Examination training on

The Isle of Man @ Ballakermeen

AQA A2 Geography

May 2015

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01. Figure 1a and 1b show information relating to Japan and the Tohoku earthquake 2011. Describe the tectonic setting shown in Figure 1(a) and relate the intensity of the Tohoku earthquake shown in Figure 1(b) to that setting. (7 marks)

Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)Some sophistication of description and statement of relationship. Clear interpretation and/or description/reasoning, together with evidence of geographical thinking.

Candidate AJapan sits on two continental plates - the northern part of the country lies on the North American plate, whilst the south is on the Eurasian plate. To the east of Japan are two oceanic plates - in the north is the Pacific plate, and to the south lies the Philippine plate. The two oceanic plates are both moving in a generally westward direction at a rate of a few centimetres per year. The zones at which the plates collide lie on the seabed to the east of Japan (Figure 1a) and are marked by deep ocean trenches. At this point the oceanic plates are being forced under the continental plates - subduction - and earthquakes take place along such a tectonic boundary. The earthquake off Sendai in Tohoku in 2011 occurred on the fault that marks the boundary between the Pacific plate to the east and the North American plate to the west - 130km to the east of the port of Sendai. The impact of the earthquake, as measured by the MMI scale on Figure 1b, was greatest all along the 400km east coastline of Tohoku in a thin band parallel to the coast, north and south of Sendai. The intensity then reduced inland and to the west in a fairly uniform manner, and it also decreased to the south west. There is therefore a strong relation of the intensity of the earthquake to the tectonic setting. This may be due to the fact that a major tsunami was generated by the earthquake, though I am not sure if this is measured by the Mercalli scale.

02. Describe the characteristics of, and explain the formation of, deep sea trenches and island arcs. (8 marks)

Level 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)Detailed statements of characteristics and reasoning, possibly with some use of supportive material. Full mark answers show breadth of knowledge and some balance between landforms.

An ocean trench is a narrow, deep depression in the ocean floor which corresponds with the subduction zone associated with convergent margins or destructive plate boundaries. The Marianas Trench, on the western margin of the Pacific Ocean, extends to depths below 11000 metres. They are typically arc-shaped and correlate with the location of deep focus earthquakes, although intermediate and shallow earthquakes are also formed. These form on the margin of the trench towards the line of volcanic islands which form the island arc. Examples include the Chile-Peru Trench where the Nazca Plate (oceanic) subducts beneath the South American Plate (continental) and the Japan Trench where the Pacific Plate (oceanic) subducts beneath the Eurasian Plate (continental). In oceans where subduction takes place, the convergence of the plates takes place below sea level. The sinking lithosphere is much colder than the asthenosphere and it is brittle. As stresses increase the sudden failure of the lithosphere triggers earthquakes along the line of

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the subducting plate. This zone of subduction, of varying angle, is called the Benioff Zone. When the upper surface of the sinking lithosphere has reached a depth in the asthenosphere where the temperature is about 1400OC, the rocks making up the lithosphere begin to soften and melt. As these are of lower density than the surrounding asthenosphere, as they melt they rise towards the surface as plutons of magma. These produce volcanoes on the surface of the non-subducting plate, fed by the material from the subducting lithosphere. The rising magma consists of andesitic lava from the melting plate. It creates complex, composite, explosive volcanoes. An island arc is a chain of such volcanic islands located on the continental side of an ocean trench. This situation can be found in the western Pacific Ocean where the islands which make up the Aleutians, Japan and the Philippines are island arcs.

This island arc of volcanic activity is parallel with the line of the plate boundary and the subduction zone. The displacement of the island arc from the line of subduction depends upon the angle of the Benioff Zone; the steeper the angle the closer the island arc to the line of subduction. A convergence rate of 30mm/yr appears to be required to produce the whole range of these features.

03. Discuss the evidence for tectonic plate movement. (10 marks)

(03) With reference to two volcanic events that you have studied from contrasting areas of the world, compare the ways in which volcanoes and their impacts have been managed. (10 marks)

Level 2 (5-8): specific statements of management strategies which can be clearly attributed to named areas and/or volcanoes access this level. Comparison is clear and purposeful. Level 3 (9-10): a fully developed answer, with good elaboration of the management strategy of two volcanic events. A rounded answer with a full comparison of the two events.

Volcanoes can be managed in three ways: through reducing vulnerability of potential victims; through modifying the severity of the event and through reducing the losses suffered by people and the areas affected. The eruption of Mount St Helens is a good

