views from the trenches: beginning teachers’ perceptions about their professional development
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Views from the trenches: beginningteachers’ perceptions about theirprofessional developmentChristopher Bezzina aa University of Malta , MaltaPublished online: 17 Feb 2007.
To cite this article: Christopher Bezzina (2006) Views from the trenches: beginning teachers’perceptions about their professional development, Journal of In-Service Education, 32:4, 411-430,DOI: 10.1080/13674580601024515
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Journal of In-service EducationVol. 32, No. 4, December 2006, pp. 411–430
ISSN 1367–4587 (print)/ISSN 1747–5082 (online)/06/040411–20© 2006 International Professional Development Association (IPDA)DOI: 10.1080/13674580601024515
Views from the trenches: beginning teachers’ perceptions about their professional developmentChristopher Bezzina*University of Malta, MaltaTaylor and Francis LtdRJIE_A_202346.sgm10.1080/13674580601024515Journal of In-Service Education1367-4587 (print)/1747-5082 (online)Original Article2006Taylor & Francis324000000December [email protected]
This paper explores the perceptions of primary and secondary school teachers who are currently intheir induction phase (i.e. their first three years after graduation). It reports the views of approxi-mately 300 teachers about their professional development. The methodological approach adoptedwas a questionnaire survey followed by in-depth interviews of around 18 teachers. The resultsclearly indicate the type of support that beginning teachers in particular need at the start of theirteaching career. It provides feedback as to what the education authorities and schools need to focuson in order to support beginning teachers. The essential link between pre-service and continuingprofessional development is explored and identified as key to quality improvements at the schoollevel.
Introduction
Most educational reforms, especially over the past two decades, have been movingaway from a top-down model of policy-making and practices to one that involves agreater level of participation from the grass roots (for example, Whitty et al., 1987;Johnson, 1997). Malta is no exception. Major initiatives have been undertaken withthe intent of becoming more inclusive (Giordmaina, 2000; Ministry of Education,2001). The educational climate within the Faculty of Education too has witnessed ashift from individualism to social relationships (Bezzina & Camilleri, 1998). TheB.Ed. (Hons.)/PGCE teacher education programmes are based on the following mainfeatures: ‘participation, consultation, support, collaboration, reflection, motivation,openness and empowerment’. Various initiatives have been undertaken (for example,Faculty of Education, 1997) that have helped to nurture a culture of discursivepractice, which up to now has been lacking (Fenech, 1992; Bezzina, 1995).
*Office of Professional Practice, Department of Education Studies, Faculty of Education, Universityof Malta, Msida MSD 06, Malta. Email. [email protected]
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The Faculty, at the same time, encourages and supports undergraduate andpostgraduate studies in various areas to do with various aspects of the course. Theseprovide us with valuable researched information as to how we can improve ourprogrammes. The intent is that such information is then disseminated throughvarious means. In fact, we have introduced opportunities through seminars andshowcases for undergraduates and postgraduates, to present their research findings informal, organized sessions. This helps to create the appropriate environment forhealthy debate.
This paper reports one such study (Bezzina & Stanyer, 2004). Understanding whatteachers experience once they have embarked on a teaching career as well as theirperceptions regarding their preparation and ongoing professional development willhelp not only the Faculty of Education in its drive to constantly evaluate and improveits courses, but also to present findings to substantiate concerns that have beenpresented over the years for the need of induction and the continuing professionaldevelopment (CPD) of teachers to be seriously addressed by the education authorities(Bezzina, 2002, 2003).
The main intent behind this study was to shed light on what beginning teachersexperience in their initial years of full-time teaching, how the teacher education coursesin the island state of Malta can be improved, altered and enhanced in order to helpnewly qualified teachers settle down in schools, and to identify those areas that mayneed to be improved within schools to support the induction and CPD of beginningteachers. The following four questions were central to this study:
● What are the current perceptions about the teacher training programmes given theexperiences gained in school as full-time teachers?
● What problems do teachers face once they commence full-time teaching?● What qualities or skills do they value as beginning teachers?● What opportunities do teachers have to develop professionally?● This paper aims to explore the findings that are related to the area of professional
development.
Before we start exploring the findings, it is the author’s belief that it is important toreview the historical context in which teacher education, in particular pre-service andCPD, have been addressed over the years in the Maltese Islands. These raise partic-ular issues that can and do have a bearing on the responses one can get in researchwork carried out with teachers serving in schools.
Professional development of teachers in the Maltese context
During the past decade, Malta has been moving away from a highly centralized andbureaucratic system to one that encourages broader involvement in policy-makingand more collaboration among stakeholders. As a result, educators and schools havegreater responsibilities to determine the way forward and to develop schools as learn-ing communities. Moving from a highly centralized system of education to a moredecentralized mode of practice demands hard work. Given that one of the principles
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behind the National Minimum Curriculum is that of decentralization and identity,such a study will help us to see what support teachers are being given once they joina school and can also shed light on the realities of school life.
A study of the Maltese context shows that the pre-service education of prospectiveteachers is the sole responsibility of the Faculty of Education within the University ofMalta. The Faculty runs a four-year Bachelor’s degree in Education (B.Ed. [Hons.])and a one-year PGCE course. On completion of either of these two courses, teachersare certified as graduate teachers and can seek full-time employment in the elementaryor secondary/high school sector.
