vegetative structure - palms dates 4-6 acre feet per year ... \full mature store for 5-6 months ......

$: Vegetative Structure - Palms Dates 4-6 acre feet per year ... \Full mature store for 5-6 months ... Palm Oil 49 37 9 Palm kernel 82 11 2 Coconut 87 6 2 Peanut 17 46 32$
1

Palms of the Tropics

DatesCoconutsOil palmSnake fruit

Tropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University

Relative Production of Palm Crops

Crop Production(1,000 mt)

Yield(mt/ha)

Productionincrease

since 1980

Dates 6,283 5.7 144%

Coconut 50,858 4.7 56%

Oil Palm 127,383 12.2 333%

FAOSTAT, 2003

Dates

PalmaePhoenixdactylifera


Vegetative Structure - Palms

No cambium only growing pointGrowing condition record by sections not annual ringsSingle trunk without branches

50-120’ (up to 36.5m) tall

Leaves - Date Palm10-20’ longLife span of 3-7 years

Roots surround leaf base


Fruiting

Dioecious Pollinators - insects and windInflorescence - branched spadix

Many long spikesAttached to fleshy axisEnclosed in hard tough spathe

Burst open when flowers mature

Large inflorescence - 6,000 to 10,000 flowers


Origin of the Date Palm (Phoenix dactylifera)

Zeven and de Wet, 1982

Probably originated in Persia Gulf region and spread

This is one of the oldest cultivated plants

2


Origin

Persian Gulf regionEspecially between Nile and Euphrates riversNot known in wild Movement

West to Egypt and North AfricaEast to Western India

One of oldest cultivated plants8,000 years ago in south India4,000 BC in ArabiaIraq (Ur) 3000 BC


AdaptationHot arid climate with ample subsurface moisture

Grows from 15° to 35° N latitudeFull sunTemperature

Dormant can take 20F (-6.7 C)Commercial growth

• Mean daily maximum of 90F (32.2C)


AdaptationHot arid climate with ample subsurface moisture

MoistureDrought tolerantHigh water requirement for maximum yield

• 4-6 acre feet per year• Since lose 20%, apply 7.5 acre feet

Roots can withstand low O2 • Root structure permits O2 movement from surface

No rain during ripening (checking = cracking)

Tolerant of high levels ofAlkaliSalt


World Date Production

01,0002,0003,0004,0005,0006,0007,000

Dat

e P

rodu

ctio

n (1

,00

0s

mt)

19

62

19

68

19

74

19

80

19

86

19

92

19

98

FAOSTAT, 2003

144% increase since 1980


World Date Yield

0.0

2.0

4.0

6.0

8.0

Da

te Y

ield

(m

t/h

a)

19

62

19

68

19

74

19

80

19

86

19

92

19

98

FAOSTAT, 2003

Yield has decreased since 1962


Date Production

Region Production(1,000 mt)

Yield(mt/ha)

Africa 2,116 7.4

Asia 4,135 5.1

Latin America 4 4.4

USA 21 9.4

FAOSTAT, 2003

3


World Date Production

Region Countries Production(1,000s mt)

Africa Algeria 413Egypt 1,078Sudan 280

Asia Iran 873Iraq 633

Oman 259Pakistan 624

Saudi Arabia 767United Arab Emirates 759

FAOSTAT, 2003


Propagation

SeedlingsVariable - 50% female

Must propagate from offshootsDate palm produce 2 offshoots per year for 10-15 yearsHarvest when 3-5 years old

40 - 75 lbs (18-34 kg)Sledge hammer and chisel


PlantingDensity

120/haMay lose up to 25% of planted offshoots1 male plant for 50 female plants

PrecocityBlooms within 3 yearsFirst commercial crop in 5-6 years Young date palm orchard


PlantingPrecocity

Full production 8-10 to 60 yearsAfter 60-80 years productivity decreases

Tree growth1-1.5’ (30-45 cm) per yearBy 15-20 years old is 20’ tall


Cultivars1000s of cultivars in the world

‘Zahdi’ (Semi-dry)Leading cv in IraqOldest known cultivarVery popular in the mideast

