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City of Dublin VECCounty Dublin VECTanya Ward

s y l u m S e e k e r sA Study of Language and Literacy

Adult Educatios y l u m S e e k e r s i nA Study of Language and Literacy NeedsAdult EducationA s y l u m S e e k e r s i nA Study of Language and Literacy NeedsAdult Educations y l u m S e e k e r s i nA s y l u m S e e k e r s i nA Study of Language and Literacy NeedsA Study of Language and Literacy NeedsAdult Education


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Published by the City of Dublin VEC and County Dublin VEC

Published in December 2002

ISBN 0-9536686-4-9

The City of Dublin VEC and County Dublin VEC December 2002

City of Dublin VEC

Administrative OfficesTown HallBallsbridgeDublin 4

County Dublin VEC

Administrative OfficesMain RoadTallaghtDublin 24


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Contents

A sy l u m S e e k e r s i nAdult Education

Page i | Contents

List of figures vList of tables vPreface viDefinitions: Legal terms viiiDefinitions: Terms referring to people and practices viiiDefinitions: Terms referring to teaching practices xGlossary of terms xiIntroduction 1

CHAPTER ONE Policy context

1.1 Introduction 41.2 White Paper on Adult Education 2000 4

1.2.1 Lifelong learning as a systemic approach 41.2.2 Equality 51.2.3 Interculturalism 71.2.4 White Paper on asylum seekers 81.3 Developments since the White Paper on Adult Education 91.4 Irish Vocational Education Association (IVEA) 91.5 Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT) 101.6 National Adult Literacy Agency (NALA) 101.7 Summary of key points 11

CHAPTER TWO Language and literacy approaches

2.1 Introduction 132.2 English Language Teaching (ELT) 132.2.1 Communicative approach 132.2.2 Learner centred approach 152.2.3 Social action approach 152.3 Literacy 162.4 The role of literacy in second language teaching 182.5 Research on language needs of refugees in Ireland 212.6 Summary of key points 23


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CHAPTER THREE Asylum seekers in Ireland

3.1 Introduction 263.2 The Irish migratory context 263.3 The asylum seeking phenomenon 273.4 The procedure for seeking asylum under the Refugee Act 1996

(as amended) 273.5 Rights and obligations 283.6 Legal assistance and advice 283.7 Settlement and support 283.8 General baseline statistics 293.9 Nationality 293.10 Gender 293.11 Age 293.12 Postal area 303.13 Accommodation 303.14 Marital status 313.15 Legal status 313.16 Familial status 313.17 Mother tongue 323.18 Educational background 323.18.1 Literacy 323.18.2 Previous educational experience 323.19 Experience of language learning 333.19.1 English language 333.19.2 Previous experience 34

3.19.3 Language learning in Dublin 343.20 Summary of key points 35

CHAPTER FOUR Profile of language and literacy providers

4.1 Introduction 374.2 Vocational Education Committees (VECs) 374.3 City of Dublin VEC 374.3.1 City of Dublin VEC English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) 384.4 County Dublin VEC 404.4.1 County Dublin VEC English for Speakers for Other Languages (ESOL) 404.5 FAS Asylum Seeker Unit 42

4.6 Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT) 434.7 Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) 444.7.1 Dublin Adult Learning Centre (DALC) 444.7.2 Spiritan Asylum Services Initiative (SPIRASI) 454.7.3 Tallaght Refugee Project 474.7.4 Vincentian Refugee Centre 48

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CHAPTER FIVE Reaching the learner

5.1 Introduction 495.2 Equality and anti-discrimination policy 495.3 Profiling and consultation 505.4 Recruitment of learners, marketing and publicity 515.5 Networking and information exchange 525.6 Summary of key points 525.7 Recommendations 53

CHAPTER SIX Planning a programme

6.1 Introduction 556.2 Initial enrolment and record keeping 556.3 Needs analysis and planning a programme 556.4 Initial assessment 566.5 Summary of key points 586.6 Recommendations 58

CHAPTER SEVEN English language tutors

7.1 Introduction 607.2 Recruitment of tutors 607.3 Induction 607.4 Second language teacher education 617.5 Conditions and support 63

7.6 Summary of key points 637.7 Recommendations 64

CHAPTER EIGHT Language and literacy provision

8.1 Introduction 658.2 Organisation of learning 658.3 Learning sites 658.4 Accessibility, safety and transport 668.5 Lesson planning 678.6 ESOL provision 688.7 Literacy for ESOL learners 69

8.8 Standard English for African English Speakers 718.9 Difficulties attending programmes for Asylum Seekers 718.10 Materials and syllabus 728.11 Monitoring learners progress 748.12 Evaluation 748.13 Accreditation 758.14 Summary of key points 768.15 Recommendations 78

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CHAPTER NINE Support services and special needs groups

9.1 Introduction 809.2 Childcare 809.3 Guidance, personal and learner supports 809.4 Torture survivors 819.5 Role of European initiatives 839.6 Summary of key points 839.7 Recommendations 84

CHAPTER TEN Final summary and recommendations

Final summary and recommendations 86

APPENDICES

Appendix A Research Methodology 93Appendix B Management Committee 96Appendix C Second language acquisition and cognitive

language learning 97Appendix D Survey questionnaires 99Appendix E Sample frame 103Appendix F Statutory agencies visited during research

project and issued with guidelines 104Appendix G Semi-structured interview 105Appendix H Qualitative interviews 108

Appendix I Mother tongues of respondents 109Appendix J Full-time courses with English as a ForeignLanguage (EFL) in City of Dublin VEC 111

Appendix K Recommended sample programmes 112Appendix L International, European and national Instruments 113

OTHER

References and further reading 114Country of origin resources 119Resources and specialist libraries 120Contact list of statutory and non-statutory agencies 121

Box 1 Subject areas for tutor training 62

Map 1 Map of asylum seeking population in Dublin 2001 xiii

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LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 1: Number of asylum seekers 1992-2002 27Fig 2: Nationality of respondents 29Fig 3: Gender of respondents 29Fig 4: Age of respondents 30Fig 5: Legal status of respondents 31Fig 6: Mother tongue of respondents 32Fig 7: Literacy skills in mother tongue/first languages of respondents 32Fig 8: Number of respondents to have attended

secondary school/technical college 33Fig 9: Percentage of respondents third level education 33Fig 10: Venue respondents were studying English 34Fig 11: Number of survey participants requiring childcare provision 80