On the other hand, the CPD of teachers is of two kinds:
● Professional education—this entails the widening and deepening of a teacher’s theo-retical and research perspectives by undertaking advanced studies at the university(e.g. diploma, master’s and doctoral degrees). The university also provides a vari-ety of courses (e.g. certificate and diploma and master’s programmes), aimed atenhancing the professional skills and aptitudes of participants.
● Professional training—this is aimed at the development of teachers’ knowledge andskills relating to daily work (e.g. in-service education and training (INSET) courses,seminars). The Education Division (similar to a local education authority in theUnited Kingdom) is the main agent as it provides teachers varied opportunities toextend their skills and knowledge base in specific areas. The Malta UniversityServices, a business enterprise within the university structure, also offers trainingopportunities in specific areas throughout the school year.
As stated back in 2002, this model, while catering for two important phases—thepre-service phase and the CPD phase—has two main shortcomings. First, there is nolink between the pre-service and ongoing professional development of teachers. Oncestudents graduate and are employed in the State or non-State sector they areentrusted with a full teaching load as from day one. It is left entirely in their hands topursue professional development opportunities. Teachers are not provided withsupport mechanisms at the school site that help them settle down and be graduallyinduced into the teaching profession. Thus the induction phase is currently non-existent in Malta. Second, there are no organizational structures at the school-sitethat encourage and facilitate opportunities for immediate and sustained practice,classroom observation, collaboration, peer coaching and mentoring (Bezzina, 2002).
The mismatch between pre-service education and CPD opportunities, as high-lighted elsewhere (Bezzina & Camilleri, 2001, p. 161), lies at least in three areas:
1. While the Faculty undertakes research in various fields of interest, members of theEducation Division, as yet, do not have the facility to undertake their own researchand neither do the schools. As a result, numerous policy decisions lack theresearch needed to help give the direction to determine policy-making. Often,policy decisions are purely politically motivated rather than research based.
2. Issues such as inclusive education and gender equity are taken very seriously bythe Faculty, by, for instance, providing specific courses to students in the areas,
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and by encouraging school-based and classroom-based research. Teachers, unfor-tunately, do not have the same opportunities, given the roles they currently haveto undertake and the organizational systems in which they operate.
3. In the deployment of teaching staff, teachers fill in vacancies sometimes withoutlooking at matching the needs of the school with the expertise, qualifications andqualities of the teachers seeking employment. (Within a context where, in mostareas, there is now a greater supply than demand, this practice may be stopped.)
Another important issue is the conditions of service and the organizational culture inwhich graduate teachers find themselves on graduation. Teachers working in theprimary sector are expected to teach for around 27.5 hours per week. Secondaryschool teachers have around 19.5 hours of student contact time. Conditions of work,furthermore, do not look into areas such as preparation work, collegial work, extra-curricular duties, school-based development initiatives, planning and other areas thatcould involve work outside normal school hours.
Teachers are not provided with support mechanisms at the school site that helpthem settle down and be gradually induced into the teaching profession. Thus theinduction phase is currently non-existent in Malta. Second, there are no organizationalstructures at the school-site that encourage and facilitate opportunities for immediateand sustained practice, classroom observation, collaboration and peer coaching(Bezzina, 2002). Worthy of note is the launch in 1988 of INSET programmes forteachers and school leaders. These courses were offered on a voluntary basis to allthose who wished to attend. These courses were between 3 and 10 days in duration(i.e. 12–40 hours). Since then the provision has been extended, and the reorganizationagreement of 1994 brought about a provision for compulsory attendance at in-servicecourses. State school teachers are now obliged to pursue at least one course per year.The duration of these courses has gone down to three days (i.e. 12 hours). Certificatesof attendance are offered to course participants. No in-depth evaluations have beencarried out to explore the impact that these studies are having on teachers, as partic-ipants, and more so the effect on the quality of the teaching and learning betweenteachers and students.
It is within this context that we have to view this study, the findings and the recom-mendations being made. We will start with a brief review of the literature, which willhelp set the scene and also provide the Maltese authorities with a clear picture ofdevelopments abroad especially within the European context, given that Malta is nowa member.
Induction and continuing professional development: a brief review
The quality of a teacher’s experience in the initial years of teaching is critical to devel-oping and applying the knowledge and skills acquired during initial teacher trainingand to forming positive attitudes to teaching as a career. There is a general acceptanceof the value of good induction processes for the beginning teacher, but, as Coolahan(2002) argues, there has tended to be a lack of coherent policy on its implementation,
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despite ‘the high probability that solid induction programs represent one of the mostcost-effective preventative strategies around’ (Fullan, 1993, p. 106).
