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After studying this chapter, you will be able to know:The meaning of and the ‘whys’ for trainingSigns requiring training and developmentPhases in training process Executive Development Programmes: i.The rationale behind them ii.Methods of determining the need for Executive Development Programmesiii.Different programmes available for the development.Current challenges in training and development.Advantages of training and development.

Objectives:

Part II – Management and Development of Human Resource

Employee Training & Executive Development

Part II – Management and Development of Human Resource

IntroductionOnce employees have been recruited and selected, the next step is orientation and training. Orienting and training employee is a procedure for providing them with the information and skill they need to successfully perform on their new job. Orientation however is one component of the employer’s new- employee socialization process. Socialization is the ongoing process of instilling in all employees the prevailing attitudes, standards, values and patterns of behaviour that are expected by the organization and the departments. This process of new employee initial orientation if handled properly and correctly helps him or her perform better by providing needed information about company rules and practices. It also helps the employee reduce the first day jitters and the reality shock (i.e. the state which results from the discrepancy between what the new employees expected from his or her new job and the realities of it), he or she might experience.The orientation programs range from brief, informal introductions to lengthy, formal programs. In the formal program, the new employee is actually given a handbook or printed materials that cover matters like working hours, performance reviews, getting enlisted on the payroll, vacations, employee benefits, performance incentives, personnel policies, company organization and operations, safety measures, safety regulations, e.t.c.The first part of the orientation is usually conducted by the human relation specialist, who explains issues as working hours, benefits, personnel policies, vacation, e.t.c. the employee is then introduced to his or her new immediate supervisor(s) who continues the orientation by explaining the exact nature of the job, introducing the new employee to his or her new colleagues and familiarizing him or her with the workplace.Companies are experiencing great change due to new technologies, rapid development of knowledge, globalization of business and development of e-commerce. Thus, companies have to take steps to attract, retain and motivate their work forces. Training is not a luxury, it is a necessity if companies are to participate in the global and electronic market places by offering high quality products and services. Training prepares employees to use new technologies, function in new work systems such as virtual teams, and communicate and cooperate with peers or customers who may be from different cultural backgrounds.What is Training?Training is the planned efforts by a company to facilitate employee’s learning of job-related competencies. These competencies include knowledge, skills or behaviours that are critical for successful job performance. The goal of training is for employees to master the knowledge, skill, attitude, aptitude, behaviours emphasized in training programs and to apply them to their day to day activities.Training is the process that involves developing skills and learning concepts, rules or attitudes in order to increase effectiveness on a particular job.Training gives a new or present employee the skills they need to perform their jobs. Training might mean showing a machinist how to operate his new machine, a new salesperson how to sell her firm’s product or a new manager how to interview and appraise employees. Recently, it has been acknowledged that to gain a competitive advantage, training has to involve more than just basic skill development. That is, to use training to gain a competitive advantage, training should be viewed broadly as a way to create intellectual capital; intellectual capital includes basic skills (skills needed to perform one’s job), advanced skills (such as how to use technology to share information with other employees), an understanding of the customer and self-motivated creativity. Whereas training focuses on skills needed to perform employees’ current jobs, employee and management development is training of a long-term nature. Its aim is to develop current or future employees for future jobs with the organization or to solve an organizational problem concerning for example, poor interdepartmental communication, improving product and service quality, adapting to rapid technological changes and boosting

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productivity to stay competitive. Improving quality often requires training since quality-improvement programs assume employees can use critical thinking skills, produce charts and analyze data. Employees must also acquire skills in team building, decision making and communication. As firm’s become more technologically advanced, employees require training in technological and computer skills such as computer-aided design and manufacturing. Again, as increased competition has put a premium on better services, employers have turned to computer-service training to provide employees with the tools and abilities they need to deal more effectively with customers like effective listening skills. Today, training is been evaluated not on the basis of the number of programs offered and training activity in the company but on how training addresses business needs related to learning, behaviour change and performance improvement. Of a truth, training is becoming more performance focused in the sense that training is used to improve employee performance, which leads to improved business results.Training is seen as one of several possible solutions to improve performance, increase employee motivation through pay and incentives.Currently, emphasis is on;a) Providing educational opportunities for all employees. This includes; training programs,

support for taking courses outside the company, self study and learning through job rotation.

b) Training being used to help attain strategic business objectives, which help company, gains a competitive advantage.