‘Deglet Noor’ (Semi-dry)Introduced from Tunisia to California in 190075% of California production

Medjool (Soft)From Morocco to California in 1927Deluxe date grown in California and Arizona

Vary in ripening time (3 months) so generally several varieties are grown


Pollination done by hand

Minimize number of male plants1 male → 50 female trees

Ensure good setMethods

Traditional - put Γ strands on Ε flowerPollen can be stored and dusted on

Metaxenia - male variety importantPollen source affects maturity, seed shape, and seed size

4


Hand Pollination

Female inflorescence

Traditionally done for thousands of years


Hand Pollination

Male inflorescence

2-3 pieces tied to distal side of female inflorescence


Fruit DevelopmentAbout 29 weeks for development

Low crop

Heavy cropTropical Horticulture - Texas A&M University

Fruit development29 weeks for fruit development

Chimri - 1st 17 weeksGreen, hard, bitter, 80% moisture, 50% sugars

Khalal - weeks 18 to 23Full size, yellow, orange or red color% sugars increasing, mainly sucrose


Fruit development29 weeks for fruit development

Rutab - weeks 24 to 27Half ripe, soft apex and change to light brown

Tamar - weeks 28 and 29Hazel to dark brownWrinkledLow respirationCells disorganized


Fruit is thinned

To avoid alternate bearingOne year with heavy cropSecond year with small crop

Thinning female flowers Common to leave 12 bunches per treeEach bunch with

30 strands each with 30 fruit

5


Bearing Date Orchard


Harvesting Dates


Harvest Stages

Harvest early if cv non-astringent.Eaten in Khalal stage (firm - yellow)Boiled and dried

Begin to pick soft and semidry types in Rutab stageDry dates are picked in Tamar stage


Harvesting Techniques

Worker climbs treeKhalal cut bunch and lower with ropeFresh market fruit

Begin when lower half in Rutab stage2-3 pickings then cut raceme

Tamar stageIf uneven ripening, shake ripe onto matMay pick 3-8 timesIf wait until fully ripe cut bunch and drop on mat


In climates where high humidity is possible during harvest

Harvest early to avoid checkingSemi dry varieties6 days early

Ripened artificially80o - 95o F heated room to complete ripening


Processing

Dry or cold storageFull mature store for 5-6 monthsUnder ripe store for 10 - 18 monthsStore years in frozen state

6


Nutritional contentHigh energy food with good levels of Fe and K

ContentMoisture 7 - 26%Protein 2 - 4% (low)Fat 0.1 - 1.2% (low)Sugar 70 - 80 %

Full ripe soft date - glucose & fructose Semi-dry - half sucrose

Traditionally eaten with milk products


Other productsCull dates are used for feedSeeds

Feed, charcoal, jewelry

Leaves, petioles, inflorescencesWide range of products

Woven into mats, baskets, crates, fansCellulose pulp, rope, hats, roofing, brooms

Tap tree for sweet sapPalm sugar, molasses, alcoholic drinksOther palms also tapped

Tropical Oil Seed Crops

CoconutAfrican Oil Palm


Vegetable Oil Production in 1961-1963

0500

1,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,500

1,0

00

s m

t o

f O

il

Soya

Palm O

i l

Ground n

uts

Coconut

Palm k

ernels

Ol ive o

i l

Maize



02,0004,0006,0008,000

10,00012,00014,000

1,0

00

s m

t o

f O

il

S oya

Palm O

i l

Ground n

uts

Coconut

Palm k

ernels

Ol ive o

i l

Maize



05,000

10,00015,00020,00025,00030,000

1,0

00

s m

t o

f O

il

Soya

Palm O

i l

Ground n

uts

Coconut

Palm k

ernels

Ol ive o

i l

Maize

7


Vegetable Oil Production in 1962, 1980, and 2001

05000

1000015000200002500030000

Oil

Pro

du

cti

on

(1

,00

0s

mt)