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Nationality of total number of asylum seekers in the Dublin area April 2001 29

Table 2: Nationality and gender of respondents 29Table 3: Age and gender of respondents 30Table 4: Postal area of respondents 30Table 5: Nationality and accommodation of respondents 31Table 6: Nationality and marital status of respondents 31Table 7: Nationality of parent and ages of children 31Table 8: Top five nationalities of respondents studying English in Dublin 34

Table 9: Times preferred for future language classes and nationality 34Table 10: Sample populations 93Table 11: Survey response rate 94Table 12: Asylum seekers in receipt of SWA in emergency accommodation -

February 2001 103Table 13: Asylum seekers in receipt of SWA in private rented accommodation -

February 2001 103Table 14: Asylum seekers with the right to work on Unemployment Assistance -

February 2001 103Table 15: Response rate by each sample population 103Table 16: Total sample and overall response rate 103

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PREFACE

During the last decade Irish societyhas experienced major changes.The City of Dublin VEC and CountyDublin VECs administrative region isrepresentative of these changes interms of development, demographicsand increasing diversity of thepopulation. In accordance with theadult education mission statementand the impetus of the White Paperon Adult Education, we have strivedto respond and meet the challengespresented by emerging trends anddiverse populations. This includes thedelivery of programmes to meet theneeds of ethnic minorities residing inthe region, which is relatively newterritory for education services inIreland.

The Further Education Section of theDepartment of Education and Science(DES) funded this research projectwhich is a timely response to current

and future developments in adulteducation. County Dublin VECwelcomed the opportunity to work inpartnership with colleagues in the Cityof Dublin VEC and hope this level ofcollaboration will continue. The reportis written from the position of thosemost fully involved: adult learners,staff and education managers, who willinform/implement future actions. Thereport indicates that language is onlyone of many issues which need to be

developed and planned for. Recommen-dations from the report will require ahigh level of commitment andexpertise, to ensure they are incorpo-rated into the strategic development ofeducation services in the greaterDublin area.

This project was a major undertaking and could only have been completed withthe assistance and contributions made by many organisations and individuals.The City of Dublin VEC and County Dublin VEC wish to express their gratitudeto the Research Management Committee for providing direct guidance/support tothe researcher and advising on the formulation of recommendations.

Throughout the project Adult Education Organisers (AEOs) from the City ofDublin VEC and County Dublin VEC acted in a day-to-day support, advisory andeditorial capacity to the researcher. Shaping the researchers understanding ofadult education in Ireland, these VEC staff members offered many ideas forrecommendations. We would like to thank: Liam Bane, Kathleen Forde, FredGoulding, Leonora OReilly, Kevin Smullen and in particular Bernadette Sproule.

The contribution by other agencies, stakeholders and their representatives whogave willingly of their time and expertise has contributed a great deal to theproject. In the initial phases many individuals met with and advised theresearcher. We acknowledge:

Inez Bailey, National Adult Literacy Agency (NALA). Michael Begley, SPIRASI. Bernie Brady, AONTAS. Aidan Clifford, Curriculum Development Unit (CDU). Mary Gannon, CDU. Bernadette Freyne, SPIRASI.

Breege Keenan, Vincentian Refugee Centre. Barbara Lazenby-Simpson, Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT). Rutilo Lopez, Association of Refugees and Asylum Seekers in Ireland (ARASI). Kathleen Lynch, Equality Studies, University College Dublin (UCD). Mary Maher, Dublin Adult Learning Centre (DALC). Mervyn Morrissey, IILT. Breda Naughtan, Reception and Integration Agency (RIA). Peter OMahony, Irish Refugee Council (IRC). Michael ORiordan, FS Asylum Seeker Unit. Richard Tomkin, Centre for the Care of Survivors of Torture (CCST).

The project involved a major survey of the asylum seeking population which

could only have been carried out with the assistance of the Health Board and theFS Asylum Seeker Unit. We would like to thank:

Pat Lennon and Paraig Rehill and the Community Welfare Officers of theNorthern Area Health Board and East Coast Area Health Board.

The managers and Placement Officers of the FS Asylum Seeker Unit.

A special gratitude is due to survey respondents who took the time to completequestionnaires and participated in focus groups, thereby presenting the picture ofthe diverse reality of the refugee and asylum seeker population Dublin.

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We also appreciate the backup and administrative supportprovided by staff in the Parnell Adult Learning Centre, theCity of Dublin VEC Administrative Offices and the CountyDublin VEC Co-ordinating Office, in particular we thank:Mark ODoherty, Jessica Wanzenbck, Pearl Crowe, PatriciaDoran and Eoin OMahoney from FAQs Research.

Louise Lesovitch was the research assistant to the projectand was involved in data inputting/analysis, together withcontributing to the literature review and providing editorialsupport. We are most thankful for her invaluable contri-bution.

We wish to extend our thanks to Tanya Ward, who designed,researched and wrote this report. The report demonstratesher dedication, knowledge and interest in the subject.

On behalf of our two VEC's we wish to acknowledge theparticular support, guidance and direction provided to theproject by our respective Education Officers, Fiona Hartleyand Jacinta Stewart and, of course, the support and encour-agement of the Further Education Section of theDepartment of Education & Science.

William J. Arundel Pat OConnorChief Executive Officer Chief Executive OfficerCity of Dublin VEC County Dublin VEC

Several organisations, agencies and VEC staff membersagreed to be interviewed and participated in this project. Wewish to acknowledge:

Learners and tutors. VEC Adult Literacy Organisers. VEC ESOL Project Support Workers. VEC Further Education Colleges. DALC. FS Asylum Seeker Unit. IILT. SPIRASI. Tallaght Refugee Project. Vincentian Refugee Centre.

We appreciate the work of Denis Pringle, from theDepartment of Geography, National University of Ireland,Maynooth (NUIM) for mapping the asylum seekingpopulation for the project.