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example of how management has succeeded in these areas. The comparable eruption of Nevada del Ruiz is the opposite. Vulnerability modification was exceptionally efficient in the USA before Mt St Helens. USGS scientists acknowledged the likelihood of an eruption as earthquakes increased and the water table level began to fall. They distributed warnings to the authorities who organised and evacuation to 20 km in all directions. This ‘exclusion zone’ reduced the death toll from a potential hundreds to just 57. It was also aided in that locals were aware of volcanic threats because of a good education system and people trusted the scientists and government in their decision.Nevada de Ruiz did not receive sufficient or comparable vulnerability modification. Although US scientists warned both the locals in the town of Armero and officials in the local government that an eruption was imminent, locals refused to believe that their mountain could hurt them and officials dismissed advice as attempts to lower property prices. Consequently 23000 people died in the eruption as no evacuation was undertaken. The lack of education of the locals and official xenophobia and distrust meant catastrophic damage took place.Even modification in both cases was minimal because the most severe effects of a volcanic eruption, pyroclastic flows and lahars are almost impossible to stop with current building materials and diversion techniques. Nevertheless, had the buildings in Armero been better built, some may have withstood the lahar.Loss modification through aid (short term and longer term) was also far more efficient at Mt St Helens. The US government provided a package of $631 million to go to the rebuilding and sustaining of businesses that were hit by the eruption. This virtually covered the economic damages of the eruption. The National Guard were also quick to arrive rescuing the stranded by air. Indeed the recovery though swift was aided by the initial precautions taken.At Nevada del Ruiz no government bailout was provided and authorities took up to 3 days to arrive. In this time looters and kidnappers took advantage of the local chaos. On arrival relief was slowed by broken equipment and poor coordination. This has meant that the area has not yet fully recovered even now. Evidently the USA handled its eruption far better than Colombia and this was due to both government efficiency and public education, both of which were aided by the USA’s super wealth.

10. Figure 4 shows information on the Lower Marsh Regeneration Project in Lambeth, south London. Comment on the information shown. (7 marks)

Level 2 (5-7 marks)Comments that go beyond the information in the figure, ie there is some intellectual processing on what lies behind, or can be extrapolated from, the information given, or some attempt to categorise.

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Regeneration is carried out in an area in order to improve present and build new housing and other buildings which will encourage the moving of both businesses and people into the area which will in turn stimulate economic growth. The environment will also be improved in order to promote a pleasant atmosphere to live and work in.The regeneration project in Lambeth in south London will encourage greater economic development by creating 21 large market pitches. This will allow local tradesmen to sell and trade their goods whilst also encouraging local residents to buy locally sourced goods and support independent retailers rather that large chain supermarkets. By improving the local environment the partnership scheme will encourage a better living and shopping environment which in turn will encourage more to visit the area. By creating pedestrianised areas emissions of CO2 into the atmosphere will be reduced whilst also improving the air quality of the local area. Safety will be improved by a reduced number of vehicles in the centre as well as the addition of street lighting which will offer the perceived sense of increased safety whilst deterring criminals, drug dealers and prostitutes at night, all contributing to a more pleasant environment.Finally Figure 4 does not show any plans to redevelop the station (Waterloo) itself, which is a flaw in my opinion as the train station is likely to be the largest reason why consumers enter the area however no efforts are being made to develop it despite the involvement of Network rail and Transport for London. Therefore from Figure 4 I believe the scheme is flawed by not having relevant data.

(11) Outline characteristic strategies of waste management in urban areas. (8 marks)

Level 1 (1-4): simple generalised statements of management with no depth or detail, and not attributed to any named area. One strategy only – max L1Level 2 (5-8): more specific and sophisticated statements of management which may be attributed to a named area, or demonstrate greater depth of understanding and/or knowledge.

There are many strategies for waste management in urban areas and these can be understood using examples. In Sheffield residents are provided with a black bin for household waste which is collected every week and a blue bin for bottles and a blue box for paper which is collected fortnightly. These are recycled. This immediately encourages residents to recycle and separate their waste. Some of the household rubbish is dumped at several landfill sites dotted around the outskirts of the city. These are very harmful to the environment and are quite an eyesore to any passer-by. But the rest is taken to a large incinerator run by Veolia in the centre of the city – close to the Park Hill flats in fact – to be burnt and used to generate electricity. The thousands of tonnes of waste that pass through the incinerator each day provides electricity for many prominent buildings in Sheffield such as the Town Hall and Ponds Forge swimming pool. This is a very effective way of managing waste as there is no left over materials.Curitiba also has a clever strategy for waste management. They offer a system know as the Green Exchange where recycled waste is exchanged for bus tickets or fruit. This is offered to the poorer residents of the city. Once a week a dustbin lorry will park and residents then queue to exchange the materials they have recycled into separate sections for bus tickets or fruit which ever they feel is important to them. This gives the poorer residents a sense of

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satisfaction. The sorted materials are then recycled and turned into new products. This makes for a very sustainable waste management strategy. (8)

(12) Evaluate the success of one or more partnership scheme(s) in the regeneration of urban areas. (10 marks)

Level 2 (5-8): specific descriptive statements of a partnership scheme(s), some of which can be clearly attributed to a named example. Assessment is tentative and implicit.Level 3 (9-10): a fully developed answer, with good elaboration and clear detail of the partnership scheme(s). Assessment is explicit.

