vicksburg basic military doctrine

General Military Strategic, Doctrinal, Operational, and Leadership Concepts

AgendaKey TheoristsPrinciples of WarFacets of the Operational ArtForms of ManeuverMETT-TCStrategyStrategic Leadership

Key TheoristsClausewitzJomini

ClausewitzCarl von ClausewitzPrussian officer born in 1780Resigned his commission in 1812 and joined the Russian Army to fight NapoleonIdeas on war were heavily influenced by the mass popular warfare of the French Revolutionary period and Napoleons Prussian adversary Gerhard von Scharnhorst Died in 1831 and his wife published his On War in 1832

ClausewitzWar is neither an art nor a scienceIt is a continuation of policy (or politics) by other means.A form of social intercourseWar is like a wrestling matchIt is an act of force to compel our enemy to do our will.But it is not unilateral. It is a contest between two independent wills.

ClausewitzUsed a trinitarian analysis consisting of (1) primordial violence, hatred, and enmity; (2) the play of chance and probability; and (3) wars element of subordination to rational policy Often loosely expressed as the people, the military, and the governmentAnalyzed absolute war or war in theory, but then noted that factors such as poor intelligence, chance, friction, etc make war in practice different than war in the abstractArgued one should focus his military efforts against the enemys center of gravity (Schwerpunkt) Very important concept in American military doctrine

JominiAntoine-Henri Jomini (1779-1869) was a Swiss military theorist who sought to interpret NapoleonPublished the Summary of the Art of War in 1838Became the premier military-educational text of the mid-nineteenth century and greatly influenced Civil War generals. Many a Civil War general went into battle with a sword in one hand and Jominis Summary of the Art of War in the other (General J. D. Hittle)Product of the EnlightenmentVery geometrical and scientific approach to warStressed interior lines

Interior LinesInteriorLinesExteriorLines

Principles of War

Principles of War

British military officer J. F. C. Fuller developed a list of principles based on the works of Clausewitz and Jomini for use by the British Army in World War IThe US Army modified them and published its first list in 1921Objective Offensive Mass Economy of force Maneuver Unity of command Security SurpriseSimplicity

Objective When undertaking any mission, commanders should have a clear understanding of the expected outcome and its impact. Commanders need to appreciate political ends and understand how the military conditions they achieve contribute to them. Ensure that all actions contribute to the goals of the higher headquarters. Example: Pemberton is going to have difficulty determining if his objective is to defend Vicksburg or defeat Grants army

OffensiveOffensive operations are essential to maintain the freedom of action necessary for success, exploit vulnerabilities, and react to rapidly changing situations and unexpected developments.Offensive actions are those taken to dictate the nature, scope, and tempo of an operation. Offensive action is key to achieving decisive results; it is the essence of successful operations.Example: Both Pemberton and Johnston are defensively minded generals. Grant is exactly the opposite.

MassCommanders mass the effects of combat power in time and space to overwhelm enemies or gain control of the situation. Time: applies the elements of combat power against multiple targets simultaneouslySpace : concentrates the effects of different elements of combat power against a single targetExample: McPherson will fail to mass his forces at Raymond, instead piecemealing them into the battle as they arrive.

Economy of ForceCommanders never leave any element without a purpose. When the time comes to execute, all elements should have tasks to perform.Economy of force requires accepting prudent risk in selected areas to achieve superiority in the decisive operation. Economy of force involves the discriminating employment and distribution of forces.Example: Pemberton will leave two divisions guarding Vicksburg that could have been of better use to him at Champions Hill.

ManeuverAs both an element of combat power and a principle of war, maneuver concentrates and disperses combat power to place and keep the enemy at a disadvantage. It includes the dynamic, flexible application of leadership, firepower, information, and protection as well. Achieves results that would otherwise be more costlyKeeps enemies off balance by making them confront new problems and new dangers faster than they can deal with them. Example: One of the main themes of this course is that the brilliance of Grants generalship is not the siege of Vicksburg itself, but the maneuver that makes it possible.

Unity of CommandUnity of command means that a single commander directs and coordinates the actions of all forces toward a common objective.Develops the full combat power of a forceUsually requires giving a single commander authorityExample: The Confederate departmental system will hinder unity of command (and effort) at Vicksburg. On the other hand, Grant and Porter will achieve great unity of effort in a joint operation.