Soya

Palm O

i l

Ground n

uts

Coconut


Oil quality per 100 gm

Saturated Monounsaturated

Polyunsaturated

Palm Oil 49 37 9

Palm kernel 82 11 2

Coconut 87 6 2

Peanut 17 46 32

Soybean 14 23 58

Olive 14 48 33

USDA National Nutrient Database

Coconut

PalmaeCocosnucifera

Picture from IPBGR web site


Picture from IPBGR web site

Coconut

Cocosnucifera

One of 10 most useful trees in the world50 million people make living from the coconut tree96% world’s coconut crop on small plots (<4 ha)


Coconut tree is a monocot

TallUp to 100’ (35 m)No branches, only one growing point

Crown of 20-30 pinnate leavesLeaves compound - “feather like”0.6 to 1 m longTake 1.5 years to reach full sizeLive more than 2 years


Flowering

Monoecious and dichogamousInflorescence (2-4’ long)

Up to 8,000 small (1-2 mm) Γ flowers1-30 Ε flowers near base

Nectar attract bees and other insects

One inflorescence produced from leaf axil per month

Flowers in 5-8 years (dwarf in 3-4 years)

8


Dichogamy

Protandrous thus cross-pollinatedMale flowers 2 weeks before the femalePollen comes from another plant

PollinationBees appear to be main pollinatorOther insects: ants, wasps, earwigs, fliesSome wind pollination


Fruit

Develops 12 crops at same timeMaturation takes 1 yearOne tree can mature 100 nuts/yearDrops 65 - 70% of immature fruit

Growth stages1) Rapid growth of husk2) Enlargement of cavity & filling with liquid endosperm3) Solid endosperm in 5 - 6 mos


Longitundinal Section of Coconut Fruit

Pedicel attachment pointExocarp

Mesocarp (fibrous)

Endocarp (shell)

Embryo

Endosperm (coconut meat)

Eye of coconut

Coconut water (milk)


Origin and Dispersal of Coconut(Cocos nucifera)

Whitehead, 1979

15th Century


Origin and Dispersal of Coconut

No truly wild coconuts are knownSpread by floating in oceans and human movements

Southeast AsiaSpread east to Pacific islands and AmericasSpread west to India and East Africa

AmericasFirst arrived on Pacific shores from Pacific IslandsIn 15th century or later to Atlantic shores from West Africa


Adaptation

Lowland wet tropicsUp to 900 m27 - 35o CVery small diurnal variation Minimum rainfall

1250 mm (52”)

High sunlight

9


Adaptation

Characteristic of coastal sandsNeed source of fresh waterTolerant of salt sprayTolerant of high winds

High winds make unprofitableUse windbreaks


World Coconut Production

010,00020,00030,00040,00050,00060,000

Co

co

nu

t P

rod

uc

tio

n

(1,0

00

s m

t)

19

62

19

68

19

74

19

80

19

86

19

92

19

98

FAOSTAT, 2003



World Coconut Yield

0

1

2

3

4

5

Co

co

nu

t Y

ield

(m

t/h

a)

19

62

19

68

19

74

19

80

19

86

19

92

19

98

FAOSTAT, 2003

Yield unchanged since 1962


Coconut Production


Yield(mt/ha)

Africa 1,751 2.7

Asia 43,110 4.8

Latin America 4,287 6.7FAOSTAT, 2003


World Coconut Production


Africa Tanzania 370Ghana 315

Mozambique 265Ivory Coast 243

Asia Indonesia 14,427Philippines 13,295

India 9,319Sri Lanka 2,126Thailand 1,397

Americas Brazil 2,259Mexico 1,059

FAOSTAT, 2003


Propagation

Exclusively by seedSelect best trees to use as seed source

Uniform growth, straight trunkClosely spaced leaf scarsDense crownShort, capable of holding heavy fruit crop10 year production record

10


Seed Bed

Use fully mature nutsSoak in water for 1 - 2 wksCut exocarp & mesocarp distal end

Plant in a nursery 20 - 30 cm apart in rows 20 cm apartNuts horizontal with eye up