City of Dublin VEC and County Dublin VEC would also liketo thank the following people for views and comments onearlier drafts of the report:

Management Committee members. Martin Berridge, IILT. Patricia Doran, County Dublin VEC. Fergus Dolan, NALA. Rachel Hegarty, Parnell Adult Learning Centre. Pauline Hensey, City of Dublin VEC. Audrey Kaufman Margaret Kelly, Further Education Section, DES. Mary Kett, Further Education Section, DES. Ronit Lentin, Department of Sociology, Trinity College

Dublin. Steven Loyal, Department of Sociology, National University

of Ireland, Dublin (NUID). Piaras Macinr, Irish Centre for Migration Studies (ICMS),National University of Ireland, Cork (NUIC).

Marie Moreau, CDU. Susan Neill, City of Dublin VEC. Elizabeth OSullivan, City of Dublin VEC. Vera Sheridan, City of Dublin VEC. Karen Sinnott, Parnell Adult Learning Centre. Marina Spiegel, London Language and Literacy Unit (LLLU). Ciara Smyth, United Nations High Commissioner for

Refugees (UNHCR). James Stapleton, IRC. John Stewart, NALA.

Patricia Walsh, Parnell Adult Learning Centre.Page vii | Preface


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DEFINITIONS

Definitions| Page viii

Legal terms*

Asylum seekerA person who arrives independently in the state seeking tobe granted protection under the Refugee Convention.

Leave to remainLeave to remain is granted at the discretion of the Ministerfor Justice, Equality and Law Reform as an exceptionalmeasure to allow a person to remain in the state who doesnot fully meet the requirements of the Refugee Conventionbut who may still need protection.

Programme refugeeA person who has been given leave to enter and remain bythe Government, usually in response to a humanitariancrisis, at the request of the United Nations High Commis-sioner for Refugees (UNHCR).

RefugeeA person who has been recognised as needing protectionunder the Refugee Convention. In the Convention, a refugeeis defined as someone who: has a well-founded fear of perse-cution for reasons of race, religion, nationality, membership

of a particular social group, or political opinion; is outsidethe country they belong to or normally reside in and isunable or unwilling to return home for fear of persecution.

Refugee ConventionThe United Nations Convention relating to the Status ofRefugees 1951 and 1967 Protocol.

*Note on terminologyWithin this report, when the terms asylum seeker, refugee and

programme refugee are used, it is in accordance with the defini-

tions outlined above.

Terms referring to people and practices

AcculturationAcculturation describes a process of adaptation by a personto a new socio-cultural environment s/he is living in and hascontact with. However, acculturation does not necessarilyimply social integration (Dadzie, 1999).

BlackOriginally used for describing people of African descent; ithas evolved into a political umbrella term to encompasssecond generation Asians, Africans and African-Caribbean,people of dual heritage and refugees from non-whitecountries (Dadzie, 1999).

BilingualBilingualism refers to the phenomenon of competence andcommunication in two languages. A bilingual individual issomeone who has the ability to communicate in twolanguages alternately (Lam, 2001: 93). Most bilingualspeakers will have learned two languages within the familyfrom native speakers since infancy (Skuttnabb-Kangas,1994).

Culture shockCulture shock includes feelings of discomfort and malad-justment people experience when cultural norms and roleexpectations to which they are accustomed from theircounty of origin no longer hold true in a new culture(Graham & Cookson, 1994: 55). Culture shock can lead towithdrawal from the new society resulting in negativeconsequences for learning English.

DifferenceRefers to social groups and individuals experiencingexclusion and marginalisation who are differentiated by

social processes, for example: women, single mothers, blackand ethnic minorities, gays and lesbians, older people andpeople with disabilities.

Dispositional barrierRefers to a persons thoughts, feelings, attitudes or percep-tions that impacts negatively on their motivation to engagein educational provision (Bailey & Coleman, 1998).

Ethnic minorityEthnic minority is a generic term used to describe peoplewho are identifiably different to the ethnic majority becauseof their ethnic origin (including language or religion).


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Page ix | Definitions

IntegrationIntegration means the ability to participate to the extentthat a person needs and wishes in all of the major compo-nents of society, without having to relinquish his or her owncultural identity(Working Group on the Integration ofRefugees in Ireland, 1999).

Language shockLanguage shock involves feelings of doubt as to whetherones words accurately expresses ones feelings, andconcerns about making mistakes, sounding strange, orappearing child-like (Graham & Cookson, 1994: 55). Aperson experiencing language shock may be unwilling tocommunicate in a new language.

Minority linguistic groupMinority linguistic group is used to describe people whowere born in or have family origins in countries where theirmother tongue (s) is a language other than English.

Situational barrierAn aspect of a persons life situation which makes it difficultfor them to access, for example, education provision.


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DEFINITIONS

Definitions| Page x

Terms referring to teaching practices

English for Academic Purposes (EAP) involves teachinglearners to use English for academic studies and differs fromother forms of English language teaching. Initial needsanalysis is fundamental to EAP and most courses focus onreading and writing skills. General EAP approaches consistof study skills practice (for example, listening to lectures,seminar skills, academic writing, reading and note-taking)and academic style (Hamp-Lyons, 2001: 126-128).

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) refers to circum-stances where English is not the primary Language means ofcommunication and instruction. Most EFL settings offerlimited exposure to the target language outside theclassroom; syllabuses are carefully structured with extensiverecycling of key target language items (Carter & Nunan,2001). In EFL, accreditation mechanisms usually dictatecourse direction and the teacher has overall responsibilityfor introducing a cultural dimension to programmes. Inaddition, EFL is taught in the learners mother tongue andfrequently in private language schools (Jordan, 2001).

English as a Second Language (ESL) refers to situations in

which English is taught in countries where it is theprincipal means of communication. In the United States ofAmerica, Britain and Australia, ESL programmes were origi-nally developed for immigrants and refugees and modelledon foreign language education. Early classes were needsbased and concentrated on Survival English withprogression to vocational language programmes. However,the term ESL does not recognise that some language learnersoriginate from polyglot cultures where more than onelanguage is spoken in daily exchanges (Jordan, 2001).