SecurityCalculated risk is inherent in conflict. Security protects and preserves combat power.Does not involve excessive cautionMeasures taken by a command to protect itself from surprise, interference, sabotage, annoyance, and threatExample: Threats to the Federal lines of communication from Van Dorn and Forrest will markedly influence Grants conduct of the campaign.

SurpriseSurprise results from taking actions for which an enemy or adversary is unprepared.It is only necessary that the enemy become aware too late to react effectively. Contributions to surprise include speed, information superiority, and asymmetry.Example: Grants preliminary efforts to take Vicksburg between Dec 1862 and Apr 1863 are all failures, but they do serve to keep Pemberton guessing as to the ultimate Federal intent.

Simplicity

Plans and orders should be simple and direct. Simple plans executed on time are better than detailed plans executed late.Clear and concise plans cut down on misunderstandingsExample: The frontal assault is the simplest, but often the most costly, form of maneuver. Lawler successfully used the frontal attack at Big Black River.

Facets of the Operational Art

Facets of Operational ArtSynergySimultaneity and depthAnticipationBalanceLeverageTiming and tempoOperational reach and approach

Facets of Operational Art (cont)Forces and functionsArranging operationsCenters of gravityDirect versus indirectDecisive pointsCulminationTermination

Facets of Operational ArtSynergySeek combinations of forces and actions to achieve concentrations in various dimensions, all culminating in attaining the assigned objective(s) in the shortest time possible and with minimum casualtiesExample: Grants efforts will combine pressure on Vicksburg from both land and naval forces.Simultaneity and depthPlace more demands on adversary forces than can be handled both in terms of time and spaceExample: Griersons raid against the Southern Railroad east of Jackson will cause Pemberton to almost completely ignore Grants move down the west side of the Mississippi River.

Facets of Operational ArtAnticipationRemain alert for the unexpected and opportunities to exploit the situationExample: Pemberton completely misjudges Grants intentions and fails to anticipate Grants crossing at Bruinsburg.BalanceMaintain the force, its capabilities, and its operations in such a manner as to contribute to freedom of action and responsiveness Example: Pemberton completely fails to achieve balance by being constantly distracted by Grants diversions.

Facets of Operational ArtLeverageGain, maintain, and exploit advantages in combat power across all dimensionsExample: Grants siege of Vicksburg caused Pemberton to have to deal with not just military, but civilian considerations as well.Timing and tempoConduct operations at a tempo and point in time that best exploits friendly capabilities and inhibits the adversaryExample: Once Grant crosses the Mississippi he moves with such speed that Pemberton is left paralyzed.

Facets of Operational Art Operational reach and approachThe distance over which military power can mass effects and be employed decisivelyExample: Grants decision to cut loose from his base of supplies allows him to fight a war of maneuver.Forces and functionsFocus on defeating either adversary forces or functions, or a combination of bothExample: Grants victory at Jackson isolates Pemberton from any potential support from Johnston. Grant effects both Confederate forces (reinforcements) and functions (logistics).

Facets of Operational ArtArranging operationsAchieve dimensional superiority by a combination of simultaneous and sequential operationsPhases: Deter/engage, Seize initiative, Decisive operations, TransitionExample: Grants preliminary attempts, his maneuver, his assaults on Vicksburg, and ultimately the siege combine to produce a logical line of operation.Centers of gravityThose characteristics, capabilities, or sources of power from which a military force derives its freedom of action, physical strength, or will to fightDestroying or neutralizing adversary centers of gravity is the most direct path to victoryExample: Grant cuts Pembertons lines of communication to supplies and reinforcements.

Facets of Operational ArtDirect versus indirectTo the extent possible, attack centers of gravity directly, but where direct attack means attacking into an opponents strength seek an indirect approachExample: Grants preliminary attempts such as the Yazoo Pass are all indirect approaches that try to avoid directly confronting Vicksburgs strong river defenses.Decisive pointsUsually geographic in nature, but can sometimes be key events or systemsGive a marked advantage to whoever controls themKeys to attacking protected centers of gravityExample: Victory at Champion Hill guarantees Grants success in the campaign by forcing Pemberton to withdraw to Vicksburg.