c) The need to demonstrate to executives, managers and trainees the benefits of training.d) An ongoing process of performance improvements that is directly measurable rather than

organizing one-time training events.Training and developments occurs only after business strategies for achieving growth are identified by the company, for instance, strong leadership is needed for growing companies. Strategies that the companies use to develop leadership skills include cross-functional, global job rotations as well as mentoring. Training and development of staff is continually scanning the company and the broader industry to understand the issues and prepare training solutions to meet them. Training also supports new product launches to ensure that customers get a consistent message about the product.Development on the other hand is planned activities which focus on increasing and enlarging the capabilities of employees so they can successfully assume greater positions in the organization’s hierarchy to better handle current responsibilities. Development focuses on improving the conceptual skills- the skill needed to handle complex situations and perform better. It is not only person-oriented but also focuses on supervisory and managerial personnel. It is geared toward improving upon workers performance with the ultimate aim of achieving set organizational goals.Due to changes in our world, particularly in the area of skill obsolescence and technological capability, patterns of training have been conceived as a continuous exercise throughout working life- meaning training is not exclusively reserved for newly employed staff but also for the old employees as well. For example, low and middle-level employees need to adapt to new skills and technologies while managers and top management personnel need a deeper knowledge and understanding of their jobs, the jobs of others, an understanding of government and societal constraints as well as a sensitive social awareness of the environment within which the organization operates.The Need for Training and Development ProgrammesTraining and development has become an accepted phenomenon in organizations. Several factors as forces influencing the need to develop employees while on the job include; globalization of business, demographic changes, new technologies, economic changes among

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several others. To survive, companies must address these forces with training playing an important role.1) Globalization:

Global business expansion has been made easier by technology. The internet/ e-mail allow data and information to be instantly accessible and sent around the globe. They enable business deals to be completed between companies millions apart. Globalization has affected not just businesses with international operations but companies without international operations may buy and use goods that are produced overseas, hire employees with diverse backgrounds and compete with foreign- owned companies, enter international markets by exporting their products overseas, even enter into alliances with foreign companies, engaging in e-commerce and building manufacturing facilities in overseas countries. Besides training and developing local employees and managers, many companies are sending their workers to work in international locations. In such case, cross cultural training is important to prepare employees and their families for overseas assignments. Cross-cultural training prepares employees and their families to understand the culture and norms of the country they are being relocated to and to return probably to their home country after their assignments.Globalization also connotes that local companies may move jobs overseas which is also known as off-shoring, i.e. the process of moving jobs from the local companies to other locations in the world.2) The Need for Leadership

Many companies do not have employees with the competencies necessary to manage in a global economy resulting from the aging of the work force and globalization. Thus, companies will need to identify, train and develop employees with managerial talent coupled with the fact that executives, administrative and managerial occupations will experience the greatest turnover due to death, resignation or retirements, thereby resulting in a significant loss of managerial talent.To manage successfully in a global economy, managers need to be self -aware and be able to build international teams, create global management and marketing practices, and interact and manage employees from diverse cultural backgrounds.Effective managers are important as they help retain employees. One of the reasons why employees leave jobs is the unconducive working environment created by their managers. Thus, aside from the basic managerial functions of planning, organizing, leading, controlling and communicating, they also help employees develop and work collaboratively with employees.Therefore, companies need to identify employees with managerial talent and help potential new managers as well as current managers develop the skills needed to succeed. It also involves providing employees with mentors, job experiences and formal courses to develop their skills.3) Increased Value Placed on Knowledge.

Nowadays, companies are developing intellectual capital as a way of gaining an advantage over competitors which led these companies to attracting, developing and retaining knowledge workers. Who are knowledge workers? These are employees who contribute to the company not through manual labour but through what they know about customers and specialized body of knowledge. They contribute specialized knowledge that their managers may not have; for instance, information about customers. Thus, managers rely on them to share information. Knowledge workers have job opportunities in which if they choose, can leave a company and take their knowledge to a competitor. They are in high demand because of the growth of jobs that require them.