One partnership scheme I have studied is the regeneration of Sheffield city centre. The scheme was set up by Creative Sheffield, Sheffield City Council, Yorkshire Forward and English Heritage all with the same goal to improve the appearance of the city centre. Many areas such as Sheaf Square, Tudor Square, the Winter Gardens and the Peace Gardens were all regenerated to give the city a more modern look. One of the more successful areas completed is outside the railway station. A water fountain feature and a long steel blade fountain were built which creates a great first impression for people coming to the city by the train. Several thousand pounds were provided by Yorkshire Forward to complete the square and it was opened in 2009. Another success was the creation of the Gold Route. This is a walk from the railway station to the end of Division Street that allows visitors to see all the newly generated areas of the centre. The walk is lit and has CCTV cameras making it safe to walk both day and night. The scheme has received many awards and good reviews and has helped visitor numbers to the city to increase. Another better known partnership is that of the Park Hill flats which overlook the city centre. These council flats are the largest Grade 2 listed building in the country and over the past few years had become very rundown. Urban Splash, Creative Sheffield and Yorkshire Forward (YF) again partnered together to regenerate the flats into modern and stylish looking apartments to attract a range of residents. Glass lifts and colourful walls make for a pleasing exterior. YF granted over £200000 to complete the work and currently over 100 of the flats are available to buy. They range from £80000 to over £110000 showing that Urban Splash are confident they will sell. Park Hill flats have had a great deal of interest from people wanting to buy and rent showing that the partnership scheme is a success. Once the regenerated flats have been bought more can be revamped until all of the blocks have been completed.

16. Study Figure 6 which shows an area in a conflict zone. Describe and comment on the area shown. (7 marks)

Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)More detailed comment with appropriate description.

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The area in the photograph shows a semi-arid area with a village made of straw huts and compounds around them. The area is semi-desert as you can see that the majority of the land is very barren and sandy, and yet there are quite a few trees around. This must be an area where water occurs close to the surface allowing the trees to grow.However in the village one set of houses and the compound are ablaze. This could be a natural fire, but it is more likely to have been caused deliberately, especially as it is a conflict zone. As this is a conflict zone, it would be reasonable to suggest that some guerrillas have set this area on fire to take control of the area by possibly burning the house of the leader of the community. There are few if any people around, so I can suggest that the people have moved out either by be kidnapped as happened recently in northern Nigeria - hundreds of girls were abducted by a group called Boko Haram - or they have fled out of fear. You can see tracks both behind and in front of the compound on fire. These are the tracks that rebels or guerrillas will have used when they came to the village on 4x4 trucks armed with Kalashnikov rifles. This could have been people like the Janjaweed in Darfur in Sudan. It is likely that they will have killed people and taken away any animals in the village.

(17) Outline processes by which conflict resolution can take place. (8 marks)

Level 2 (5-8): detailed, specific and/or sophisticated processes that clearly apply to conflict resolution. A greater range of processes will move the answer up the level, as will recognition of the complexity of the topic.

Conflict resolution can take place in many different ways depending on the scale of the conflict. Local conflicts tend to be over the use of local resources and land use and the UK government have a planning permission scheme to try and minimise conflict. Plans for development in an area such as Derry Hill in Menston where constructors hope to create 40 new homes are displayed for an area and local people are encouraged to give their views on the matter. All the individual views will be weighed up and assessed by an inspector before planning permission is granted or declined. If planning permission is granted but there is still strong opposition to the plans the government can call in the application and send it to a tribunal whose job it is to assess whether the benefits of the plans outweigh the losses or not. In some cases, such as Whinash wind farm in the Lake District where plans were submitted for 4 new turbines, the plan may be rejected by the tribunal though planning permission was earlier granted.On an international scale larger conflicts may require international intervention by groups such as the UN or NATO to be resolved. The groups may send peacekeepers into war torn areas to try and instigate peace or may have to take a harder line on the conflict for example in 2012 when NATO officiated air strikes on Libya in an attempt to help rebels in the country overthrow Colonel Gaddafi and the country’s regime. On a slightly smaller scale countries may ally with each other over a conflict such as when Russia allied with South Ossetia to help it gain independence from Georgia following a short war in 2008. (8)

(18) With reference to one recent major international conflict, discuss the impact of the conflict on the environment of the area affected. (10 marks)

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04. Figure 2 shows the Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE), a measure of the intensity of tropical revolving storms, in the North Atlantic Ocean area between 1940 and 2010. Describe and comment on the information shown. (7 marks)

Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)Good description of overall trends (which may include use of data to support such as manipulation and anomalies) with appropriate comment.

Although the data shown has a very weak correlation in terms of the average Accumulated Cyclone Energy (ACE), it does appear to be a slight positive correlation in terms of energy increasing over the years with some troughs signalling periods of low energy. For example the average ACE in 1940 was about 60 ACE in comparison to 2010 when it was about 115 ACE, an increase of about 90% in energy. This could roughly be due to the increase in sea temperatures as a result of global warming as greenhouse gases are increasing preventing outgoing long wave infrared radiation leaving the atmosphere so are re-emitted back to the earth’s surface increasing the global temperatures by about 0.7C over the last century.However there are peaks and troughs that do not fit with this argument. For example, 2005 saw the greatest ACE with about 245 with 1950 the second largest at about 240. The year with the lowest ACE was 1981 with about an average of 20 ACE. This could be due to significantly lower than average sea temperatures as a result in an unusual dip in the jet stream causing it to be pulled further south in the northern hemisphere and further north in the southern hemisphere bringing with it the influence of polar maritime and arctic maritime air masses bringing much cool conditions to areas that experience cyclonic weather conditions. Although this is a very weak correlation between an increasing amount of ACE as the years increase, there are anomalies suggesting that tropical revolving storms cannot be predicted in terms of the amount of energy they produce due to high fluctuations annually.