Facets of Operational ArtCulminationPoint in time and space at which an attackers combat power no longer exceeds that of the defender or the defender no longer can preserve his forceExample: Grant starves Pemberton into submission through his siege.TerminationMilitary operations typically conclude with attainment of the strategic ends for which the military force was committed, which then allows transition to other instruments of national power and agencies as the means to achieve broader goalsExample: The surrender of Vicksburg gives the North control of the Mississippi River. Grant agrees to parole the 30,000 Confederates so as not to encumber his lines of communication with prisoners and to conclude the siege before Johnston might arrive to support Pemberton.

Forms of Maneuver

Forms of ManeuverThe five forms of maneuver are the envelopment, turning movement, infiltration, penetration, and frontal attack.

Envelopment

EnvelopmentThe envelopment is a form of maneuver in which an attacking force seeks to avoid the principal enemy defenses by seizing objectives to the enemy rear to destroy the enemy in his current positions. Envelopments avoid the enemy front, where he is protected and can easily concentrate fires. Single envelopments maneuver against one enemy flank; double envelopments maneuver against both. Either variant can develop into an encirclement.Example: Gregg attempts an envelopment at Raymond but is confused and overwhelmed by McPhersons larger force

Turning Movement

Turning MovementA turning movement is a form of maneuver in which the attacking force seeks to avoid the enemy's principal defensive positions by seizing objectives to the enemy rear and causing the enemy to move out of his current positions or divert major forces to meet the threat.A major threat to his rear forces the enemy to attack or withdraw rearward, thus "turning" him out of his defensive positions. Turning movements typically require greater depth than other forms of maneuver. Example: Grant turns Grand Gulf by crossing at Bruinsburg and seizing Port Gibson

Infiltration

InfiltrationAn infiltration is a form of maneuver in which an attacking force conducts undetected movement through or into an area occupied by enemy forces to occupy a position of advantage in the enemy rear while exposing only small elements to enemy defensive fires Typically, forces infiltrate in small groups and reassemble to continue their mission.Infiltration rarely defeats a defense by itself. Commanders direct infiltrations to attack lightly defended positions or stronger positions from the flank and rear, to secure key terrain to support the decisive operation, or to disrupt enemy sustaining operations. Example: Running the gauntlet (?) (Probably better described as a penetration)

Penetration

PenetrationA penetration is a form of maneuver in which an attacking force seeks to rupture enemy defenses on a narrow front to disrupt the defensive system.Commanders direct penetrations when enemy flanks are not assailable or time does not permit another form of maneuver. Successful penetrations create assailable flanks and provide access to enemy rear areas. Because penetrations frequently are directed into the front of the enemy defense, they risk significantly more friendly casualties than envelopments, turning movements, and infiltrations.Example: Porter successfully runs the gauntlet of the Vicksburg batteries and takes a position south of the city to support Grants operation.

Frontal Attack

Frontal attackThe frontal attack is frequently the most costly form of maneuver, since it exposes the majority of the attackers to the concentrated fires of the defenders. As the most direct form of maneuver, however, the frontal attack is useful for overwhelming light defenses, covering forces, or disorganized enemy resistance. It is often the best form of maneuver for hasty attacks and meeting engagements, where speed and simplicity are essential to maintain tempo and the initiative. Commanders may direct a frontal attack as a shaping operation and another form of maneuver as the decisive operation. Example: Grant will make two failed frontal assaults on Vicksburg before resorting to a siege.

Maneuver and Tempo of Operations1862OctNovDec1863JanFebMarAprMayJunEndTN/KYCampaignMarchDownRiverCampaignBayou ExpeditionsFirst OffensivesSiege

MillikensBendYoungsPointPort GibsonRodneyJacksonRaymondEdwardsVicksburgBruinsburgSnyders (Haynes) BluffMississippi RiverBig Black RiverChickasaw BayouChampion HillGrand GulfWillow SpringsYazoo RiverVicksburgCampaign OverviewRoute ofGrants Army