English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL) is

primarily concerned with developing speaking and listeningskills in functional language for everyday use. ESOLprogrammes are learner centred and needs based withattainable short-term goals. ESOL prepares learners forindependence and takes account ofeducational/employment aspirations. ESOL also incorpo-rates communicative language techniques for mixed levelsand cross-cultural approaches which recognises a learnersother languages/cultures (refer to Adult ESOL CoreCurriculum, 2001).

Freirean approach is critical of the dominant form ofeducation, the banking model, which presents knowledgeas scientifically based, impartial and objective. TheFreirean approach originates from Paulo Freires (1970)Pedagogy of the Oppressed, which argues knowledge andeducational practices are neither objective norunchanging. They reflect and serve specific interests andare situated in a certain context. Adult educators need toengage learners in a process of conscientization to helpthem understand and critically reflect on their life circum-stances with a view to initiating change.


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Page xi | Definitions

EOEducation Officer: senior VEC education manager.

FSThe National Training and Employment Authority: an Irish stateagency under the Department of Trade, Enterprise andEmployment.

FETACFurther Education Training Awards Council: a national statutoryaward body for further education and training.

IALSInternational Adult Literacy Survey: a study commissioned in 1996

by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) to establish the levels of literacy skills in the generalpopulation in relation to work, home and the community.

IELTSInternational English Language Testing Service: accreditationmechanism for testing English language skills, recognised in mostEnglish speaking countries particularly for higher education.

IILTIntegrate Ireland Language and Training: established by the DESunder the aegis of Trinity College to co-ordinate language supportfor refugees and others with legal residency.

IT

Institiid Teangeolaochta ireann (Linguistics Institute ofIreland): The principal function of the Institute is the provision ofresearch and advice services to all organisations working withlanguage issues.

IVEAIrish Vocational Education Association: a national representationalbody for the VECs.

L1First language

L2Second language

LLLULondon Language and Literacy Unit: a British national consultancyand professional centre for staff working in the areas of literacy,numeracy, dyslexia, family learning and ESOL.

NALANational Adult Literacy Agency: a membership based NGO respon-sible for co-ordinating adult literacy work in Ireland.

NALCNational Adult Learning Council: an executive agency of the DES,established to advise on policy, promote co-ordination and liaison,engage in research, staff development, support international co-operation and oversee the implementation of the White Paper onAdult Education.

Glossary of terms

ACELSAdvisory Council for English Language Schools: The DES estab-lished ACELS to regulate the English Language Teaching sector inIreland and promote standards.

AEOAdult Education Organiser: provides a local adult education servicethrough the VECs.

ALOAdult Literacy Organiser: organises literacy programmes throughthe VECs.

AONTASThe Irish National Association of Adult Education: a nationalmembership organisation for statutory/voluntary organisations andindividuals involved or interested in adult education.

BTEIBack to Education Initiative: a national DES initiative to provideopportunities for young people and adults to return to learning.

CALLComputer Assisted Language Learning: programmes and packagesfor teaching languages through computers.

CCST

Centre for the Care of Survivors of Torture: an NGO established toprovide a multidisciplinary approach for the rehabilitation ofsurvivors of torture.

CDUCurriculum Development Unit: established by Trinity College,Dublin, the DES and the City of Dublin VEC, the CDU is acurriculum research and development institute.

CDVECCity of Dublin Vocational Education Committee.

CEOChief Executive Officer: most senior VEC management position.

COECouncil of Europe: a pan European intergovernmental organisationwith 43 Member States. Although separate to the European Union,all Member States are part of the Council of Europe.

CWOCommunity Welfare Officer: Health Board staff member responsiblefor providing care and support to asylum seekers.

DALCDublin Adult Learning Centre: an NGO offering basic education andlanguage support to adults in the inner city.

DESDepartment of Education and Science


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Definitions| Page xii

NAPSNational Anti-Poverty Strategy: a government initiative designed tochallenge social and economic exclusion.

NCGENational Centre for Guidance in Education: an executive agency ofthe DES that supports and develops guidance practice in all areas ofeducation.

NCCRINational Consultative Committee on Racism andInterculturalism: a partnership organisation established by theDepartment of Justice, Equality and Law Reform to develop actions

against racism and act in a public policy advisory role.NGONon-governmental organisation

PLCPost Leaving Certificate: the PLC programme provides appropriateeducation/training for individuals to prepare for work and highereducation.

PPFProgramme for Prosperity and Fairness: a national agreementbetween Government, employers, trade unions, farmers and thecommunity/voluntary sector outlining areas of work/action forGovernment focusing on - the national economy, quality of

life/living standards and to bring about a fairer/inclusive society.

RIAReception and Integration Agency: established by the Department ofJustice, Equality and Law Reform, the RIA is responsible for co-ordinating reception and integration for asylum seekers andrefugees.

SLASecond Language Acquisition: the systematic study of how peopleacquire a language which is not their mother tongue (Ellis, 2000).

SOCRATESEuropean Community action programme in the field of education.

SPIRASISpiritan Asylum Services Initiative: a humanitarian and intercul-tural NGO that provides services to protection seekers.

SWASupplementary Welfare Allowance: a means tested welfare paymentspecifically for individuals who are unable to work includingasylum seekers.

TOEFLTest of English as a Foreign Language: accreditation mechanism forEnglish language skills, recognised in most English speakingcountries particularly for higher education.

UNHCRUnited Nations High Commissioner for Refugees: an internationalUN agency mandated to co-ordinate international actions andresponses for the protection of refugees and other displaced persons.

VECVocational Education Committee: a state education provider respon-sible for managing adult and further education at a city/county level.

VTOSVocational Training Opportunities Scheme: supported by theEuropean Social Fund, VTOS is a targeted intervention by the DES toassist unemployed adults progress into education, training and

employment.WIT

Waterford Institute of Technology: a third level educational insti-tution.

DEFINITIONS


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MAP 1

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Map 1Map of asylum seeking population in Dublin 2001 by postal area.

Page xiii | Map 1


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Page 1| Introduction

In July 2000, the Irish Government published a WhitePaper on Adult Education entitled, Learning for Life.Section 8.13 proposed asylum seekers would have freeaccess to adult literacy, English language and motherculture supports(173/4) and the capacity for providing anational programme of language provision through theVocational Education Committees (VECs)/other educationproviders should be explored. The number of asylumseekers arriving in Ireland has increased from 39 applica-tions in 1992 to 10,325 applications in 2001. In addition,the number of work permits issued to migrants increasedfrom 3,590 in 1998 to 32,823 in 2001. The White Paperrecommended that a study should be undertaken to assessthe language/literacy needs of asylum seekers and the Cityof Dublin VEC initiated this research in response.