The entry of newly qualified teachers into full-time teaching is widely acknowledgedas problematic. The beginning teacher is often ‘thrown in at the deep end’, with a fullteaching load and associated responsibilities. He/she often has few, if any, supportstructures to draw upon and can feel isolated, stressed and anxious. Research showsthat poor induction can have serious consequences (Freiberg, 2002). On the otherhand, beginning teachers who are provided with a system of support are able to over-come initial problems of class management and planning and focus on student learn-ing much sooner than others (for example, Lieberman, 1995; Darling-Hammond,1998; Breaux & Wong, 2002). The purpose of induction is the further developmentin newly qualified teachers (NQTs) of those skills, knowledge, attitudes and valuesthat are necessary to carry out those roles effectively. Induction forms a bridgingprocess between their initial teacher education programme (i.e. pre-service phase) andgetting fully established as a confident and competent practitioner. Coolahan (2002,p. 26) has expressed concerns that while there have been a number of research studiesconducted and experiments undertaken in the area, there has tended to be a ‘failurein follow-up consolidation’. Hopefully, the recent study introduced by the Organisa-tion for Economic Cooperation and Development researching into ‘Attracting,Developing and Retaining Effective Teachers’ (Cros & Obin, 2003) across a numberof European countries will help to address this lacunae.
A number of these reports help to highlight some major developments taking placein various European countries. Some of these developments are presented here witha focus on the induction phase.
In the United Kingdom the induction arrangements in all four countries (i.e.England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales) have been substantially revisedand developed in recent years and for various reasons. As Ross and Hutchings(2003, p. 53) report, the main pressures for these developments have been thefollowing: it has been argued that securing an early foundation for CPD is a neces-sary element of successful career development; that NQTs need particular attentionand support that will build on their initial teacher training; that induction supportwill help teacher retention in the first year; and that a probationary period acts as afurther check on teacher competence. In all cases the revisions relate to a generalmove to see professional development as a continuous process throughout theteaching career. Teachers in their induction build on the various competencies andstandards that they would have been introduced during their initial teacher training.In Northern Ireland this is part of a continuous process of development extendinginto the second and third years of teaching.
The induction policy has two main principles: an entitlement to support and profes-sional development for NQTs, and assessment against defined national standards.NQTs have an individualized programme of support during their induction year froma designated induction tutor. This takes account of the NQTs’ strengths and areas fordevelopment as set out in the Career Entry Profile that each NQT brings from initialteacher training to the first teaching post. The programme includes observation of
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their teaching, watching more experienced teachers in different settings, and a profes-sional review of progress at least every half-term. The head teacher of their schoolplans that the NQT does not teach more than 90% of a normal timetable during theinduction period. (In Scotland, the amount of time that inductees have for teachingand professional development is 70% and 30%, respectively.) This allows for theother professional activities to take place. Initial studies (Totterdell et al., 2002) showthat for many NQTs the induction period is a supportive and positive experience, andacts as an incentive to stay in the profession. However, implementation is notuniformly good, and a minority of inductees experience lack of support leading tostress and disaffection.
An interesting development in the United Kingdom is the introduction of EarlyProfessional Development Schemes (in the second and third years of teaching),which follow the induction year. This is meant to serve as a bridge between inductionand CPD. In Wales teachers get funding for this, while in Northern Ireland what iscovered and developed may be submitted to gain accreditation towards postgraduatequalifications.
In France, one of the most recent developments is that newly qualified teachers areto benefit from at least five weeks of training at the University Institutes for TeacherTraining (IUFM) during the first two years of service (Cros & Obin, 2003, p. 40).
During the initial year of teaching, Chinese teachers are on ‘probation’. They havea lighter teaching load in comparison with that of ‘experienced’ teachers (Paine,1990), although one notes that even experienced teachers have a relatively ‘light’load, having 6–12 lessons a week. The lighter load is meant to help teachers adjust tothe school environment and to give beginning teachers more time for preparation.Schools are very helpful in the induction phase—the process of helping noviceteachers is an active part of a school’s faculty. Teachers work in teams—in groupscontaining a mix of teachers with varied experience. There is also a lot of mentoringin order to aid the beginning teacher (Paine, 1990).
In Japan, the boards of education provide induction training for beginningteachers. This takes place at education centres and within schools (internship trainingprogrammes) under the guidance of an experienced teacher selected by the schoolhead (San, 1999).
Beginning teachers are faced with a number of challenges as soon as they take onfull-time teaching in a school. Research shows that they are overwhelmed andexhausted dealing with non-teaching duties (Moreira, 1996; Humphrey, 2000). Theyalso realize just how difficult it is to address students’ diverse learning needs(Bullough et al., 1989; Bullough & Stokes, 1994; Humphrey, 2000; Grudnoff &Tuck, 2001). Novice teachers feel inadequate with their lack of understanding ofstudents they are about to teach, perhaps reflecting different home backgrounds,different views and expectations about education (Schernpp et al., 1998).
Lack of curriculum knowledge (coverage and depth) (Elliot & Sinlarat, 1999;Parkinson & Rea, 1999) classroom management concerns (mainly discipline)(Grudnoff & Tuck, 2001), large number of students and disruptive or unmotivatedstudents were other major challenges (Bullough et al., 1989; Featherstone, 1993;
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Serow et al., 1994; Moreira, 1996; Fisher et al., 1999). Novice teachers also tend tobe inflexible; that is, they find it difficult to improvise or change plans to suitstudents’ needs and behaviour (Featherstone, 1993; Schernpp et al., 1998). Theyalso report finding it difficult to plan long-term and to select suitable material.