06. Discuss the responses to one case study of a storm event in the British Isles you have studied. (10 marks)

Level 1 (1-4 marks) (mid point 3)Simple statements of responses which could apply to any storm event. No specific detail provided. No attempt at discussionLevel 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)Specific statements of responses which can be clearly attributed to named areas access this level. Elements of discussion.Level 3 (9-10 marks) (mid point 9)A fully developed answer, with good discussion and elaboration of responses. May categorise or assess effectiveness.

Britain was affected by a very strong depression on the night between the 14th and 15th October 1987. This was known as the Great Storm of 1987. The depression developed on the 13th in the Bay of Biscay with a central pressure of 968mb. It reached Britain and Brittany on the 14th. The impact was devastating – 22 people were killed, 4 in France, 18 in the UK – mainly by falling trees, roof tiles and coastal flooding. The low pressure created a sea surge which hit the south coast, strong waves rose over sea defences flooding some houses.

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In response the government advised via the BBC that people do not travel to work that day and stay at home helping the clear up operation in their local area. This had secondary consequences on the UK economy which actually caused a fall in global share prices, felt in Tokyo and New York because of the huge economic importance of London as a world city. In the longer term many trees have now been replanted, with for example Toys Hill in Kent completely reforested and many trees at Kew Gardens were saved by tree surgeons. Shanklin pier on the Isle of Wight, which was destroyed, was never rebuilt, a monument was built instead at the entrance of the old pier to stand as a commemoration of the events of that day. Elsewhere, environmentalists and volunteers helped to replant some of the trees lost in national forests. Also concrete storage facilities were built to store the timber trees to allow timber markets to stabilise before releasing them for sale.There was also an investigation into why the storm hadn’t been picked up by the weather reporters (such as the infamous Michael Fish) and weather systems at the Met Office. As a result new monitoring equipment was stationed on the south coast and improved satellite information covering the North Atlantic was supplied to the Met Office. Also the government set up a new system whereby emergency services such as hospitals, fire crews and the police would be alerted by pagers if a storm event was coming. This allows for emergency services to be prepared by having more staff available to respond to the impacts of a storm and essentially save more lives.

07. Figure 3 shows a map of Roundhay Park on the north-eastern rural/urban fringe of Leeds, West Yorkshire. Comment on the activities shown. (7 marks)

Level 2 (5-7 marks) (mid point 6)Comments which go beyond the information in the figure - evidence of intellectual processing. May include some attempt to categorise.

Roundhay Park clearly provides a large area of open air recreation for the people of Leeds. These areas of greenery in urban areas are very important. Towards the north of the park is a golf course just over 500m tall and wide and will be a medium sized golf course. The course is separated from the other areas of the park using deciduous trees. These also separate it from the noise pollution of the ring road. The golf course has very little woodland on it. However parking is on the other side of Upper Lake but park entrances are conveniently close. There are a lot of paths around the park and this provides a good space for leisure activities such as walking and running which help to keep the population active. The large upper lake and Waterloo Lake are likely to have ducks and maybe fish that people may wish to feed. Waterloo Lake has a boat house suggesting that people could use model boats on the lake or maybe a larger range of activities. There is a lakeside cafe positioned by the lake where people could relax and enjoy a beverage. The Arena is separated from other places of activity as a result of trees being positioned along the paths. There is a very large range of activities that take place at the park all of which have limited damage to ecosystems although will reduce succession.

09. Discuss the impact on ecosystems of the planned and unplanned introduction of new species into urban areas. (10 marks)

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Level 2 (5-8 marks)Specific or detailed statements of description/impact of planned and unplanned introduction of new species; may be still an imbalance of aspects. Both elements of the question covered. Level 3 (9-10 marks)A fully developed answer, with good discussion of a range of impacts, with both elements reaching a Level 2 response. The answer demonstrates both breadth and depth of understanding.

Gardens (both private and public), parks, cemeteries, playing fields and school properties are all areas where the vegetation is managed in a planned way. Gardeners, both domestic and local authority, introduce new species, many of which are from overseas. Species of this nature include imported trees and bushes such as the sycamore, rhododendron and buddleia and are designed to decorate or enhance the quality of gardens. Others have been introduced but have spread beyond where they were intended, and have become a nuisance. Some of these are the buddleia again, and the Michaelmas daisy, Oxford Ragwort and the Japanese knotweed. Playing fields are areas where people try to plan the amount and nature of the species present by mowing, weeding and the application of chemicals such as fertilisers or herbicides. Most professional football grounds now have very carefully managed turfs, and they are often changed several times in a season to maintain the high quality for the teams. Local authority playing fields are less well-maintained and they will have more evidence of clover, daisies and other weeds such as dandelions. On the other hand, some environments in urban areas are unplanned. Many primary schools for example have ‘wild’ areas to encourage a wide range of plants to develop naturally in order to increase the number of wild flowers and hence encourage insects. The same can be said for some road verges in towns where areas are not mowed to encourage more native species. Although these are not new in the sense of they are already native to the UK, they may be ‘new’ to the area having not been there for a while. The same idea could be used for some animals which are also ‘new’ to the urban environment in which they live. In these cases - the urban fox, the grey squirrel and the parakeets of the London suburbs - their original habitat is not an urban area, and their unplanned introduction has caused some concern for some urban residents. Urban foxes have been seen working their way through waste bins, and some have been charged with attacking small children in their beds in the London area. The grey squirrel is also a foreign species - from the USA - so it has been both introduced, and unplanned. One of the most famous examples of a negative impact by an unplanned species is that of the Japanese knotweed. This spreads easily via rhizomes and cut stems or crowns. It is now listed under the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 as a plant that is not to be planted or otherwise introduced into the wild. It causes extensive damage to paving, concrete and tarmac-ed areas, and is extremely expensive and difficult to treat and remove. Perhaps its major ‘crime’ is that it shades out native species and therefore reduces biodiversity in a visually unattractive way. Thus it can be seen that there is a variety of impacts of planned and unplanned introduction of plant and animal species into urban areas.