The City of Dublin VEC and County Dublin VEC are thebiggest state education providers in Ireland and offer adiverse range of programmes designed to meet the needs oflearners. Ensuring opportunity of access, adult educationpractices in the City of Dublin VEC are underpinned by acommitment to equality, diversity of choice and empow-erment of the individual (Clarke, 1999). Poverty and socialexclusion have been combated through specialised

services/initiatives targeting marginalized communities, forexample: Adult and Further Education, Adult Literacy,Prison Education, Project with Homeless Services, YouthServices, Traveller Education, EU funded co-operativetraining programmes and language/literacy provision forminority linguistic groups.

County Dublin VEC offers an equally diverse range ofprogrammes. Essentially a rural VEC when it was formed in1930, unprecedented urban growth in the shape of vasthousing developments has led to County Dublin VECexpanding its operation. Predominantly based in

community-based settings, County Dublin VECs adulteducation service also works extensively with marginalizedcommunities. Recognising the need for research into servicedelivery for asylum seekers, County Dublin VEC was invitedto become an associate partner in this project.

Both VECs have been involved in service delivery for refugeeand migrant groups since 1981 (City of Dublin VEC) and1996 (County Dublin VEC). For example, English languageprogrammes were organised by the City of Dublin VEC forVietnamese refugees in 1981 and Bosnian refugees in 1996.County Dublin VECs adult education service first beganorganising English language programmes in 1996 for

Chinese learners in the Lucan area. Responding with verylimited resources, both VECs have experienced a substantialincrease in numbers of second language learners accessingadult education services. Findings from this research will beused to develop provision for asylum seekers, together withother non-nationals, as an integral part of the VECs areabased adult education service.

Considering provision for asylum seekers holistically, thisreport stresses language/literacy issues are inextricablylinked to equality and interculturalism. The researchadvocates a learner centred and needs based approach forthe delivery of programmes through a mainstream stateadult education service (with support for community basedprogrammes) with accountable, transparent structures.Written from a gendered perspective, particular attention isalso paid to survivors of torture and people with disabilities.

Aims and objectivesThe present research was commissioned to:

Compile a profile of the asylum seeking population inDublin based on: age, gender, mother tongue, country oforigin, educational background, domestic situation,

familial relationships, experience of language learningand location.

Evaluate current language/literacy provision for asylumseekers and other minority linguistic groups, payingparticular attention to: co-ordination and referralbetween agencies, networking and information exchange,learning sites, childcare, teaching programmes andmaterials, targeted interventions, outreach centres,accreditation and the role of European initiatives.

Assess language and literacy needs with a view to formu-

lating an integrated community-based approach.MethodologyIn an effort to compile a representative sample of theasylum seeking population, a survey was conducted withthe assistance of the East Coast Area Health Board, theNorthern Area Health Board and the FS Asylum SeekerUnit. Divided into three sections, the survey questionnairewas designed to establish: personal information, educationalbackground and language learning experience. Using threesample populations in Dublin 1, Dublin 7, Dublin 6(Rathmines) and Dublin 24, the questionnaire wasdistributed using several methods (refer to Appendix A for

Methodology).

INTRODUCTION


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Introduction | Page 2

INTRODUCTION

Representing an overall response rate of 27%, 767 question-naires were returned from a sample population of 2,843.Approximately 39% of asylum seekers in emergency accom-modation (hostels and B&Bs) and 24% in private rentedaccommodation responded to the survey. In addition, afurther 12% of asylum seekers with the right to work partic-ipated.

Promoting the research and survey involved visiting HealthBoard and FS Asylum Seeker Officers throughout theDublin area. Officers were issued with guidelines advisinghow to assist survey participants with completing thequestionnaire and promotional posters were displayed inemergency accommodation units.

An evaluation was conducted of organisations involved indirect language/literacy service delivery for asylum seekers,together with other ESOL learners, through a broad basedsemi-structured interview. The main purpose of theinterview was to first establish the role of providers and gainan insight from their work. Each interview was carried outwith statutory and non-statutory agencies functioning withvery limited resources. Operating in Dublin city and county,providers targeted included: Community Groups, the FS

Asylum Seeker Unit, the IILT, NGOs, VEC Adult LiteracySchemes, VEC ESOL programmes and the VEC PrisonEducation Service.

A Management Committee was established to support theproject made up of representatives from the statutory andvoluntary sector. The central role of the Committee was toadvise on the undertaking of the research and design ofrecommendations (refer to Appendix B for membership).

Report structure

Chapter 1 explains the policy context for this study andsituates provision for asylum seekers firmly within anational adult learning framework. The White Paper onAdult Education is discussed in relation to asylum seekersfocusing on lifelong learning, equality and interculturalism.National developments initiated by the DES, IVEA, IILT andNALA are also included.

Chapter 2 introduces principles underlying day-to-daypractice of language and literacy provision in Ireland. Itexamines progress in English language teaching and the roleof literacy for second language learners. Concrete definitionson language teaching are provided as well as an overview ofresearch on language needs of refugees in Ireland.

Chapter 3 describes the context for asylum seekers inIreland, charting the Irish Governments legal and socialresponse. Results and analysis from the survey of asylumseekers are also provided with analysis relating to: age,nationality, gender, accommodation, location in the city,marital status, legal status, familial status and mothertongue, education background, literacy levels and prior

language learning.

Chapter 4 profiles several language and literacy educationproviders operating in the Dublin area. Describing thebackground, structure and full scope of provision, the organ-isations include: City of Dublin VEC, County Dublin VEC,FS Asylum Seeker Unit, Integrate Ireland Language andTraining Project (IILT) and several non-governmental organ-isations (NGOs).

Chapter 5 argues reaching potential learners requires multi-faceted strategies and reports on providers efforts to:

develop an equality/anti-discrimination policy, reach andconsult potential learners, recruit new learners, market andpublicise new programmes, network between agencies andinformation exchange.