Beginning teachers often feel isolated and are reluctant to ask for help (Feather-stone, 1993). They desire more assistance regarding school policies, procedures andteaching responsibilities (Wilkinson, 1997). This situation is further complicatedwhen administrators are unresponsive and/or parents are uncooperative (Serow et al.,1994). This highlights an important point raised in research conducted by Bleach(1999) and Earley (2001) about the importance of novice teachers having time toestablish relationships with experienced teachers or mentors. Beginning teachers alsoface problems when there is a lack of teaching materials and school resources such aslack of labs or equipment for experiments (Bullough et al., 1989; Moreira, 1996).
Another ‘environmental difficulty’, as Gordon and Maxey (2000) describe it, isthat beginning teachers go through what is know as ‘reality shock’. According toVeenman, ‘reality shock’ is ‘the collapse of the missionary ideals formed duringteacher training by the harsh and rude reality of classroom life’ (1984, p. 143). Thisis caused by the beginning teacher’s realization about the world of teaching and herlack of preparation for many of the demands and difficulties that teaching brings withit. The discrepancy between the beginning teacher’s vision of teaching and the realworld of teaching can cause serious disillusionment (for example, Braga, 1972;Armstrong, 1984; Cameron, 1994). Corcoran (1981) found that ‘transition shock’can lead to a state of paralysis that renders teachers unable to transfer to the classroomskills they learned during teacher education. The realization that their vision of acreative, dynamic and autonomous professional may be in conflict with the harshrealities of prescribed curricula, textbooks or materials may be a daunting experience.
These findings provide an informed picture of the professional needs of NQTs.Other studies also help to highlight not just the needs of beginning teachers, but
also what the novice teacher brings with him/her. In Greece, for instance, ‘goodqualities’ of the teachers are specific attributes of people’s mind or character such askindness and honesty (Peters, 1977, as quoted in Standa, 1996, p. 115). In NewZealand, a paper by Grudnoff and Tuck (2001), shows particular qualities orstrengths of beginning teachers such as enthusiasm, commitment, dedication andpersonal and professional worth. Beginning teachers tend to share ideas and work inteams as well as possess positive interpersonal skills. Chinese beginning teachershighlight ‘knowledge mastery’ as the main prerequisite; however, this is followed bycharacter and affective skills (Paine, 1990). Japanese beginning teachers also perceive‘professional attitude’ to be the most important skill for a teacher to have (San, 1999,p. 22). Teachers wish to be role models; they want to appear enthusiastic and to‘perform’ well. Another important skill is to treat all students equally (Paine, 1990).Dedication and investment of time and energy are also considered to be importantqualities in a teacher.
A number of studies reviewed supports the argument that no initial teacher trainingprogramme can fully address the needs of prospective teachers (Handscomb, 2000).
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Neither should it be expected to do so. Often many, even within the teaching profession,assume that NQTs should be able to handle the myriad of responsibilities that makeup school life. This supposition, by its very nature, goes against the principles of lifelonglearning. While appreciating the need to have a teaching force of high quality, we needto bear in mind the ongoing nature of teaching as a vocation/profession and addressthem from a holistic perspective (i.e. addressing the pre-service, induction and ongoingprofessional development together rather than as separate entities) (Bezzina, 2002).
The sense of disappointment and powerlessness reported by novice teachers (forexample, Elliot & Sinlarat, 1999) have to be addressed within such a scenario, for asa beginning teacher stated there is a difference between being prepared to teach andactually teaching. There are some things such as management and daily routines thatare important, but they cannot be necessarily taught in teacher education programmes(Grudnoff & Tuck, 2001, p. 12). The study by San (1999, pp. 22–23) in Japan helpsto contextualize such a view. Japanese beginning teachers (especially primary teachers)are concerned with a number of education-related items such as class management,student guidance, understanding students, school management and relationships withhome and community. Secondary school teachers tend to be more concerned withsubject related items such as subject knowledge, basic teaching techniques and thestudy and use of teaching aids. With experience, novice teachers tend to overcomeinitial concerns and challenges.
However, what this study helps to emphasize, while reaffirming findings from otherstudies, is the focus on character and attitudes. The teachers’ level of experience didnot seem to make a difference regarding the following concerns: teacher’s professionalattitude, subject knowledge, basic teaching techniques, use of information materials,study and use of teaching aids, relationship with other teachers, and understandingpresent situations of school education. The personal disposition one has and adoptscan be crucial, and these may be issues of relevance across the different teachertraining phases. For as Coolahan (2002, pp. 13–14) argues:
The teacher needs to have a deep understanding of her/himself, and of the nature of her/his work. She/he needs to have developed a wide range of professional skills in teaching,planning, assessment and personal relationships. She/he needs to have flexibility, be opento self renewal and be a life long learner. … be prepared to co-operate as a team member.… It is only intelligent, highly skilled, imaginative, caring and well educated teachers whowill be able to respond satisfactorily to the demands placed on the education system …
The transition or induction phase involves schools helping NQTs to settle down inthe classroom and into the teaching profession. This is a crucial period in the teach-ers’ lives, since the outcome of the transition between university and the world ofwork will determine the teachers’ attitudes throughout their career. According toBleach (1999, p. 11) the induction programme should include the following:
● Pre-employment induction (involving at least a day in school following appoint-ment to begin to get to know whole-school and departmental procedures).