MillikensBendYoungsPointMarch To Bruinsburg I31 March-18 April

SPTSPT

MillikensBendYoungsPointMarch To Bruinsburg II19-30 April

SPTSPTRodney

Mississippi RiverCampaign of Maneuver1 May

SPTSPTPort GibsonJackson


SPTSPTBig Bayou PierreWillow SpringsBig Black RiverJackson


SPTSPTBig Bayou PierreBig Black RiverSPTJackson


SPTSPTBig Bayou PierreSPTEdwardsRaymondBig Black RiverJackson


SPTSPTSPTEdwardsRaymondBig Black River


SPTSPTSPTEdwardsBovinaBig Black RiverJackson


SPTSPTSPTBovinaBig Black RiverJackson


SPTSPTBig Black RiverSPTBovinaRaymondChampionHill


SPTSPTBig Black RiverSPTBovinaRaymond


SPTSPTBig Black RiverSPTBovinaRaymondJackson


SPTSPTBig Black RiverSPTRaymondJackson


SPTSPTBig Black RiverSPTRaymondJacksonSPT

Siege of VicksburgStockade RedanFort Hill3d Louisiana Redan

METT-TC

METT-TCMissionEnemyTerrain and WeatherTroops and EquipmentTimeCivilians

MissionSeize Vicksburg in order to control the Mississippi River and separate the Confederacy in two

EnemyPembertonFive divisions totaling 43,000 effectivesPemberton fell under Johnstons Department of the WestRepresents some potential for a relief forceNo ironclads and only a few wooden gunboats

TerrainVicksburg located astride the railroad that linked Shreveport, LA (and thus the three states west of the river) to the eastern transportation networkLine of bluffs that dominated the river favored defenseNortheast and west of Vicksburg was wetland that would inhibit offensive movement

TroopsArmyGrant has a maneuver force of ten divisions (44,000 effectives)NavyPorters Mississippi River Squadron has about 60 combat vessels of which 20 to 25 would support the Vicksburg operation at any one time

TimePemberton has ample time to prepare his defenseGrant needs to attack before his supplies run out and before Johnston can reinforceOnce the siege begins, time benefits the offense

CiviliansAbout 5,000 live in VicksburgPemberton is responsible for their well-beingOther civilians along the Mississippi River pose a guerrilla threat to the Federal NavyPotential source of intelligence

Strategy

StrategyStrategy is the pursuit, protection, or advancement of national interests through the application of the instruments of powerInstruments of power (DIME)DiplomaticInformationalMilitaryEconomic

StrategyStrategy is about how (way or concept) leadership will use the power (means or resources) available to the state to exercise control over sets of circumstances and geographic locations to achieve objectives (ends) that support state interestsStrategy = Ends (objectives) + Ways (course of action) + Means (instruments)Ways to employ means to achieve ends

StrategyEndDeny Federal use of the Mississippi RiverWayInterdict river traffic at VicksburgMeanPembertons force at Vicksburg

Traditional Military StrategiesAttritionThe reduction of the effectiveness of a force caused by loss of personnel and materiel ExhaustionThe gradual erosion of a nations will or means to resistAnnihilationSeeks the immediate destruction of the combat power of the enemys armed forces

Strategic Leadership

Strategic Leadership SkillsInterpersonal SkillsCommunicatingUsing DialogueNegotiatingAchieving ConsensusBuilding Staffs

Strategic Leadership SkillsConceptual SkillsEnvisioningDeveloping Frames of ReferenceDealing with Uncertainty and Ambiguity

Strategic Leadership SkillsTechnical SkillsStrategic ArtLeveraging TechnologyTranslating Political Goals into Military Objectives

Strategic Leadership SkillsInterpersonal SkillsCommunicatingWhen you first reached the vicinity of Vicksburg, I never had any faith, except a general hope that you knew better than I, that the Yazoo Pass expedition, and the like, could succeed. When you got below, and took Port Gibson, Grand Gulf, and vicinity, I thought you should go down the river and join General Banks; and when you turned northward east of the Big Black, I feared it was a mistake. I now which to make the personal acknowledgement that you were right and I was wrong.Lincoln to Grant

Strategic Leadership SkillsInterpersonal SkillsUsing DialoguePemberton prefers to command behind the scenes and has little direct communication with his soldiers or subordinate commandersNegotiatingGrant and Porter are able to achieve Army-Navy cooperation in the absence of a hierarchical command relationshipAchieving ConsensusPembertons superiors, Davis and Johnston, do not achieve consensus on the proper strategy and give Pemberton conflicting guidanceBuilding StaffsGrant will draw great benefit from his logistical staff that will keep him resupplied after he cuts loose from his base

Strategic Leadership SkillsConceptual SkillsEnvisioningSuccess at Raymond convinces Grant to shift his decisive point from the Confederate railroads to Jackson, which will allow him to isolate Vicksburg from reinforcements.Developing Frames of ReferencePemberton brings from Charleston a dictum that he must not do anything to leave Vicksburg vulnerable.Dealing with Uncertainty and AmbiguityThis is Pembertons chief failure. He is continually left guessing by Grants diversions and maneuver and is always a couple steps behind.