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Therefore, to benefit from employees’ knowledge, managers need to focus on developing and empowering employees. To empower an employee mean giving him responsibility and authority to make decisions regarding all aspects of product development and customer services. They are then held accountable for their activities and in return share the rewards and losses of the results. However, for empowerment to be successful, managers need to be trained to connect employees to resources both within and outside the company, help employees interact with their colleagues and managers throughout the company, ensure employees cooperate with each other, update them on crucial issues, train them to understand the use of internet and other tools for communicating, collecting and sharing information.Aside from acquiring and retaining knowledge workers, organizations need to adapt to changes. Change is the adoption of new ideas by an organization. Changes occur in the workforce, government regulations, globalization, technological advances and new competitors. Change is the only thing that is permanent in organizations as products, technologies and entire industries experience shorter life cycles. Managers must continually take active role in identifying training needs, help to ensure employees uses training in their work, encourage employees to share knowledge with their counterparts and other workgroups across the organization using e-mail and the internet. This enables the company to continuously experiment and improve.4) Attracting and Retaining Talent.

All over the world, a much larger number of new workers are needed from time to time due to death, disability, retirement, quitting the labour force for education, health challenges or to stay at home coupled with the increase rate. The growth will mean more consumers of goods and services, increasing demand for employees. The current tight labour market could be worsened hindering prospects for economic growth and putting a greater burden on those remaining in the workforce, possibly forcing them to work longer hours. Giving the tight labour market and numerous job applicants’ lack of basic skills, many companies are unable to hire qualified employees but they are unable to leave job opens. Thus, they hire employees with skill deficiencies and rely on training to correct the deficiencies.Retention is part of talent management. Talented employees are always looking for growth and a career path. Training and development is a key to attracting and retaining talented employees. It is one of the major influences on employee satisfaction because it increased employees’ opportunity for advancement, and as companies use it, it helps to support business strategy which results in retaining talented employees.5) Changing Demographics and Diversity of the Work Force.

Organizations face challenges as a result of increased diversity in the work force, skill deficiencies and changes in the work area. Population is the single all important factor in determining the size and composition of the labour force which is made up of people who are either working or looking for work. The rate of women participation in management is on the increase. Not only must companies face the issue of race, gender, ethnicity and nationality to provide a fair workplace, they must also develop training programs to help these different categories of employees acquire the technical and customer service skills required in a service company like ours in Nigeria.The aging of the labour force is another contributing factor to diversity. Older people want to work and may say they plan a working retirement. Another source of workforce diversity is greater access to the work place for people with disabilities. As a result of this diversity, it is not likely that all employees will hold similar work values. Thus, to maximize employees’ motivation and commitment to company goals, employees should be given the opportunity to develop their skills. Training plays a key role in ensuring that employees accept and work more effectively with each other, particularly with minorities and women.

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To manage a diverse work force successfully, managers and employees must be trained in a new set of skills including;a) Training and developing employees of different ages, educational backgrounds,

ethnicities, races and physical abilities.b) Creating a work environment that allows employees of all backgrounds to be creative

and innovative.c) Communicating effectively with employees from a wide variety of backgrounds and;d) Providing performance feedback that is void of prejudice and stereotypes based on

gender, ethnicity or physical handicap.Management of diversity contributes to a company’s success by its influence on creativity, problem solving, employee retention, cost reduction, resource acquisition and creation of new markets for the organization’s products and services.Organizations that do not manage diversity will soon find out that employees’ talents are underutilized and that their personal and professional needs are not met which will result into their dissatisfaction, poor performance and less competitive organization. Organizations that manage diversity are known to have an edge in attracting talented employees.6) New Technology:

Technology has reshaped the way we play, plan our lives, communicate what we wear and where we work coupled with the new business model- e-commerce, in which business transactions and relationships can be conducted electronically.Advances in sophisticated technology along with reduced costs for the technology, are changing the delivery of training, making training more realistic and giving employees the opportunity to choose where and when they will work. New technologies allow training to occur at any time and place. The internet allows employees to send and receive information as well as to locate and gather resources. It also gives them access to experts whom they can communicate with and responds to messages and articles.Technology has reduced travel costs, greater accessibility to training, consistent delivery, ability to access experts and share learning with others and possibility of creating a learning environment.Not only that, technology has allowed companies greater use of a contingent work force. Contingent work force is the independent contractors, on-call workers, temporary workers and contract workers. Use of contingent work force allows organizations to easily adjust staffing levels based on economic conditions and, product and service demand. The increased use of contingent employees means that managers must understand how to motivate employees who may actually be employed by a third party such as a temporary employee service or leasing agency. 7) High Performance Models of Work Systems:

New technology results in skill requirements and work roles which often results in redesigning work structure. For example, computer integrated manufacturing uses computers to automate the manufacturing process. The computers allow the production of different products simply by reprogramming the computer. As a result, labourer, machinist, material handler, assembler and maintenance jobs may be merged into one job positions.Computer integrated manufacturing requires employees to monitor equipment and troubleshoot problems with sophisticated equipments, understand the relationship between all components of the manufacturing process and share information with other employees. With technology, employees become more accessible to information needed to improve customer service and product quality.Use of new technology and work designs need to be supported by specific human resource management practices which include the following actions:

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a) Employees receiving formal performance feedback and involved in the performance improvement process.

b) Ongoing training emphasized and rewarded.c) Rewards and compensation linked to company performance.d) Employees understanding how their jobs contribute to the finished products/ service;

and,e) Employees participating in planning changes in equipment, layout and work methods.

Why training? Employees need job specific knowledge and basic skills to work with the equipment created with the new technology. As technology is used as a means of achieving product diversification and customization, hence, employees must be trained in the ability to listen and communicate with customers, negotiation skills, conflict management and problem solving skills. Even though, technological advances have made it possible for employees to improve products and services, managers must empower employees to make necessary changes.Summarily, several other reasons providing an impetus for the need to train and develop employees while on the job include,1.) The presence of aging employees and the explosion of knowledge.2.) The increasing heterogeneity of employees in organizations.3.) Inadequacy in academic programs which rarely prepare candidates for their future

positions and their accompanying responsibilities.4.) To prevent skill obsolescence.5.) To reduce cost of production and minimize waste6.) To induce certain behavioral changes in the employees7.) To improve quality and quantity of work8.) To cope with new technological advancement e.g. the demands of automation,

mechanization and computerization. 9.) To cope with increasing organizational complexity resulting from extension of operation

to various regions of the country or in overseas countries; or dealing in services of diversified lines.

10.) To remove performance deficiencies: Some employees may exhibit a lack of sufficient expertise in the performance of their jobs such that they may require some exposure to training programmes to redress such deficiencies.

Signs Requiring Training and Development1.) Insubordination2.) Tardiness 3.) Low productivity 4.) Lack of interest in ones job5.) Negative attitude to work 6.) High accident rates7.) High absenteeism rate8.) High rate of rejections in the quality of output.

Phases in Training ProcessThe training design process refers to a systematic approach for developing training programmes. The figure below presents the seven (7) steps in this process.

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Conducting Needs AssessmentOrganizational AnalysisPerson AnalysisTask/Job Analysis

Ensuring Employees’ Readiness for TrainingAttitude & Motivation Basic Skills

Creating a Learning EnvironmentLearning ObjectivesMeaningful MaterialsPracticeFeedbackCommunication of learningModellingProgram administration

Ensuring Transfer of LearningSelf ManagementPeer & Manager support

Developing an Evaluation planIdentify evaluation criteria measurement including: reaction level, learning level, job outcome level and organization change level.

Selecting Training MethodOn-the-job training methodsOff-the-job training methodsSimulation training methods

Monitoring & Evaluating the ProgramConduct EvaluationMakes changes to improve the program

Part II – Management and Development of Human Resource

Figure 5.1: Phases in Training Process

Phase 1: Conducting Needs Assessment.This is to conduct a need assessment to identify if training is needed. There are three (3) basic levels of approach, which are depicted in figure 5.2:

Figure 5.2: Levels of Approach in Conducting Needs Assessment

Organizational Needs Analysis: This involves a detailed analysis of the short and long term objectives of the organization. It will include:

1. An analysis of human resource needs in terms of its short and long term objectives2. Number of people to be trained as expansion may mean mare apprentices to be

trained.3. Types of jobs for which people have to be trained. Automation may mean new

knowledge and skills are required.4. Policies for promoting and transferring employees; succession plans may suggest

that a particular person be sent for training and development5. Organizational climate in terms of rate of absenteeism labour turnover, accident

rate, frequency and intensity of grievances amount of excessive scraps e.t.c.A comprehensive analysis of these areas will clearly show deficiencies that urgently call for the need to train or retrain the employees.Task or Job Needs Analysis: This involves a comprehensive consideration of the specific requirements of the task to be performed, the minimum acceptable standard of performance, the technical nature of the job, the need to cope with present work load, the need to cope with anticipated changes in workload and the combination of special skill requirement in terms of

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Task/Job Needs Analysis

Person Needs Analysis

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technical, professional, managerial, interpersonal, conceptual and analytical skills required to get the job done very well.Person Needs Analysis: This involves analysis of the individual job holder of the strengths and weaknesses or deficiencies and the identification of what should be the contents of a training programme that will turn the individual workers into better performers. It includes:

i. Examination of job description.ii. Examination of the techniques of procedures involved.

iii. Identification of the skills, attitudes and knowledge required to perform tasks (i.e. an analysis of the tasks).

iv. Assessment of the current jobholder’s KSA through observation, performance data, absenteeism, turnover, production and safety to determine their competencies and areas of deficiencies.

v. Recommendation of training to teach or assure him that he knows how to do the job.