● A statement of entitlement, setting out school aims with regard to NQTs, thecommitments and expectations.
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● Use of career entry profiles.● A programme of internally offered INSET.● Encouragement to pursue externally offered INSET.● Observation of more experienced colleagues in order to explore good teaching and
learning practice.
NQTs go through various kinds of processes and developments during this stage.Kagan (1992, cited in Fisher et al., 1999, p. 136) noticed that novice teachersundertake three main tasks:
● Acquire knowledge of pupils.● Use that knowledge to modify and reconstruct their personal images of self as
teacher.● Develop standard procedural routines that integrate classroom management and
instruction.
What has all this got to say about teachers’ ongoing professional development? InKagan’s study, teachers were interviewed in order to find out what they think aboutprofessional development and they admitted various concerns. They argued thatsometimes the content they learnt was inappropriate for schools or the quality oftraining was poor or not suited to all teachers. Moreover, follow-up activities orcoaching on practice in schools is rare. Professional development is often not givenpriority by head teachers, therefore the organization and infrastructure dedicated toprofessional development is poor. Usually, professional development is targeted bycentrally imposed innovations, therefore schools do not actually have a say in choos-ing a professional development programme. These interviews showed that teachershad clear ideas about what professional development should include. The maincriteria by which the teachers judged INSET courses were that it should be relevantand appropriate to their needs and level of knowledge and skill, therefore supplyingthem with practical advice and suggestions for action (McMahon, 1998).
Professional development
What these studies have helped to identify is the need to focus on formation, duringthe pre-service stage, but then this has to be strengthened during the induction phaseand throughout the teaching career.
Waters (1998a) sums up the challenge as falling within two domains—personal andprofessional development. Personal development involves the person as a whole;therefore, before being a teacher, the individual is a person. Professional developmentdeals with occupational role development, which enhances skills and knowledge, inorder to be able to teach effectively. In teaching, personal and professional develop-ment affect each other. Experiencing job satisfaction means feeling good aboutoneself. Feeling happy in one’s life means feeling good at work. Waters (1998b)suggests that the best option to help teachers develop personally is by providingprogrammes that develop the inner resources of teachers as individuals. This could
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include aspects, such as stress management, self-esteem and assertiveness training.This will assist teachers to cope with pressures of the job.
Reflection, as already emphasized, plays a very important role in looking at theteacher as a whole person. Routman (2002) and Danielson and McGreal (2000),among others, argue that reflection is an important tool for teachers’ professionaldevelopment. Reflection includes teacher thinking, meta-cognition, creative learning,and self-directed and self-regulated learning. Reflection does not only mean thinking,but also taking action. The process of reflection could be enhanced by providingexperiences that improve self-esteem and self-confidence through a gradual process.
Furthermore, as Prattle and Rury (1991) argue, there is a need for mutual respect,open communication, shared success and mutual support that can help to nurturetrust between teachers. The goal of teacher education should be to produce skilled‘practitioners’ who work with others. In the United States, peer review and mentoringare being institutionalized within a number of states to support teachers during andafter the induction phase (Hurwitz & Hurwitz, 2005; Jan, 2005). The concept ofmentoring should also be extended throughout the career as it helps to keep thenotion of reflection as an ongoing process (Beach & Pearson, 1998).
The introduction of portfolios may also assist teachers in their personal and profes-sional development as it is a means of guiding oneself—one can revisit and reviseideas. Use of portfolios may lead to the development of new understandings, leadingteachers to recognize links between different aspects of their life experience andformulating insights for future actions (Chetcuti & Grima, 2003).
It has also been noted that teachers do not tend to change their practice in linewith research findings or State-mandated change (Kelsay, 1991; Boostrom et al.,1993–94). There seems to be a communication gap between researchers and teach-ers. One possible way of overcoming this communication gap is to introduce teacher-led research in specific areas that they have identified and deem as important for theirsituation (Holmesland & Hostmark Tarrou, 2001). In Australia, situations have beenestablished where university academics work with schools in collaborative researchprojects. The purpose of such research is to enhance professional development ofteachers and academics, and to foster relationships between academics and teachers,while providing opportunities for collaborative sharing of achievements and problems(Johnson et al., 1999). In China, teachers often engage in research on teaching. Indi-vidual research sections have been set up in some of the elite schools in order topromote research, which can take place at the school itself (Paine, 1990). Researchby Handscomb and MacBeath (2004) also suggests that teachers are being encour-aged to become ‘learners’ and ‘researchers’ (as part of in-service teacher education);they can learn from their own observations, but with instruction teachers can makemore sense of their experiences.