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(13) Study Figure 5 which shows a development by the oil company Royal Dutch Shell in a remote part of Canada. Comment on the possible socio-economic and environmental impacts of this development. (7 marks)

(14) Outline reasons for the growth of TNCs. (8 marks)

Mark scheme.Level 1 (1-4 marks) (mid point 3)Simple statements of reasons for the growth of TNCs. Limited depth of understanding of factors responsible. Max Level 1 for one fully developed reason. 1-4Level 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)More detailed, specific or sophisticated reasons for the growth of TNCs. Understanding of factors responsible is more clear. Support may be given 5-8

TNCs have grown for a number of reasons. In economic terms they have emerged primarily due to the changing global distribution of industry. Originally the majority of the manufacturing industry was based in the developed world but increased labour costs, poor management and the running out of resources have resulted in deindustrialisation in MEDCs. In contrast the rapid development of LEDCs has encourages TNCs to move production there, where they can take advantage of the cheaper labour costs to make production of goods more effective. This process is known as the global shift. The R&D side of TNC operations has remained in the developed world resulting in international flows of goods, capital and people resulting in corporations becoming international. TNCs have also relied on radical changes in policies and viewpoints. They rely on the opening up of markets via the advent of ‘economic liberalism’ whereby countries open themselves up to investment from overseas. This has encouraged TNCs to travel across the globe to try to take advantage of untapped markets. This change in thinking has been accompanied by a number of policies like tax breaks and free tax zones, such as those in China with the Special Economic Zones (SEZs). All this would not be possible without improvements in transport. The advent of cheap, quicker air flights has allowed company executives to travel across the globe within 24 hours and the growth of containerisation where goods can be transported across the world in days has allowed company operations to become international. The growth of global social and economic groupings such as the EU has promoted increased communications and flows of capital and goods between nations with free trade between members of the groupings. Finally improvements in technology with the advent of the internet allowing instant communication and also the processing and retrieval of information have further allowed company operations especially services to become global, with call centres across the world and control available via email or mobile telephones.

(15) Discuss the social, economic and environmental impacts of TNCs on their host countries. (10 marks)

Level 2 (5-8 marks) (mid point 6)Specific and/or sophisticated statements of impacts which may be clearly attributed to named areas and/or TNCs access this level. At least two of social, economic and environmental impacts are addressed. Discussion must be clearly recognisable for 7/8 marks.Level 3 (9-10 marks) (mid point 9)

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A fully developed answer, with good elaboration of a range of impacts of a range of TNCs and/or within different areas. Each of social, economic and environmental impacts is addressed, though not always to the same standard. A rounded answer with a full discussion.

TNCs can have negative and positive impacts on host countries.Economically TNCs can have positive and negative effects. Much of the money produced returns to the origin country. However host countries do receive jobs which supply wages. These wages can be taxed and spent to boost the economy of a host country. India’s service industry has increased GDP dramatically - increasing from a 40% share in 2003 to 52% in 2010. This has been driven by TNCs in cities such as Bangalore - companies such as Infosys and others. This is now the most valuable service industry sector in the world. An example of where TNCs are not having a positive economic impact can be seen in Angola. China has been aiding Angola’s development since the late 1990s. Large construction firms help Angola by obtaining construction materials and modernising buildings. However little money is put back into the economy by those firms as almost all employees are migrant workers who send the money back to China. This has resulted in some social tension as the Chinese workers do not mix with the Angolans, eat Chinese food and rarely purchase Angolan goods.In terms of social effects, these can also swing either way. Some TNCs provide housing for their workers, such as Apple in Taipei. In Taipei there are also social issues. Many workers have complained about the working hours, relative to the wages received and the working conditions are rumoured to be very poor. Apple says it will not outsource to factories that do not keep to strict regulations in regard to the wages, work times and other conditions. However it appears that infractions occur. At the same factory it was also reported that 250 employees were fired, without severance pay due to complaints by the employers.The environmental impacts of TNCs also seem to continue the trend and be negative. In 2005 it was revealed that Nike’s Asian factories were not only sweatshops but also disobeyed a number of pollution regulations to do with the removal of waste and air pollution. A key example of the negative effect of TNCs on the environment was the BP Water Horizon oil spill in 2010. BP’s deep sea exploratory well exploded, pumping oil into the Gulf of Mexico. The well had been constructed with sub-standard concrete and pumped over 5 million barrels of oil into the Gulf over a 2 month period. The oil caused widespread damage to aquatic ecosystems. The Gulf is home to the largest population of sea turtles, with over 500 reported dead. The host country, the USA, had the southern coast damaged. Mangroves in Louisiana were killed by oil clogging airways in the rock. Bird populations were killed and the shrimping industry was destroyed, which also resulted in economic loss. Elsewhere, TNCs in Chongqing in China have created the most polluted city in the world, where over 10 million people in the greater urban area cannot access clean water from the river Yangtse. Therefore we can see that overall the impacts of TNCs on host countries tend to be negative with very few positive effects arising. (10)

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Mark scheme for the essay questions

Assessment criteria

Level 11-10 (midpoint

6)

Level 211-20

(midpoint 16)

Level 321-30

(midpoint 26)

Level 431-40

(midpoint 36)Knowledge of content, ideas and concepts

Basic grasp of concepts and ideas; points lack development or depth.