Strategic Leadership SkillsTechnical SkillsStrategic ArtControl of the Mississippi would separate the Confederacy into two halves and controlling Vicksburg would give the North control of the MississippiLeveraging TechnologyAt the time of the Vicksburg Campaign, the Confederacy has no ironclads. The Federal Mississippi River Squadron included thirteen ironclads.Translating Political Goals into Military ObjectivesThe Anaconda Plan was rejected as a military strategy because it failed to meet the political objective for a quick, offensive war.

Impact of Mexican War Limited WarTurning MovementTechnologyJunior Officers

Limited War: Winfield ScottEpitomized the professional officerServed in War of 1812, brevetted to major generalStudied European tacticsBecame general-in-chief in 1841Selected by President Polk to lead a second major campaign in Mexico (Zachary Taylors was the first)

Limited War: ObjectiveObjective as a principal of warWhen undertaking any mission, commanders should have a clear understanding of the expected outcome and its impactCommanders need to appreciate political ends and understand how the military conditions they achieve contribute to them. Winfield Scott saw Mexico as a war of limited objectives, to be waged by limited means

Limited War: ObjectiveBased on this belief, Scott developed a largely political strategy Believed that Mexican political life centered around Mexico City so completely that capturing the capital would paralyze the country and oblige the Mexican government to sue for peace in order to remain a government at all Therefore his objective was to capture Mexico City, not to destroy the Mexican army

Limited War: Treatment of CiviliansScott conducted his campaign with strict regard for the rights of the Mexican citizens, making every effort to confine bloodshed and suffering to the Mexican army rather than the civilian population. He scrupulously regulated his soldiers conduct and interaction with Mexican civilians, reducing contact to the minimum necessary for the sustenance of his army and the morale of his troops.

Limited War: Treatment of CiviliansBut, my dear Sir, our militia & volunteers, if a tenth of what is said to be true, have committed atrocitieshorrorsin Mexico, sufficient to make Heaven weep, & every American, of Christian morals, blush for his country. Murder, robbery & rape of mothers & daughters, in the presence of the tied up males of their families, have been common all along the Rio Grande. Truly it would seem unchristian & cruel to let loose upon any peopleeven savagessuch unbridled personsfreebooters, &c., &c.Scott writing the Secretary of War after visiting Taylors army (Weigley, History, 187-188).

Limited WarScott will carry his ideas about limited war into the Civil War with his Anaconda PlanMany Federals, such as George McClellan, will advocate a strategy of conciliation toward the ConfederacySuch an approach will be rejected and the Civil War will become increasingly totalPopes General OrdersEmancipation ProclamationConscriptionSuspension of some civil libertiesShermans March to the Sea

Limited War: Changing Times while Scott was the preeminent military strategist of the first half of the nineteenth century, he occupied a lonely plateau in more senses than one: that at the zenith of his powers he was already a museum piece, a soldier of an age gone by whose perceptions of war and strategy had little influence on most of the very West Point graduates whose service in Mexico he so fulsomely praised, because the young graduates inhabited a new world of very different values from Scotts, the military world of Napoleon (Russell Weigley, American Way of War, 76).

Turning MovementScott conducts amphibious landing at Vera Cruz and must then move by land to Mexico City along a predictable, well-defended avenue of approachWants to avoid frontal assaults by maneuver

Turning MovementManeuverAs both an element of combat power and a principle of war, maneuver concentrates and disperses combat power to place and keep the enemy at a disadvantageAchieves results that would otherwise be more costlyKeeps enemies off balance by making them confront new problems and new dangers faster than they can deal with themThe form of maneuver that Scott is going to rely on in Mexico is the turning movement

Turning MovementIn a turning movement the attacking force seeks to avoid the enemy's principal defensive positions by seizing objectives to the enemy rear and causing the enemy to move out of his current positions or divert major forces to meet the threat.A major threat to his rear forces the enemy to attack or withdraw rearward, thus "turning" him out of his defensive positions.