Chapter 6 considers the steps involved in planningprogrammes based on learners needs. These include: initialenrolment/record keeping, carrying out a needs analysis inconjunction with new adult learners, initial skillsassessment and makes recommendations on each.


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Page 3| Introduction

Chapter 7 contends that the growth of the ESOL sector willdepend on its ability to attract and maintain expertise.Describing tutor recruitment, induction, training andsupport, this chapter argues tutors need a broad range ofskills to enable them to teach asylum seekers.

Chapter 8 reveals how programmes for minority linguisticgroups are organised and considers different aspects of on-course provision: lesson planning, materials/syllabus, visits,review/evaluation, monitoring learners progress, accredi-tation and makes detailed recommendations.

Chapter 9 focuses on support services required by asylumseekers to ensure full participation, including: guidance,personal/learner support and childcare. The needs of torturesurvivors are also discussed and the role of European initia-tives relating to language provision.

Chapter 10 summarises and makes recommendations to beincluded in national strategies and for the City of DublinVEC and County Dublin VEC. The recommendations relateto: (1) national co-ordination; (2) promoting equality/inter-culturalism in Adult and Further Education; (3) nationaltraining measures; (4) materials development for ESOL

provision; (5) needs analysis and assessment; (6) accredi-tation; (7) evaluation; (8) translation and interpretationservices; (9) the Adult Education Guidance Initiative (AEGI);(10) further research; (11) staffing; (12) infrastructure; (13)learning sites; (14) equality/anti-discrimination in the VECs;(15) co-operation with other agencies; (16) training; (17)supporting the community; (18) the organisation of ESOL;(19) ESOL provision; (20) literacy for ESOL provision; (21)Standard English for African English speakers; (22) torturesurvivors; (23) childcare; (24) personal/learner support and(25) the implementation of recommendations.


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1.1 Introduction

Adult learning in Ireland is in the process of undergoingdramatic change and expansion. This research isconducted at a time when the foundations are being laid for anational structure for adult education and new legal instru-ments introduced for governing asylum seekers (refer toSection 3.4 for discussion of Refugee Act 1996 as amended).In explaining the policy context for this research, theobjective of this chapter is to situate language/literacyprovision for asylum seekers firmly within the national adultlearning framework. Three principles frame adult educationin the White Paper and are designed to transform adulteducation in order to accommodate difference, each hasparticular relevance for asylum seekers. Other policy devel-opments with regard to education are also examined, forexample, new measures by the DES, the Irish VocationalEducation Association (IVEA), Integrate Ireland Languageand Training (IILT) and the National Adult Literacy Agency(NALA).

1.2 White Paper on Adult Education 2000Adult education is the only area of education in Irelandwhich has never been formally developed. A commitmentwas made by the Irish Government to develop a national

framework for adult learning with the publication of theWhite Paper on Adult Education Learning for Life. Aresponse to economic concerns, it also incorporates aprogressive view of adult education and strives to create ademocratic society based on the notion of lifelong learning.The White Paper singles out disadvantaged groups, whichfor the most part have been neglected by mainstreamactions. The main features are:

Literacy. Community Education. Workplace Education.

Higher Education. Support Services. Co-operation with Northern Ireland. Structures. Priority Areas.

The White Paper on Adult Education provides a coherentand broad vision for the development of adult education.Based on a partnership model, three principles underlieeducational practice in the White Paper: (a) Lifelonglearning as a systemic approach, (b) Equality and (c) Inter-culturalism. Reflecting policy developments elsewhere, eachprinciple merits further examination.

1.2.1Lifelong learning as a systemic approachA basic tenet of government policy and the White Paper,lifelong learning is a central concept in adult education.Impelled by the EU Employment Strategy and the EUMemorandum on Lifelong Learning, the Government haspromoted lifelong learning through a series of strategicdevelopments in order to support an integrated approach toeducation, training, welfare and employment strategies. In1997, the Government set up The Expert Group on FutureSkills Needsto tackle skills shortages. Lifelong learning wasincorporated into the National Development Plan as anessential theme. Following negotiations with the SocialPartners, the Government further underlined itscommitment in the Programme for Prosperity and Fairness(PPF) (2000). Providing for the development of a strategicframework for lifelong learning, the Task Force on LifelongLearningwas established by the Department of Enterprise,Trade and Employment in conjunction with the DES. TheTask Force involves members of other government depart-ments, employer bodies, trade unions, the Community andVoluntary sector and education and training providers.

The White Paper on Adult Education defines lifelonglearning as

a systemic approach which recognises that the inter-faces between the different levels of educationalprovision, and the quality of the early school experiencehave a critical influence on learners motivation andability to access and progress in adult education andtraining. This requires that educational policies must bedesigned to embrace the li fe cycle, reflect the multiplicityof sites, both formal and informal, in which learning cantake place, provide for appropriate supports such asguidance, counselling and childcare, and for mechanismsto assess learning independent of the context in which it

occurs (2000: 12).Lifelong learning is characterised as not only lifelong butalso lifewide and voluntary/self-motivated. The White Paperrecommends lifelong should encompass the individualseducation from the cradle to the grave. Realising thisconcept is one of the greatest challenges for the educationsystem at present. The DES has initiated new schemes andinitiatives designed to lay the foundations for lifelonglearning, however, its advancement will be a long-termproject.

Lifewide as defined in the White Paper refers to adult


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The Employment Equality Act, 1998prohibits discrimination in relation toemployment on nine distinct grounds:

Gender Marital status Family status Sexual orientation Religion Age Disability Race Membership of the Traveller

Community

All aspects of employment areincluded and the legislation applies to:public and private sector employment,employment agencies, vocationaltraining bodies, the publication ofadvertisements, trade unions andprofessional bodies, fulltime/part-timeworkers and collective agreements.