The answer is relevant and accurate. Reasonable knowledge. Imbalanced theories

Sound and frequent evidence of thorough, detailed and accurate knowledge

Strong evidence of thorough, detailed and accurate knowledge

Critical understanding of the above

Incomplete, basic.

Reasonable critical understanding of concepts and principles with some use of specialist vocabulary.

Sound and frequent evidence of critical understanding of concepts and principles, and of specialist vocabulary.

Strong evidence of critical understanding of concepts and principles and of specialist vocabulary.

Use of examples/ case studies to support argument

Maps/Diagrams (when used)

Superficial

Ineffective

Examples show imbalances and/or lack detail and depth

Some relevance

Examples are developed, balanced and support the argument

Effective

Examples are well developed and integrated.

Fully integrated

Evidence of synopticity:

Connections between different aspects of the subject

‘Thinking like a geographer’

No evidence Limited.

Some ability to identify, interpret and synthesise some of the material.

Limited ability to understand the roles of values, attitudes and decision-making processes.

Strong

Some ability to identify, interpret and synthesise a range of material.

Some ability to understand the roles of values, attitudes and decision-making processes.

Full

There is a high level of insight, and an ability to identify, interpret and synthesise a wide range of material with creativity.

Evidence of maturity in understanding the role of values, attitudes and decision-making processes.

Quality of argument – the degree to which an argument is constructed, developed and concluded

Language is basic; arguments are partial, over simplified and lacking clarity.Little or no sense of focus of task.

Arguments are not fully developed nor expressed clearly, and the organisation of ideas is simple and shows imbalances. Some sense of focus of task.

Explanations, arguments and assessments or evaluations are accurate, direct, logical, purposeful, expressed with clarity and generally balanced. Clear sense of focus of task.

Explanations, arguments and assessments or evaluations are direct, focused, logical, perceptive, mature, purposeful, and are expressed coherently and confidently, and show both balance and flair.

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Question 19.Analyse the factors that cause differences in the hazards posed by volcanoes around the

world. Volcanic eruptions pose differing hazards around the world due to a number of mainly physical factors associated with their eruption. A hazard is something that possesses a danger to humans or human settlements and history shows us a number of different ways in which volcanoes can pose hazards.The first factor which in my opinion most importantly affects the hazard posed by a volcano is the type of eruption. This tends to depend on the type of plate margin and subsequently the type of lava present. More effusive volcanoes tend to occur at constructive plate margins where plates diverge. At these margins plates diverge, weakening the lithosphere which can then be melted by magma which can then rise to the surface. At these plate boundaries lava tends to be basaltic meaning it has low silica content. This lava will therefore allow gaseous bubbles to expand, preventing a build-up of pressure and preventing an explosive eruption from occurring. The main threat with these Icelandic or Hawaiian style eruptions is the lava flows associated. Basaltic lava is not at all viscous, meaning it is more fluid and can run for much greater distances before solidifying. An example of an effusive Hawaiian eruption was seen in 1992/3 from the Sicilian Mt Etna. 7.6km2 of lava was released over 473 days and the lava flows covered crops grown on the fertile soils on the flanks. The main danger of the lava flow tends not to be human life but instead to homes, infrastructure and crops or water supplies. For example to prevent lava flows reaching the town of Zefferana a 400m long, 20m high barrier was erected and along with help from the US marines, explosives were dropped into the lava tube and concrete blocks into the main flow to try to slow it down. Whether or not these efforts worked, the lava stopped 850m from the town. These effusive eruptions can be very costly however. For example, the eruption of Eyjafyallajokull in 2010 caused the eruption of ash which aggravated plans to access Europe for 6 days by air, at an economic cost of £250 million a day. However there was little threat to human lives or infrastructure. More explosive eruptions tend to occur at destructive plate margins where high intensity melting of the subducting plate results in the formation of rhyolitic lava or andesitic lava. Andesitic, and to an even greater extent, rhyolitic lave have high silica content which prevents gas bubbles from expanding, leading to a build-up of pressure released in a much more explosive eruption, Plinean or Peleean in style. These eruptions such as Mt Pinatubo in 1991 are much higher on the VEI scale and bring a much greater degree and number of hazards. These eruptions are associated with pyroclastic flows or nuee ardent, powerful explosive clouds of gas, ash and tephra which can be at excess of 300C and travel at speeds of 500mph. These pyroclastic flows can travel many kilometers, 16 in the case of Pinatubo and if caught in their path buildings are destroyed, trees flattened and people killed. 854 died as a result of Pinatubo. These explosive eruptions can also cause torrential rainstorms, leading to the formation of lahars. They erupt vast quantities of harmful gases such as SO2