Phase 2: Ensuring Employee Readiness for TrainingThis is to ensure that employees have the motivation and basic skills necessary to master training content. It includes analyzing the audience to ensure that the training programme will be suited to their specific levels of education, experience and skills as well as their attitudes and personal motivation.Phase 3: Creating a Learning EnvironmentThe essence is to have learning environment that has the features necessary for learning to occur. This includes finding answers to such questions as;

1. What is to be taught? This takes charge of the deficiency identified in each category of employees and the appropriate course contents needed in correcting the deficiencies. It answers such questions as what will the trainee be able to do? To what standard and in what circumstances?2. Who is to teach? i.e. who will do the actual training? Internal or external trainers? Local or international, involving overseas trip?3. How is the training to be done?-i.e. the various training techniques that can be best used to facilitate easy learning.4. What is the sequence of training in each step? This means the trainee must be taught the underlying logic and structure needed in any course of action. For example, a trainee must not be taught how to add before learning how to count. Also it will be wrong that a trainee learns how to operate a machine before he learns about the safety devices and how to use them.

It also involves gathering instructional objectives, methods, media, description of and sequence of content, examples, exercises and activities; and organizing them into a curriculum that supports adult learning theory and provides a blueprint for program development. It makes sure that all materials, such as video scripts, leaders’ guides and participants’ workbooks, complement each other; are written clearly and blend into unified training geared directly to the stated learning objectives. The phase also connotes carefully and professionally handling all program elements- whether reproduced on paper, film or tape to guarantee quality and effectiveness.In implementing the organization’s training and development programmes, the training and development manager must:

i. Select appropriate training methods as each occasion and training needs demand.

ii. Select appropriate instructors who may come from within or outside the company, depending on the nature and the technicalities of the training.

iii. Make provisions for the use of teaching aids as at when due.

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iv. Ensure that the learning principles maximally benefit both the trainee and the organization.

v. Review training programmes from time to time.vi. Ensure she/he provides for the positive motivation of all learners in all ways

possible.Phase 4: Ensuring Transfer of LearningThis phase involves having the trainee understand how to manage skill improvement as well as getting co-worker and manager which support. It is to ensure that trainees apply the training content of their jobs. Many of our training efforts lack post training support. This is as a result of no transfer of learning from the training environment to job environment. It may be as a result of obstacles placed on the way of the trainee thereby preventing him or her from practicing his newly acquired knowledge. Therefore, this phase ensures there is transfer of learning.Phase 5: Developing an Evaluation PlanThis includes identifying what types of outcomes training is expected to influence, e.g. reactions outcome, immediate outcome, job outcome and ultimate outcome or organization change outcome. Developing an evaluation plan is choosing an evaluation design that allows you to determine the influence of training on these outcomes. Thus, four of these evaluation criteria measurements can be identified, they are;

i. Reactions levelii. Immediate Outcome/Learning Level

iii. Intermediate/ Job Outcome Leveliv. Ultimate Outcome/ Organization Change Level

Reactions Level: Evaluation can be carried out by assessing participants’ reactions or feelings toward the extent of coverage of essential materials, depth of the course contents, method of presentation etc. This could be evaluated formally through questionnaires or informally through simply asking questions.Learning Level: This criterion assesses the extent and content of learning that has taken place, in other words, the extent of new knowledge and skills that have been acquired as a result of the Training & Development (T&D) programme, and how much of these skills, knowledge and experience are being put to use in the work environment.Job Outcome Level: Evaluation at this level is for the purpose of seeing whether job performance has changed for the better, that is to find out the amount of positive changes in job behaviour that have taken place. Before and after evaluation designs can be used. If the evaluation reveals that no improvement has occurred, this may be indicative of training ineffectiveness. If improvement has occurred, it suggests effective training. Whatever the result of the evaluation at this level, it may lead to a review of the identified training needs or the adopted training methods.Organization Change Level: At the end of the training and development programme, it is necessary to assess the extent to which the objectives set at the beginning of the training have been achieved. These objectives may include survival growth, profitability, reduced absenteeism and turnover, better product quality etc