Placement of Coconut for Planting

Cut end of coconut

Pedicel attachment point

Shoot appears within 16 weeks of planting


Nursery care

Rogue out seedlingsSlow germinationSlow growth

25 - 30 weeks in the nursery3-4 leaf stagePlanted into permanent orchard


Planting

Density9- 10 m square or triangualr system70-150 trees per ha

PrecocityFirst commercial harvest, 5-9 yearsFull production after 12-13 yearsProductive for 60 years


Harvesting & Processing

HarvestingClimb trees - 25 palms per dayPoles - 250 palms per dayAllow to fall and pick up regularly

Harvest timeImmature for “milk”1 month before ripe for coirMature for copra/oil


Thousands of uses of the

coconut

FoodOil

FeedFiberFuel

Wood

11


Copra Production

Coconuts split and driedDried endosperm (meat) = copra6% moisture and 70% oilVarious extraction proceduresResulting “cake” used for feed

Uses of oilSoaps, shampoos, toothpaste, ice creamLubricants, paints, plastics

Palm Oil

PalmaeElaeisguineensis


Vegetative Structure

Tall, erect palm without branching8.3-35 mNo offshoots like coconut

Leaves 4 to 10’ (1.3 to 2.3 m) long Hooked spines on petioles4-5 yr trees may produce 30 leaves/yr10th yr produce 20 leaves/year


Tree Height

May become 100’ (35m) tallHarvest?

Answer - cut down on 20th yrTo facilitate harvest


Flowers

MonoeciousMale and female inflorescences

1 male to 120 female inflorescencesPacked in leaf axils

Complete dichogamy commonCross pollination is usual

Pollen airborne ~ 100’Can store dessicated for 10 weeks

Pistil receptive 3 days


Oil Palm Flowers - leaf axil

From The Oil Palm, FAO, 1970

Male inflorescenceFemale inflorescence

12


Female flowers

Green color at pollination

Parts exposed to sun - purpleLast 6 wks -yellow


African Oil Palm fruit is a DrupeMatures 6 months after pollination

MesocarpPulp, ivory whiteRich in oil

Endocarp Shell

Kernel SeedRich in oil



African Oil Palm fruit is a Drupe

Fruit turn black when ripe with red at baseInflorescences from leaf basesMatures 6 mos after pollinationHarvest throughout the yearClusters weigh 20 - 100 lbs.


Origin of Oil Palm (Elaeis guieensis)

Zeven and de Wet, 1982

Mauritius

1848 to Java

and Sumatra


Origin of African Oil Palm

Rainforest/savanna transition zone of West Africa

300 km wide coastal belt from Liberia to AngolaMaintained as semi wild populationsUsed by local populations for centuriesMajor source of vitamin A

Mid 1800s was moved to Sumatra and Java1917 was established in Malaysia


Adaptation

Transition zone between rain forest and savanna

Riverine forestsFresh water swamps

TemperatureMean monthly maximum - 30-32CMean monthly minimum - 21-24CNo growth < 15C

Moisture

13


Adaptation

MoistureHigh rain fall

1,780 to 2,280 mm

Tolerate Temporary floodingFluctuating water table

SoilTolerate wide range of soils


World Oil Palm Production

020,00040,00060,00080,000

100,000120,000140,000

Oil

Pa

lm P

rod

uc

tio

n

(1,0

00

s m

t)

19

62

19

68

19

74

19

80

19

86

19

92

19

98

FAOSTAT, 2003



World Oil Palm Yield

0.02.04.06.08.0

10.012.014.0

Oil

Pa

lm Y

ield

(m

t/h

a)

19

62

19

68

19

74

19

80

19

86

19

92

19

98

FAOSTAT, 2003

320% increase since 1962174% increase since 1980


Oil Palm Production


Yield(mt/ha)