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and CO. These can have worldwide effects, for example the Mt Pinatubo eruption caused a temporary 0.4C increase in global temperature, which could have melted ice in Antarctica. Another physical factor is the location and physical geography of the area. For example, Mount Okmok erupted in 2008 with an eruption which had pyroclastic flows and vast volumes of ash and tephra as well as reaching 4 on the VEI. However nobody was with a 40km radius due to its remote location in Alaska. The hazards were minimal. Population density of the area is therefore a key factor in the differing nature of hazards posed by eruptions. On the flip side the Nevada del Ruiz eruption in Colombia 1985 was only so dramatic in its tragedy due to the physical geography. Its altitude meant that there were vast deposits of ice and snow surrounding the central vent of the volcano. The melting of these led to the development of 4 thick lahars. Again through the physical geography of the area it had a key role to play. Beneath the volcano there were 6 river valleys which the lahars travelled down. This led to them doubling in size by the time they hit the towns in the shadow of the volcano. Over 23000 people were killed by the lahars, making the eruption the second deadliest of the 20th century. Another example of the location and physical geography playing a key role is the eruption associated with that of La Cumbre Vieja on the Canary Island of La Palma. Due to its coastal location, an eruption would see a large landslide into the Atlantic Ocean which would create a tsunami. Some models suggest that this could be as much as 1000m in height, almost unimaginable. This would bring utter devastation to the west coast of Africa and the east coast of the USA, and cities such as New York.Different volcanoes also pose different hazards around the world depending on some human factors such as the ability to plan and predict the events and how effectively they can deal with the secondary impacts associated with those eruptions. For example in the Philippines the eruption of Pinatubo was predicted by the PHILVOCS and the USGS due to the combination of seismic activity, phreatic eruptions, changes in gas emissions and by using tilt meters to detect an inflation of the dome. In many ways the numbers of warning signs that can be detected change the nature of the hazard. This allowed the evacuation of 60000 people from the vicinity to be conducted in a calm and composed way. This prevented overcrowding in camps of those displaced and subsequent spread of disease like dysentery and typhoid was reduced. Food and water supplies could be provided. 847 died due to the eruption, but without the evacuation, estimates suggest that up to 50000 more would have. In contrast there was no warning of the eruption at Mt Nyiragongo in the DRC in 2002. Panic set in here and 400000 fled to neighbouring Rwanda. There were food shortages, poor accommodation and communicable disease spread quickly. Due to poor planning and preparation 80 also died of asphyxiation of CO2, a hazard which would be and was more ably dealt with following the eruption of Eyjafyallajokull where face masks and goggles were handed out to prevent respiratory problems and eye irritation.A volcano will also present different hazards depending on the stage of life it is in. Many volcanoes, most even, are extinct and so pose no risk. It is only in the regions of the world where volcanoes are active that they will pose a risk. Looking at volcanoes which occur in

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chains over hot spots the hazards associated will differ dependent on the stage of development that the volcano is in. Mauna Loa is more recently formed so results in effusive Hawaiian style eruptions with the low threat of lava flows, lahars and emission of gas and ash. However when these volcanoes start to develop and track across the hot spot their eruptive nature changes becoming more explosive until they reach the rejuvenated stage where there are more pyroclastic flows etc.. The Hawaiian volcanoes will become a more hostile place to live in as their volcanoes develop. In conclusion the hazards proposed by volcanic eruptions differ vastly depending on the type of margin, lava associated, the age of the volcano, its location, the physical geography of the area, and human ability to prepare for an eruption. Even with needed monitoring, planning and preparation, the magnitude of an eruption as physical events will always result in them providing a diverse range of destructive hazards, whether they affect infrastructure and farm lands, contaminate water supplies or at their most extreme, human life. (1335 words)

To what extent can urban areas be sustainable?Sustainability in the context of urban areas refers to the ability of a population to thrive socially and economically but without over using resources and damaging the environment for the future generations. Large amounts of planning and management processes are undertaken throughout urban areas in order to maximise an area’s sustainability. This management and planning varies across the globe.Curitiba in southern Brazil has the 5th biggest economy of cities in Brazil. The city acts as one of Brazil’s financial hubs. Nevertheless Curitiba also has a strong manufacturing pedigree with the South American headquarters of Volvo trucks located here. As a consequence the city’s population swells to over 4 million during week days. In order to cope with such large numbers of people the local government had to find a solution to the congestion throughout the city. After much consultation it was decided that the city would be pedestrianised. Furthermore a deal was secured with the local Volvo factory to supply a new form of bi-articulated bus. These buses travel along designated routes carrying over 10000 passengers per day each. The Rapid Bus Network as it is known has been calculated to be 500 times cheaper than a subway system. Unlike a subway system the network can increase the number of buses in response to varying demand. The Curitiba RBN operates cost effectively, making it extremely economically sustainable.London is also a financial hub. Unlike Curitiba it has adopted an underground train system. The system is the oldest in the world, 150 years old. This has caused many issues that other transport systems would not experience. The old tunnels need constant repair and the operational costs of the old stations far exceed that of modern subway systems. Nevertheless authorities have endorsed strategies that have made the underground system economically and financially sustainable. Over 80% of the operational costs are covered by ticket fares. With a new £10 billion improvement plan over the next 10 years, the figure is set to rise.