Phase 6: Selecting Training MethodsThis phase is to choose the training methods based on the learning objectives and learning environment. It also includes choosing of location- this is to be guided by the objectives and method. Off the job training is helpful when the group is large and using on-the-job training would cause intrusion. Off the job training is also expedient when there is no one qualified at

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the workplace to teach. When distractions at the workplace are feared as capable of impeding learning, off-premises locations are preferred. On-the-job training may seem more relevant to trainees as it facilitates transfer learning. Also, it is less expensive. Again, it involves choosing the Instructors- these deals with the competence of the instructor. He must know his subject, have the personality to convey it, must be able to use the chosen learning methods to meet learning objectives and he must be available at the right time. Not only that, program is drawn (i.e. timetable) which usually contains the tabulation of the objectives: day, time, method, instructor and location. However, these methods of training and developments can be classified under three headings:1. On the job training methods- this is having a person learn a job by actually performing it.

In giving an employee on the job training, it is important to; a.) Put the learner at ease- relieves the tension. b.) Explain why he or she is being taught. c.) Create interest, encourage questions and find out what the learner already knows about his or her job or other jobs. d.) Explain the why of the whole job and relate it to some job the worker already knows. e.) Familiarize the worker with the equipment, materials, tools and the trade terms.

2. Off the job training methods, and;3. Simulation methods.

Table 5.1: Classifications of Training MethodsOn-the-Job methods Off-the-job methods Simulation methods

Demonstration Classroom lectures Case Studies Training manuals Film show and demonstration Business Games Work sample Role playing Role Plays Specific projects Educational television Incident Method. Coaching Programme learning In-Tray/In Basket Exercise Job rotation Tutorials Internship Discussion groups Task force assignment Briefing groups Committee assignment Group projects Apprenticeship Individual projects

Demonstration: Here, the trainer shows the step by step procedure for carrying out the tasks that make up the job. The trainee is able to watch the trainer and thereby encouraged to try his hand with guidance by the trainer. Training Manuals: It contains written instruction on how to operate a machine or carry out a given process. Most machines have on operating manual that can also be used for training prospective operators on their usage.Work sample: This involves the trainee carrying out a practical process under the watchful glare of a trainer or supervisor. Work samples are useful for training middle and senior managerial employee on how to carry out practical assignments.Specific Projects: A trainee is commissioned to conduct a systematic investigation into an issue with a view to understand and predict a trend. The trainer evaluates the research report and provides further guidance. It is suitable for developing problem solving skills in trainees.Coaching: As a training method, coaching involves employee empowerment by assisting the trainee to perform his work and responsibility through the process of answering questions, guiding them in finding answers to their problems, broadening their view points and providing them with feedback on how well they are doing. The coach must assume a friendly posture with the trainee to achieve a best result.Job Rotation: This is intended to provide the trainee with a variety of work experiences by moving them from one job or from one department to the other thereby enabling them to acquire greater job knowledge and experiences with which to handle greater responsibilities