Traditional professional development that takes place outside the school by its naturedecontextualizes the learning needs of teachers (and their students). More in-house,site-based managed programmes need to be organized and supported. Through asystem of in-house procedures and also through networking or clustering (Lieberman& Grolnick, 1997; Bezzina, 2003), teacher educators and teachers work together to
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improve teaching and learning outcomes for students and teachers. Various initiativeswhere such an approach has been introduced have led to particular developments beingnoted (Boostrom et al., 1993–94; Johnson et al., 1999). School-based professionaldevelopment may also help to address the concern raised by teachers that, while theymay be willing to address particular changes, they may lack the confidence or the skillsto address them (Licklider et al., 1996).
Apart from participation in in-service training, teachers need to involve themselvesin other responsibilities to enhance their learning. Recent developments include theTeacher2Teacher Programme, which engages teachers in pairs or peer coaching, orbecoming mentors or tutors to other teachers (Earley, 2001). The use of portfolios torecord professional development experiences and engagement in research activity arebeing encouraged within the current CPD climate (for example, Gowring, 2004;Handscomb & McBeath, 2004; Merrill et al., 2004) They could also involve them-selves in the creation of websites, conferences, magazines, and so forth.
Within this context what is clear is that schools need to create a positive teacherculture. Various studies (for example, Gilbert, 2005; Shank, 2005; Southeast Centerfor Teaching Quality, 2005) have identified that teachers value a collegial atmo-sphere, supportive leadership, time and space to share and learn from each other, andaccess to resources as essential for greater job satisfaction and student achievement.
The study
Given the local scenario and the growing literature that emphasizes the importancebehind induction, this study comes at an opportune moment. First and foremost, athorough review of the literature helped us to appreciate the difficulites that beginningteachers face, especially after graduation, and the importance that schools can play innurturing a culture of professional support and collaboration that beginning teachers(but not exclusively) need. Whereas Malta, unlike quite a number of countries, doesnot, as yet, face problems of retention, we do lack a culture of collaborative practiceand schools do not have any formal structures or systems to support beginning teach-ers. Some studies conducted in Malta have also enlightened our discourse. Accordingto one study (Lia & Mifsud, 2000), NQTs are of the opinion that the B.Ed. coursedoes not adequately prepare them for most of the realities found in schools. Thenotion that teacher education should reflect reality was also brought out by Vassallo(2000). Her findings emphasize that since teaching practice provides the student-teacher with hands-on experience in schools, it is often the most valued experienceduring the four-year course. She argues that during teaching practice the student-teachers are often under undue pressure since they have to develop competences thatare often not practised in the schools themselves. On the other hand, from the studyconducted by Astarita and Pirotta (1999), it resulted that other NQTs see theteaching practice phase as somewhat artificial and it did not provide realistic trainingin gaining control in the classroom.
Similar to findings in international studies, Maltese beginning teachers experiencedifficulties in discipline, classroom control and work overload. The transition also
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involves stress, uncertainty, frustration and sometimes despair. Teachers feel thatthey do not have enough support and sometimes they feel embarrassed to ask for help(Astarita & Pirotta, 1999).
Within this context, conducting a study that would help the Faculty of Educationunderstand what in fact Maltese beginning teachers face was deemed important. Itwas assumed that going back to cohorts that were in the induction phase (i.e. the firstthree years of teaching) would provide us with valuable insights into current practicesin two main areas: teacher preparation and teacher professional development. In thenext section, an outline will be given regarding the methodology used in order to carryout the research study. It will give an overview of the methods used and the cohortinvolved in the research.
Methodological approach
The decision was taken to conduct a questionnaire survey followed by semi-structuredinterviews (Bezzina & Stanyer, 2004; Bezzina, 2005a). The questionnaire was dividedinto three sections. The first section dealt with the teachers’ perceptions of their prep-aration (the B.Ed/PGCE course). The second section asked teachers to identify desir-able skills and to identify the challenges they came across in their induction phase.The final section dealt with teachers’ opinions about the importance of professionaldevelopment and the opportunities available for teachers to develop as professionals.
Beginning teachers’ perceptions were measured either through a ranking system(a score of 1 being the most important), or teachers were asked to select as many asthey desired from a given list. Most of the questions were close-ended, although therespondents were given the opportunity to present suggestions or elaborate on whatthey answered.
The teachers involved in the particular study were selected from the cohort ofteachers who graduated between 1999 and 2001 by adopting a random samplingprocedure. There were 978 teachers in the cohort (B.Ed., primary and secondary;PGCE, secondary). Questionnaires were sent by post during February 2003 to 480teachers. It was decided to mail the questionnaires to the participants’ home addressso that the respondents were free to answer in the comfort of their own home andprobably had more time to reflect before answering. A total of 261 (i.e. 54.4%) teach-ers responded to the questionnaire. Table 1 highlights the respondents according toyears of experience, course, gender, school level and type of school.
As can be seen from Table 1 the majority of respondents came from those havingthree years experience, with very low response rates from those having one or twoyears experience. They are definitely not representative of the cohort of graduates.This article aims at presenting the main findings not across all the identified fourvariables (i.e. course followed, gender, school level and school type), but reportedfindings relevant to the area of induction and professional development.
After the questionnaires had been analysed, 18 interviews were conducted. Theinterview questions were chosen in order to elaborate on information derived fromthe questionnaires. The 18 teachers were chosen to represent the different categories
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identified in Table 1. This paper will not explore the findings of the interviews asanother future paper is envisaged to do so.