Turning Movement: Cerro GordoScott wants to avoid a costly frontal assault so he has Robert E. Lee and other engineers recon a possible route around Santa Annas flankLee finds a way to outflank the defenders, and Scott executes the first of several flanking movements in his march to Mexico City.

Turning Movements and the Civil WarThe Mexican War created an informal, unwritten tactical doctrineto turn the enemy. (Archer Jones)Civil War battles and campaigns that involved turning movements include the Peninsula Campaign, Second Manassas, and VicksburgNonetheless the Civil War will also include many costly frontal attacks such as Fredericksburg and Picketts Charge

Technology: RiflesTwo things that make these frontal attacks so costly are the rifled musket and the Minie BallA few volunteer units like the Mississippi Rifles had rifles in Mexico, but the Regular Army stubbornly held to smoothbore musketsAt Buena Vista, Jefferson Davis commanded the Mississippi Rifles to Stand Fast, Mississippians!

Technology: Changing TimesBy the time of the Civil War, the rifled musket and the Minie ball will cause a change in military tacticsThe defense will gain strength relative to the offenseArtillery will loose its ability to safely advance close to the enemy and breach holes in defensesClose-order formations will become dangerously vulnerable

Technology: Other ExamplesSteam-powered shipsIroncladsTelegraphRailroadsBalloons

Junior Officers: Rehearsal for the Civil WarApproximately 194 Federal generals and 142 Confederate generals previously served in MexicoLee, Jackson, Hill, Pickett, Longstreet, Beauregard, Bragg, etc Meade, Grant, Kearney, McClellan, Hooker, Pope, McDowell, etc

Junior Officers: Impact of West PointersIn 1817, Sylvanus Thayer replaced Captain Alden Partridge as superintendent of West Point and began reversing the damage Partridge had done. Thayer broadened and standardized the curriculum, established a system to measure class standing, organized classes around small sections, improved cadet discipline, created the office of commandant of cadets, and improved military training.

The Father of the Military Academy

Junior Officers: Impact of West PointersBy the time of the Mexican War, Thayers reforms had produced a generation of men who would fill the junior officers ranks in Mexico. These lieutenants and captains stood in sharp contrast to the older officers who had not benefited from a systematic military education and training. The impact of Thayer and West Point was readily apparent in Mexico.

West Point was founded in 1802 and was instrumental in training engineers in the 19th Century

Junior Officers: Impact of West PointersWinfield Scott called his West Pointers his little cabinetScott was unwavering in his acknowledgement of West Pointers declaring,I give it as my fixed opinion that but for our graduated cadets the war between the United States and Mexico might, and probably would, have lasted some four or five years, with, in its first half, more defeats than victories falling to our share, whereas in two campaigns we conquered a great country and a peace without the loss of a single battle or skirmish.

West Pointers in the Civil WarWest Pointers will play a key role in the Civil War151 Confederate and 294 Federal generals were West Point graduatesOf the Civil Wars 60 major battles, West Pointers commanded both sides in 55A West Pointer commanded on one side in the other five

Grant and Pemberton A more conscientious, honorable man never lived. I remember when a general order was issued that none of the junior officers should be allowed horses during marches. Mexico is not an easy country to march in. Young officers not accustomed to it soon got foot-sore. This was quickly discovered, and they were found lagging behind. But the order was not revoked, yet a verbal permit was accepted, and nearly all of them remounted. Pemberton alone said, No, he would walk, as the order was still extant not to ride, and he did walk, though suffering intensely the while. Grants recollection of Pemberton in Mexico

Grant and PembertonGrant claimed that his recollection of this incident would convince him at Vicksburg that Pemberton would not easily yield. This I thought of all the time [Pemberton] was in Vicksburg and I outside of it; and I knew he would hold on to the last. Grant as a lieutenant in Mexico

NextFederal ForcesConfederates ForcesIllinois State MemorialMississippi State Memorial

vicksburg basic military doctrine

Documents