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in the future. By so doing, it enables the trainees to have the better appreciation of inter-departmental problems as they relate to their jobs or employees in other departments.Internship: This enables the trainee to gain useful insights into the relationship between theory and practice. For instance students in science field in their 3rd and 4th year of study go for three (3) months internship programme. Also, Ordinary National Diploma (OND) students after two years (2) programme go for a year internship in a company of their choice before they go for Higher National Diploma (HND) programme. This is to enable them relate what they have learnt in the classroom with what is obtaining in practice so as to fully complement their knowledge.Apprenticeship: This is required for jobs that require long period of practice and experience and for job that require complex and diverse range of skills and knowledge. It is usually required in job and trades such as carpentry, plumbing, printing, welding, engraving etc. The long period is necessary if the trainee is to fully understand the intricacies and complexities of the job.Lectures: This is when the trainer presents a prepared paper to the trainee(s) or an audience, class etc designed to instruct at length. It may be used for teaching knowledge, facts, skills and opinions. Lectures are useful for reaching a large audience who has some knowledge of the subject matter.Practical: This is used to supervise the hands-on-work of the trainee, give a feedback and generally enable the trainee acquires skills on how to perform specific tasks.Briefing Groups: It is assumed that the trainees are not completely ignorant of the issues in the paper. The trainer presents a short paper and asks for the reactions of the trainees. It is to teach knowledge, fact and assess the opinions of the trainees. Discussion Groups: The focus is on specific topics. Seminars and workshops adopt the discussion technique to encourage massive participation. They are to support the objectives of improving skills and oral presentation, of changing attitudes etc.Programmed Learning: This is a do-it-yourself (DIY) technique that relies on books and machines. For instance, to learn typing on the computer where the standard learning sequences have been programmed and made available in user-friendly software packages. As a trainee interacts with this package, he can monitor his progress, accuracy and speed since different types of errors in the learning process will earn a loud beep that alerts him/her that an error has been committed.Vestibule Training: This method involves trainees learning in a non-work environment where the conditions and equipment are identical to what will be encountered on the job. This is necessary so that trainees are equipped with preliminary learning experiences prior to any actual work practice, so that when they are eventually transferred from the learning environment to the work situations, problems are minimized because they have been doing what they are supposed to do before. Using this technique, organizations avoid having to slow down regular production lines, risk product damage and ensure product quality.Phase 7: Monitoring and Evaluating the ProgrammeThe essence of this phase is to evaluate the training programme using the evaluation criteria measurement developed in phase 5 to make changes in it or revisit any of the earlier steps in the process to improve the training program so that learning, behaviour, change and other learning objectives are obtained. Managers are to determine the level of improvement in job performance and access needed maintenance. Basic questions that need asking among others include;

i. Has the training and development programme paid off for the organization?ii. Has it achieved positive results in terms of the goals and objectives set?

Monitoring of training serves as a bridge between the implementation phase and evaluation phase.

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Executive Development ProgrammesThis is a process designed to increase the quantity and the quality of present and future managerial personnel through training to manage (organizations) successfully in today’s complex business environment, as well as in the future. Organizational objectives, management inventory, succession plans as well as anticipated changes are the starting points of managerial development. Methods of development include:On-the-Job: Understudy assignments, coaching, special projects, job rotation, committee assignments etcOff-the-Job: Classroom teaching/lectures, case studies, role playing, in-basket techniques, university seminars and professional association seminars, conferences etc.The Rationale for Executive DevelopmentA number of reasons explain the refocused interest of employers in organising training courses for their staff. These are:i. Rapid changes in technology (e.g. computerization) thereby necessitating the need for

built-in mechanisms for preventing manpower obsolescence.ii. The need to improve the versatility of the managerial group.

iii. The need for easy and effective mobility of personnel across functional units as the need arises.

iv. To create a reservoir of executive talents necessary for managerial succession or for other contingencies.

v. To keep them current on new developments relating to economic, social, technical, political, cultural etc matters that may affect the successful performance of their jobs.

vi. Increase in the incidence of fraud and the role of employers in the prevention and control of malpractice from all possible sources.

vii. Identify persons with innate abilities and potentials that may be groomed for future higher responsibilities.

Methods of Determining Executive Development Needs1. Managerial Appraisal Report: This will indicate the relative strengths and

weaknesses of each management staff. The comments on the weaknesses will point to the relevant areas in which the executive will undergo some types of training. (e.g. executive’s ability to understand, analyze problems and proffer solutions may be shallow.)

2. Survey: Each executive will conduct a survey of what he lacks or what his subordinate manager lacks and make recommendations accordingly.

3. Job Analysis: When movement to a higher position is contemplated, the requirements of the higher responsibilities will enable management to identify the training and development needs of the employee earmarked for the higher positions.Executive Development ProgrammesThese include:

i. In-Basket Methodii. Role-Playing

iii. Business Gamesiv. Simulationv. Case Studies

vi. Sensitivity TrainingIn-Basket Method: The in-basket tray contains memos, letters on issues relating to the company’s financial statements, marketing research information, petitions from staff, letters of complaints from distributors and/or customers, replies to queries etc. Using this method, trainees are presented with samples of these issues and are trained how best to handle each of them even under pressures of time and how priority could be attached to pressing issues.