Results
The teachers were asked to tick the challenges they faced when they started theircareer. They were asked to rank their choices from 1 to 5 (1 being most difficult). Themain challenges teachers identified were coping with mixed ability classes (78.9%),class discipline (66.3%) and curriculum demands (58.6%). Physical exhaustion alsoreceived a high response (54.8%). The ranking shows that class discipline (26.4%) isthe top concern. The second issue was coping with mixed ability classes (20.6%).
Asked to give reasons to these challenges, the main choices were ‘not enoughexperience’ (60.9%), the ‘course was not appropriate enough’ (41.8%) and ‘lack ofsupport from the education authorities’ (31.4%). The results show a significantdifference according to the respondents’ years of experience. All teachers with differ-ent years of experience gave the same reasons: ‘not enough experience’ (64.3, 65.9and 57.5%) as the first concern, ‘the course was not appropriate enough’ (42.9, 46.3,40.4%) second and ‘lack of support from education authorities’ (32.1, 30.5, 32.2%)as the third concern. The ‘lack of support at the school level’ was a close fourth. Onecan note that the percentages of less-experienced teachers tend to be higher for all theoptions.
Teachers who followed different courses made similar choices. However, one notesthat the percentage of B.Ed. graduates who chose ‘not enough experience’ (21.3%)was low compared with PGCE respondents (60%).
Table 1. Respondents according to different cohort groups
n %
According to years of experienceOne year 30 11.5Two years 84 32.2Three years 147 56.3
According to courseB.Ed. 201 77.0PGCE 60 23.0
According to genderFemale 176 67.4Male 85 32.6
According to school levelPrimary 102 39.1Secondary 159 60.9
According to school typePrivate 76 29.1State 185 70.9
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In relation to respondents by sector, the difference was linked to how State schoolteachers perceive the lack of support given by the school leadership team. In total32.6% of State school teachers identified this as a problem, compared with 19.7%from the private sector.
The teachers were asked whether they wished they had more support as soon as theyembarked on their career. The majority expressed the need for more help. A significantdifference in the responses were observed when the group was categorized accordingto sector; that is, private and government. Eighty-one per cent of State school teachersidentified the need for support, as against 69% of private school teachers.
Asked to identify what support would address their needs, the three main prefer-ences were ‘resources’, ‘teamwork’ and ‘an experienced colleague’. Again, a markeddifference was present in the results for private and State school teachers. Thepercentage of State school teachers who chose resources was twice that of privateschool teachers. Teamwork and experienced colleague were considered more impor-tant by the State school teachers (47.3% and 42.4% for State school teachers asagainst 32.9% and 30.3%, respectively, for private school teachers).
Analysing the results according to years of experience showed that teachers madesimilar choices. Teachers with one year of experience felt the need for a mentor(35.7%) much more than their colleagues with two years (15.9%) or three years(17.8%) years of experience, respectively.
The majority of teachers believed professional development necessary to keep up-to-date with developments. No differences were observed within different groups ofthe cohort. The highest choices were ‘cooperation’ (70.5%), ‘self-evaluation’ (62.1%)and ‘further study’ (60.9%). ‘Cooperation’ is identified as more important by the lessexperienced teachers.
Forty-five per cent of teachers identified ‘INSET courses’ as the main providerfor their professional development, followed by ‘seminars’ and ‘meetings’. Areassuch as ‘team teaching’, ‘workshops’ and ‘conferences’ were given a low response.The main reasons identified for the lack of professional development initiatives inschools were ‘time constraints’ (28%), ‘reluctance to change’ (22%) and ‘lack offinancial resources’ (21%). Teachers with just one year of experience also identified‘lack of cooperation’ as being one of the top two reasons for the lack of professionaldevelopment opportunities in their school.
Discussion
The major challenges facing beginning teachers identified included ‘class discipline’,‘coping with mixed ability classes’, ‘curriculum demands’ and ‘physical exhaustion’.‘Class discipline’ was identified by PGCE graduates as more problematic than B.Ed.graduates. Given the fact that the PGCE course is shorter, the exposure to teachingpractice and work in schools is limited and concentrated to one academic year. This,therefore, goes against the formative nature of the teaching profession per se. TheBologna Process and its effect across Europe, and teacher education programmes inparticular, may help to address this concern.
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Private school teachers emphasized fitting into the school system more than Stateschool teachers. The school organization in government schools and private schoolsare quite different, and teachers who have had no experience in private schools(during the pre-service stage) may find it difficult to adapt and accept different ideas,different cultures and structures. Within a system that is still centralized (Bezzina,2005b), State schools are still operating within a framework dictated by the educationauthorities but more so determined by State and trade union agreements. Within acontext that is highly unionized, the State school sector has to operate within themandates of central authorities. It is also to be noted that teachers are employed bycentral authorities and deployed to schools. On the other hand, private schools haveno such restrictions as they hire (and fire) teachers, determine their own managementand organizational structures and how to run their CPD programmes, among otherthings. Teachers in State schools felt the challenges of discipline and the sense ofsurviving from day to day more than those in private schools. The more challengingschools will not be easy for any teacher to settle in, let alone a beginning teacher.Survival becomes a central concern and hence this relates to the importance thatrespondents gave to establishing relationships as this will help them to be accepted bystudents. Teaching comes later. Worthy of note is that teachers with two and threeyears of experience felt the same. This goes to show, on the one hand, the difficultyof settling down in challenging schools; and more so that, as the years go by, otherfactors come into play in determining how teachers relate to students.