The Equal Status Act, 2000, prohibitsdiscrimination in the provision ofgoods, services, disposal of propertyand access to education, on any of thenine grounds referred to under theEmployment Equality Act 1998. TheAct prohibits discrimination (subjectto certain exceptions) in all public andprivate services generally available tothe public. These include: public stateservices, provision of accommodation,educational establishments and regis-

tered clubs.In order to enforce the new legislation,the Government established twoseparate agencies: the Office of theDirector of Equality Investigations andthe Equality Authority (the latter willbe discussed here). The EqualityAuthority has statutory powers and isduty-bound to work towards the elimi-nation of discrimination within thepublic domain, for example: in all areasof employment, in the provision of

learning in a multiciplicity of sites including: school, conventional educationinstitutes, training centres, the home and community groups. As highlighted bythe White Paper, this will present further challenges to the education system interms of resourcing learning in a variety of settings.

It also requires progression between learning sites based on parity of esteembetween providers; the development of methods of assessment of learningindependently of the context in which such learning occurs; the need to providethe requisite infra-structural supports to the learner in the form of guidance andcounsell ing; the provision of childcare and t ransport and appropriate mecha-nisms of accreditation and assessment (32).

This has particular significance for asylum seekers who regularly attendprogrammes in a multiciplicity of learning sites, most of which are located incommunity-based settings. These initiatives are crucial to ensure participationfrom individuals who may not be able to attend mainstream institutions. Forexample, cultural constraints and lack of childcare facilities can be determiningfactors for participation. Co-ordination and support required for communitybased learning from the VECs can be considerable and education programmeshave floundered where VECs have been unable to offer assistance (see WEERC,2001).

Fundamental to lifelong learning is the concept of a learner centred approach.The White Paper recommends adult learning principles as central to the

education process; it should always be voluntary and self-motivated. Rethinkingand reshaping policies with adult learners in mind presents challenges to conven-tional education providers. Learner centred methodologies and practices need tobe inclusive to encourage engagement from learners. This will have importantramifications for working with asylum seekers as they often originate fromcountries where rote learning and teacher centred education is prevalent. This hasposed difficulties for language and literacy tutors trying to foster learnerautonomy and involving independent learning. Independent learning within thelearner centred approach is ethnocentric and rooted in white western society -the idea originates from research in adult education within the United States,which in itself is highly individualistic (see Knowles, 1974; Brookfield, 1987). Newcommunities need to become self-sufficient to enhance quality of life. While the

learner centred approach to adult learning is based on this premise, providers alsoneed to think about learners in terms of their family and community.

1.2.2EqualityHigh on the political agenda, several factors have guaranteed that equality is nowpart of common official discourse. The Government made a commitment topromote equality in all spheres of life following the ratification of EU Directivesand Treaty provisions on employment equality and the Good Friday Agreement.The Social Partners lobbied for Equality Proofing administrative procedures to beincluded in the Partnership Agreement 2000 Inclusion, Employment and Competi-tiveness, which was negotiated with the Government in 1996 and the Programmefor Prosperity and Fairness (PPF) 2000. These negotiations and commitments ledto the enactment of two different legislative instruments.


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goods and services, education and property. It is responsiblefor overseeing and monitoring legislation, including theEmployment Equality Act, 1998 and the Equal Status Act,2000. Furthermore, the Equality Authority has a publicinformation role and is responsible for mainstreamingequality throughout the state sponsored sector bypromoting and supporting the development of equalitystructures.

There are limitations to the Equality Authoritys power asequality-proofing procedures were not explicitly included inthe Equal Status Act. Equality mainstreaming and proofingin the Irish context has not been a transformative process.Mullally (2001) argues experience to date has shown thatwithout legislative underpinning, equality proofing proce-dures will have little or no impact on policy. However, theIrish Government has made efforts to equality proof publicpolicy (see below).

Although the DES has been involved in research on genderequality since 1987, the White Paper marks the first time theDES has made a pledge to promote equality in all sectors ofeducation. For example, there has been an allocation of19.6m for several equality initiatives which include:

The establishment of the Gender Equality Unit within theDES to monitor the participation of learners to ensuregender equity throughout the system.

A computerised information system for the FurtherEducation sector to track the progress of specific groupseffectively.

The Womens Education Initiative was expanded andrenamed the Equality Education Initiative in order toaddress the needs of disadvantaged men who do not tradi-

tionally participate in adult education.Established in June 2001, the Gender Equality Unit beganwork on implementing systems within the education sectorto collate statistics according to gender. Funding 18 projects(none currently involving asylum seekers, refugees or otherlinguistic minority groups), the Education EqualityInitiative has been operational since 2000.

The White Paper defines equality in terms of:

equality of access, participation and outcome for partici-pants in adult education, with pro-active strategies to

counteract barriers arising from dif ferences of socio-economic status, gender, ethnicity and disabilit y. A keypriorit y in promoting an inclusive society is to targetinvestment towards those most at risk (2000: 13).

While the White Paper recommends targeted interventionsshould be directed at individuals who face barriers accessingadult education, it does not explicitly outline how equalityof access (equal rights to participate), participation (enablingand encouraging participation) and outcome (whereequality is achieved between marginalized and non-margin-alized groups in all aspects of life) will be promoted in apractical sense throughout adult education. Equality ofcondition was not considered in the White Paper, whichnecessitates equality of economic and social conditions(living conditions) for all members of society, includingcitizens and non-citizens (Lynch, 1999).

Advancing equality in adult education for asylum seekersinvolves implementing equality proofing procedures inaccordance with the nine grounds in the Equal Status Act(see above). Mullally and Smith (2000) define equalityproofing as bringing an equality focus into planning, policyand provision. Equality proofing tools and mechanisms

include: legislative reform, codes of practice, sanctions andenforcement procedures, equality audit, monitoringsystems, affirmative action and proofing procedures. In2000, the Minister for Justice, Equality and Law Reform(hereinafter referred to as the Minister for Justice) estab-lished a Working Group on Equality Proofing due to acommitment made in the PPF. In 2002, the Governmentlaunched impact assessments for public policy makersacross the nine grounds in education and training as a pilotinitiative.

In order to move beyond equality of access, Lynch (2002)

presents principles for enforcing equality within education.For example, Lynch believes in eliminating economicinequalities and examining the schooling process to assesshow it deals with difference: gender, sexuality, disability,ethnicity, beliefs, abilities and social class. If schools deny orignore the fact that differences exist, if they denigrate ormarginalize those who are different either by exclusion, bysilence or by misrepresentation, they are playing a deep rolein promoting inequality in the socio-cultural realm (2002:407). Ensuring marginalized groups are represented withincurricula is one step to address the denial of difference,recognised in the White Paper under the heading of intercul-turalism (see Section 1.2.3). Lynch argues for the democrati-


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and community sector on asylum and refugee issues.However, the NCCRI has no statutory power and is currentlyunder resourced.