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Part II – Management and Development of Human Resource

Role Playing: This is used in teaching interpersonal skills such as managerial and sales interactions. Like all artificial dramas, the trainee adopts relevant roles manager and staff member; salesperson and customer; debtor and creditor and plays out a particular kind of discussion, e.g. taking disciplinary action, making a sale, negotiating debt rescheduling. For this purpose, the trainee “wears another’s shoes” to understand the psycho-social characteristics of the person and situation. This will expose the trainee to how they can be able to sensitize themselves to the problems of a troubled subordinate/customer and what steps to take to arrive at solving the problem. This training device helps to teach trainees qualities and skills such as effective interpersonal skills, conflict strategies etc.Business Games: A number of games are available in the form of cards, monopoly, computer games etc which can help teach one or two workplace principles or rules. A variant of games is the in-tray exercise where several memos are put into a tray and the trainee is to make sense out of it. In the process, the skills for practical assessment of priorities and decision making may be acquired. The objective is that the trainees will acquire the tools for analyses and decision making under real life scenarios. Also, the alertness in thinking and the capability to perform effectively even under a stressful and competitive environment are learned.Case Studies: A case is a set of circumstances, conditions or a state of affairs that face executives in their day to day business. Sometimes, typical business situations can be simulated and presented in a case form, and trainees are requested to identify the major and minor problems of the case to distinguish the salient facts from the insignificant, as well as analyze the facts, suggest alternative solutions to the problems, evaluate the alternate solutions and recommend the best course of action. The purpose is to sharpen the participant’s ability to correctly identify the key problems in any given situation, interpret facts, identify important variables upon which management can make decisions, improve their skills in diagnosing issues and recommending the best solution for a given problem situation.Simulation: These are useful for jobs in which risks and costs of mistakes are high. For example, pilot training (or any situation in which direct observation and feedback are absent, or managerial decision making). To get around these problems, there are now for example flight simulators, and management decisions are simulated through assessment centres, in-basket games, business games etc. Managers do not necessarily perform routine jobs and they need more than specific skills. They need to acquire specialized and broad-based skills like conceptual, analytical, problem-solving, human, behavioural, interpersonal, decision making skills etc. Hence, situations involving the use of these skills are simulated and managers put through.Sensitivity Training: Under this method, executives are trained in the area of developing an awareness of as well as sensitivity to the behavioural patterns of oneself and the others with whom one relates. Thus sensitivity, according to Rao and Rao (1990) is expressed in the form of:

i. Enhanced listening skillsii. Increased tolerance for individual differences

iii. Greater concern for othersiv. Increased openness with and to othersv. Less ethnic prejudice etc

The essence of this training is to identify their human relation skill needs and how best to accommodate the feelings of others to be able to manage them effectively and be a good manager.Current Challenges in Training and DevelopmentCurrent training and development programmes are constrained by the following practices:

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Chapter 5

i. Inadequate funding of trainingii. Failure to determine training needs reliably and relevantly.

iii. Perceptions that training periods are holidays, heightening the preference for overseas training and the accompanying estacode

iv. Unwillingness of supervisors to train their subordinates on the job or reveal the secrets of the job

v. Failure to systematically evaluate the effects of trainingvi. Failure to engage credible professional trainers and adequately brief trainers on the specific

trends in an organization.Advantages of Training and Development

1.) Training enhances employees’ chance for promotion.2.) Turnover rate is reduced among workers.3.) Training improves employees’ motivation and morale on the job.4.) It increases organizational productivity and quality of products.5.) It increases employees’ knowledge, skills and development of positive behaviour and attitude to work.6.) It reduces rate of absenteeism as it brings about sense of belongingness among employees.7.) It brings about work environment that allows employees of all backgrounds to be creative and

innovative.8.) It helps in the management of diversity which result in company success.

Review Questions1) a. What do you understand by training?

b. Enumerate eight (8) rationales for embarking on training and development.c. Differentiate between training and development.

2) What are the three basic levels of approach in the identification of the training needs?3) Write short notes on the following:

i. Vestibule Trainingii. Demonstrationiii. Job Rotationiv. Programmed Learningv. Simulationvi. Business Gamesvii. Sensitivity Trainingviii. Role Playingix. In-Basket Methodx. Coaching

4) With examples, outline the various methods of training and development you are familiar with.5) Enumerate the evaluation criteria measurement in the training and development programmes.6) What are the methods of determining executive development needs?7) What are the constraints to the current training and development programmes?8) How do you know that employees in an organization need training and developments?9) What are the advantages of training in an organization?10) Enumerate some of the symptoms that determine training and development.11) With the aid of a well labelled diagram, explain the different phases in training process.12) What are the benefits any organization that embark on training and development enjoys?

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