This finding comes as no surprise. While private schools have mixed-ability intakesthroughout compulsory school age, the State school operates round competitive andselective examinations that determine which schools students can attend. As a result,students who score below a certain percentile are admitted to particular secondaryschools. Thus, these schools end up with students who have been facing academicdifficulties and with these other factors such as family socio-economic problems.
The majority of teachers expressed the desire for more support. This is in line witha similar study conducted in Malta by Astarita and Pirotta (1999). The study reportedin this paper identified a number of support mechanisms that could be introduced.These included resources, teamwork and the help of an experienced colleague. In thecase of teachers with one year of experience, they choose support from an experiencedcolleague more than teachers with two or more years of experience.
When asked whether professional development was necessary in order to keep upto date with developments in the teaching profession, the majority of teachersbelieved this to be true. The best way to implement professional development isthrough cooperation. However, teachers interviewed remarked that cooperation isonly possible if teachers work together. It is difficult to meet in secondary schools andeven more so in primary schools. Cooperation was also seen to extend to the students,their parents, the head of the school, the Faculty of Education and the Ministry ofEducation—the latter as a provider of resources or information.
The three cohorts considered cooperation to be the best way to improve profes-sional development. However, the enthusiasm for cooperation decreased with yearsof experience.
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The teachers were also asked to show how professional development was beingimplemented. The respondents identified INSET courses, seminars and meetings asthe three main ways that professional development was being addressed. However,the percentages are not very high. The current options available to teachers are fewand most of them are not offered within the school context. A culture of collaborationwithin schools is still lacking (Bezzina, 2002; Bartolo & Mamo, 2004).
The main reasons sited as to why professional development practices were notimplemented were time constraints, reluctance to change and lack of financialresources. However, one should note that the percentages as a whole are quite low(under 30%). The percentages increase according to years of experience that ateacher had. A reason for this may be that teachers with more experience becomedisaffected with the system. One may also note that teachers with one year of experi-ence felt that lack of cooperation was the main reason for professional developmentnot being implemented. This response can be linked to an earlier response regardingprofessional development, where teachers with one year of experience felt the needfor cooperation more than their more experienced colleagues. ‘Lack of interest’ on thepart of the school was given more importance by State school teachers, while privateschool teachers emphasized ‘lack of research’. This response may because privateschool teachers see themselves, and are held accountable for their actions. Teachersin the private sector are given more opportunities to cooperate. They also wantimprovements to be effected as a result of research work carried out in their schools.Within the private sector a culture of cooperation and collaboration already exists.
Conclusions
This paper has presented some of the results of this research study. A number ofsalient points and issues and possible explanations were sought. In brief, this paperhas highlighted the following areas:
● The main challenges identified included coping with mixed-ability groups, classdiscipline, curriculum implementation and physical exhaustion.
● After graduating, the majority of teachers wanted more support mainly in the formof resources, teamwork or an experienced colleague/mentor.
● Teachers wanted more support, especially in the form of cooperation amongteachers within the school.
● Only a low percentage of teachers felt that professional development is beingadequately implemented (through INSET, seminars and meetings). The currentopportunities for growth centre round INSET courses and do not necessarilyaddress teacher needs and do not cover all areas teachers require training in. Therest pursue the main academic programmes that will help them gain further qual-ifications. The respondents identify ‘fear of change’ and ‘inertia’ as possible reasonsas to why professional development is not seriously addressed within the schools.
This study, although far from conclusive, has helped to identify a number of issuesthat will help the Faculty of Education in its discourse (Bezzina & Camilleri, 1998)
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and also reinforce concerns and proposals that have been made over the past fewyears in relation to induction and CPD (Bezzina, 2002, 2003).
At the same time, this study provided us with insights that can help us not onlyimprove the teacher education programme from a number of levels, but it also helpsto highlight ways and means of bringing the Faculty of Education closer to schools,identifies areas for further research, and also indicates clearly the need for the induc-tion phase to be formally introduced and a system of support institutionalized leadingto a programme of CPD.
Teacher education is continuous, and certification marks only the beginning of acareer in education (Bullough & Gitlin, 1994; Tickle, 2000). Teaching is formativein nature. The need to link the pre-service stage with the induction phase and CPDis identified as crucial and reinforces the conclusions of research studies that call formentoring schemes and other forms of professional support for beginning teachers(O’Brian & Draper, 2003). A call for on-the-job support is emerging as a challengingtheme in educational circles (Martin & Rippon, 2003; Draper et al., 2004). TheMaltese education authorities need to take this theme seriously, especially in acontext of devolution and deregulation of authority to the school site (Ministry ofEducation, 2001). I hope that this study goes some way at highlighting the concernsof beginning teachers and lead to the institutionalization of the induction phase andan ongoing system of CPD for teachers.
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