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One of the main issues faced by any urban environment is the disposal of waste. Curitiba has adopted a unique method for dealing with such a problem. The bin men travel to the poorer suburbs. Here they exchange fruit and vegetables for waste materials that have been collected to be recycled. This not only gives incentives for people in the city to recycle, but it helps less waste on the streets go to landfill. Thanks to such initiatives Curitiba is able to recycle 75% of all of its waste, far more than almost any MEDC urban environment. This has helped the city become highly environmentally sustainable.In the east of London new projects have been devised since 2000 to try and improve the environmental sustainability of the area. One of the main projects was the Greenwich Ecology Park and the O2 arena, one of the premier indoor arenas across the globe. Architects used the large surface area of the roofs to capture rain water and use it to flush the toilets in the facility. In addition the Greenwich Ecology Park was opened. It consists of woodland and open parkland to allow people to walk and observe local ecosystems. Such parks are extremely environmentally sustainable as they act as CO2 sinks as well as a place to support local wildlife. Flooding is a major issue throughout the globe. Curitiba experiences flooding on a regular basis due to its close proximity to the Amazon rainforest. As a result urban planners decided to build large reservoirs to hold flood waters and prevent flooding. In its self this idea is extremely sustainable. However designers decided to integrate the reservoirs into a parkland with attraction events such as boating as well as waterfalls and fishing. The project has been a huge success and allows the city’s population to be no more than a short bus ride away from the park. This area will continue to perform its social and environmental function for years to come and will not drain resources. This makes the city parkland and reservoirs very sustainable.Fortunately London does not have the same risk of flooding as Curitiba. The main issue in London is the lack of housing. In Stratford in east London the Olympic site is under construction. The 2012 games are being marketed as the most sustainable ever and with good reason. For example the Olympic village which consists of 1500 flats is not going to be destroyed after the games. Instead the flats will be renovated and sold to the public at affordable prices. This scheme will not only provide money to the Olympic fund but provide affordable housing to an area in the centre of London.Cities often act as centres for a wide range of jobs. The most successful and sustainable cities will demonstrate a job market that is stable and has longevity. Curitiba is home to the South American HQ for Volvo trucks. This has provided over 1000 jobs alone. Furthermore the city authorities worked in conjunction with Volvo in order to design a revolutionary bi-articulated bus. This has made Curitiba a beacon for mass transport throughout the globe. Their approach by partnering Volvo has been so successful the system has been suggested a model for the redevelopment of Baghdad.The 2012 Olympic Games act as a way in which London can be the most sustainable games ever. This claim must incorporate all aspects of the games including jobs. As a result the London Olympic committee has pledged to provide 20% of all the jobs on the Olympic park

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to job seekers within the local area. Furthermore due to plans to maintain the Olympic site as a prime sporting venue after the games it is likely that many of these people will keep their jobs. This provides social and economic sustainability to the area by ensuring that improvements are not temporary whilst maintaining their longevity.Sustainability in urban areas is something that is extremely hard to achieve. It often comes as a compromise as 100% sustainability in urban environments is nearly impossible. However both London and Curitiba have taken a systematic approach to solving complex urban problems. Both cities demonstrate economic, social and environmental sustainability to varying degrees. In response to this question I believe urban areas can be sustainable if the management of those urban areas considers sustainability equal to economic and social success.

22 How successful has the regeneration of urban areas been, given the variety of ways it has been undertaken?ExtractsThe London Docklands development was a property led scheme, led by the LDDC (London Docklands Development Corporation) - a UDC. When asked about the unemployment issues, the conservative government championed the idea of trickle-down economics - the belief that the wealth created at the top would trickle down to the lowest sectors of the economy. Wealth was certainly created at the top; Canary Wharf employs around 8500 people and is a global financial hub. These jobs were too highly skilled for locals preventing employment further. As this project was a property led regeneration scheme, the land of Canary Wharf is privately owned, and gated off to the local community. Canary Wharf effectively survives in its own ‘bubble’. And like a bubble, there is no way in which any wealth generated can escape. Trickle-down economics had not worked in the way Thatcher suggested. To this day the Isle of Dogs remains one of the most deprived areas of London. Juxtaposed with the high rise glass skyscrapers is the grey of social deprivation and decline.

The LA and LDA also created the PPP of the Westfield retail centre in Shepherd’s Bush. This vast shopping area with over 50 restaurants and various attractions such as an ice rink and 14 screen cinema attracts over 15 million visitors a year. It employs around 7000 people with schemes in place to train young people in the trade of retailing. Shepherd’s Bush was also a declining area, although the Westfield development has had further negative effects. To make space for the site, businesses were cleared, causing the unemployment to rise by 1100 people. Smaller shops cannot afford to rent space in the centre and so profits go to chain stores and the Australian company of Westfield. Using shopping centres as the form of regeneration as long been a common strategy but may become less successful in the future. With internet shopping increasing, and areas of the high street dying out by the closure of nationwide stores such as HMV and Jessops it seems that this way of encouraging the regeneration of urban areas may not be as effective in the long run.

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