near, Philip sent for a chest

that belonged to his father. The chest contained candles from the shrine at Our Lady of

Montserrat and a small crucifix. Philip sent again for this chest four days before he died. Philip

supervised the construction of his casket in his sick room. The interior was to be lined with lead

and covered with white silk. The exterior was covered in black silk decorated with gold. After

12 September his priests and doctors would not allow Phillip to take communion for fear he

would not be able to digest the host. On 13 September, Philip asked for his father’s chest, later

he had a violent seizure. Those present thought he had died, but he opened his eyes and was

alert. He died holding the crucifix and candle, kissing the crucifix thousands of times at sunrise

on 13 September.12

Don Philip’s Funeral

12 Erie, 282.

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Upon his death on Sunday, 13 September, 1598, Philip’s corpse was wrapped in a

winding sheet and placed in a lead casket. The casket was placed in a wooden coffin made from

boards of a Portuguese shipwreck, in accordance to Philip’s directions from his deathbed. The

only ornament on the body of one of the richest men in the world was a simple wooden cross

hung on a rope around his neck. The Hieronymites rose to their liturgical duty of saying masses

for his soul at every altar of the Escorial. The first requiem mass was said at nine in the morning,

while Philip’s body still lay in his room. At six in the afternoon his body was moved to the

basilica’s sacristy by monks saying prayers in candlelight. It was set upon a table covered with a

carpet that was used for the anniversary masses said for Charles V, under a brocade canopy.

On the following day, his coffin was taken from the sacristy to the main cloister of the Escorial.

On Tuesday, 15 September, Philip’s will was read to Philip III, the royal family, the members of

the court, the prior of the Escorial, and some Hieronymites. The entire realm went into

mourning for one year, as required by law. Shortages of black fabric caused elevated prices and

the poor who were unable to afford it were arrested in such large numbers that Philip III

modified the law allowing the poor to meet the requirement of mourning dress by wearing

unadorned hats.

Praise for Philip’s Faithfulness

Philip is praised by his eulogists for his patience. His good death is attributed to his good

life by many of those who wrote about his last days. Philip’s death was used as a lesson that

death is universal, sparing not even the greatest of leaders. Though he was in his deathbed for

fifty-three days, he was seen to be reverent. His readiness for death, his peaceful acceptance of

it, was seen as an indication of his holiness. He is praised for maintaining his composure and

calmness in the face of death which was seen as a sign of his salvation. Having those around

him read the scriptures was praised as resisting temptation of those demons that surround the

dying. Suffering is seen to have redemptive value since it is the punishment inflicted on people

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for sin, and Philip certainly suffered in his last days. Philip realized that the sins he was

suffering for might not be his own, but those of his whole kingdom. He never once complained,

and is likened by some to Job in his acceptance of his suffering at the hand of God. Philip knew

that just suffering was not sufficient, but enduring the suffering as Christ had on the cross

without giving way to complaint. Siguenza noted that the devil was tempting Philip with

ailments instead of demons. Philip lived as a good Christian following the tenets of the Roman

Catholic Church. He died in a manner deserving of praise from those around him. Adhering to

the teachings of the Ars Morienti, he patiently and piously faced his death with prayer and

reflection on the bible and church teachings until the very end. He was praised for his good

death which indicated that he had lead a good life, true to the teaching of the Roman Catholic

Church.

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