Africa 15,294 3.7

Asia 104,450 18.1

LatinAmerica

6,913 15.0

FAOSTAT, 2003


World Oil Palm Production


Africa Nigeria 8,407Ivory Coast 1,524

Ghana 1,050Cameroon 1,050

Asia Malaysia 60,983Indonesia 38,227Thailand 3,748

Americas Colombia 2,573Ecuador 1,317

Honduras 674Costa Rica 656

FAOSTAT, 2003


PropagationExclusively by seed

Parents selected according to seedling performance

GerminationBest at high temperaturesGerminate in 90 daysGrow in container for 4-5 monthsGrow in nursery for 12 months


14


PropagationTransplantation

16-18 months old15 leaves


Planting

Density75-150 palms per hectareCommon to intercrop the first several years

PrecocityAfter 3-4 years begin to fruit


Three Varietal Groups

Dura, 2-8 mm endocarpPulp, 35-55%Kernel, 7-20%

Tenera, 0.5-3 mm endocarp

Pulp, 60-95%Kernel, 3-15%

Pisifera, no shellFruit frequently rot

prematurely



Ripe fruit turns black


Harvesting

Harvest throughout the yearEvery 5 - 10 days look for ripe bunchesIf too early - less oilIf over ripe - lower oil quality

Harvest bunchFruit black with red baseCut off entire bunch (20-100 lbs)100-150 bunches/man/day


Harvest by bunch


15


Harvesting - Yields

Semi wild1.2 to 5 mt fruit/ha/yr

Estate in Africa7.5 to 15 mt fruit/ha/yr

Estate in Sumatra/Malaysia15 to 25 mt fruit/ha/yr



Oil Extraction Percentage

MesocarpSoft press, 8%Hydraulic press

Dura, 15-18%Tenera, 20-22%

Kernel3.5 to 5%


Palm Oil from Pericarp

As mature the carbohydrates convert into oil

Oil quality improves with maturityLevel of free fatty acids increase with maturity

Free fatty acids have rancid flavorAt full ripe FFA is < 0.3%5% FFA is acceptable

Harvest every 5-10 days


Processing

Enzyme inactivated with steam Prevents FFA formation

Pericarp crushed separated from nutsPressed to separate oil

Nuts dried from 25 to 12% moistureCracked - separated from shells

Dried to 8% moistureShipped to processor who separate oil

Other palms

Snake fruit or Salak

Arecaceae Salaccazallaca

16


Snake fruit in Thailand


Salak palm

Small cluster palmNo stem or trunkSprouts leaves from groundSpines on frondsUsually shorter than 5 m

When reach certain heightGrow by spreading on soil surfaceForms suckers on side of palm


Snake fruit in ThailandSpines on fronds


Snake fruit in ThailandGrow by spreading on soil surface


Snake fruit in ThailandGrows to about 5 m tall


Dioecious plant

Requires cross pollination for good set

This ensured by placing male inflorescence on female inflorescence

Fruit develop in bunchesBagged to protect against rats and other pests

17


FruitFormed in bunches from leaf axilsFruit - 6 months to mature

Reddish brown, scaley skinImmature fruit very acid - poor qualityFlesh of ripe fruit

Firm, white, fibrousSweet-acid taste, crisp

• Strawberry, pineapple 1-3 seeds per fruitRobust fruit, difficult to bruiseExcellent shipperShelf life at 25C is one week


OriginIndigenous throughout Indo-Malaysian region


AdaptationTropical

High temperature and humidityFrost sensitiveSun sensitive especially young plantsNeed continous supply of moisture

SoilSandy clay soils high in organic matterGood aeration and drainage


Propagation

Normally done by seedCleaned and soaked overnightPlanted in sandAfter 6-8 weeks planted into poly bagsNeed to shade to avoid sunburn

Can propagate by suckers as well


Planting

Density3m x 6m555 plants/haNeed temporary shade to establish

Initially 70-80%, after 1 year 40-50%Can use banana or Grilicidia

PrecocityBegin to fruit in 3-4 years



18


Harvesting

Produced at frequent intervals throughout year

Peak June-July and October-November

Important not to pick immature because of high acidity

Harvest bunch

Yield10 mt/ha/year




Any Questions??

vegetative structure - palms dates 4-6 acre feet per year ... \full mature store for 5-6 months ......

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