The Irish Governments approach to anti-racism and inter-culturalism has been described as a top down, liberal andminimalist approach (Lentin, 2001). Critical of multiculturalinitiatives anchored in liberal politics of recognition ofdifference, Lentin believes they fail to deconstruct powerrelations between the host population and new commu-nities, as well as tackling serious harm experienced byminorities. The Government ratified the UN Convention onthe Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination inDecember 2000 and in October 2001 launched a three yearNational Anti-Racism Awareness Programme. While theprogramme co-ordinates anti-racist activities, redress forindividuals who have been discriminated against can beachieved through the Equality Authority and the Director ofEquality Investigations.

The White Paper defines interculturalism as:

. the need to frame educational policy and practice inthe context of serving a diverse population as opposed to

a uniform one, and the development of curricula,materials, training and in-service, modes of assessmentand delivery methods which accept such diversity as thenorm. This refers not only to combating racism andencouraging participation of immigrants, refugees andasylum seekers in education, but also to a recognit ionthat many minority groups such as travellers, people withdisabilities, older adults, participants in disadvantagedareas may have distinct needs and cultural patterns whichmust be respected and reflected in an educationalcontext. It also envisages a more active role by adulteducators in the promotion of Irish language and culture

(DES, 2000: 13).Taking diversity as the norm, the White Paper acknowledgessome special needs groups have difficulties negotiating theeducation system and recognises the immense challengethis poses to education in terms of: modes of teacherselection and training, language, modes of interaction andnature of inter-relationships between tutor and the learner,curricular, course materials and extra-curricula activities.Noting learners face difficulties with recognition of qualifi-cations/awards, the White Paper proposes marginalizedgroups should be able to influence and shape policy.However, racism is not revisited; it is essential that anti-

sation of relations in education. Over centralised hierar-chical structures should be abandoned in favour of dialogueand cooperation between management, staff and learners(for example, line management and student councils). Thiswould have far reaching implications for management struc-tures within all schooling and educational institutions,where working practices have remained generallyunchanged. Finally, Lynch notes learners are emotionalactors, thus account must be taken of their need for trust,care as well as developing relationships.

1.2.3 InterculturalismAlthough interculturalism is part of common usage thedebate regarding its meaning is in its infancy. The Report onthe Task Force on the Travelling Community 1995 sets out, forthe first time in an official document, what an interculturalsociety might look like (Crowley, 2001). However, incontrast to equality, interculturalism has not been given thesame degree of consideration, consultation and negotiation.Public debate ignores the societal implications of intercul-turalism and new communities. There is no common inter-cultural government strategy for the public and privatesector.

In 1997, the Government supported the European YearAgainst Racism - part of a European anti-racism initiativecombating racism. The Minister for Justice established theNational Consultative Committee on Racism and Intercul-turalism (NCCRI) in 1998. A partnership organisation, itscentral aim is to contribute to the overall development ofpublic policy with regard to anti-racism and encourageintegral actions which acknowledge/celebrate culturaldiversity in Ireland. The NCCRI defines interculturalism asthe:

acceptance not only of the principles of equalit y ofrights, values and abilities but also the development ofpolices to promote interaction, collaboration andexchange with people of different cultures, ethnicity orreligion living in the same territoryinterculturalism is anapproach that can enrich a society and recognises racismas an issue that needs to be tackled in order to create amore inclusive society(2001:6).

The NCCRI has offered anti-racism training to the publicsector. Through its issue driven sub committees on asylum,education and women, it has provided a great deal ofsupport and an element of co-ordination for the voluntary


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racism and anti-discrimination measuresbe at the centre of an intercultural policy.

Focusing on racism in Ireland, AmnestyInternational commissioned a survey ofthe views of ethnic minorities - researchsample involved: Irish Travellers, BlackIrish, Europeans, Black Africans, NorthAfricans, South Asians and South EastAsians - (FAQs Research/Loyal &Mulcahy, 2001). Approximately, 78% ofrespondents reported they had experi-enced racism; 36.2% were exposed toinsulting comments because of theirskin colour or ethnic background.Amnestys nationwide findings indicateracism is an everyday reality for ethnicminorities living in Ireland. This is animportant factor when devising intercul-tural strategies for asylum seekers.Through focus groups held with asylumseekers and other minority linguisticgroups in the present research, it wasdiscovered learners in ESOL programmes

are frequently subjected to racism anddiscrimination in the course of accessingprovision (this will be discussed in moredetail in Chapter 5).

The White Paper could have been morecomprehensive on interculturalism. InAdult Education in Multi-Ethnic Europe,Dadzie (1999) maintains creating anenabling environment should be thekey to developing an interculturalstrategy for adult education. An ideal

learning environment is one in whichlearners feel valued and visible. Itinvolves creating a safe, welcomingethos which takes account of thediversity of staff and learners and givesconsistent messages about behaviouralboundaries(Dadzie, 1999: 237). Criticalfeatures of an intercultural strategyinclude:

1. A commitment to Race Equality inthe organisations mission statement,translated into different languages.

2. Adherence to the values and spirit ofthe policy is part of a mutual contractwith learners and staff.

3. Race Equality/Anti-discriminationpolicy objectives in all strategicplanning exercises.

4. A well-publicised grievanceprocedure translated into variouslanguages.

5. Encourage learners and representa-tives from local, black, migrant andethnic minority communities and adiversity of backgrounds to partic-ipate in policy development andimplementation.

6. Monitor the effectiveness of thepolicy by analysing the number,progress and achievements ofblack/ethnic minority learners,including exam grades, post-coursedestinations and any complaintsabout racial harassment or abuse.

7. Employing ethnic minority workerswho have knowledge of the relevant

communities to act as advocates.8. Employing ethnic minorities to workin your organisation.

9. Having posters and images in yourbuilding of ethnic minorities (adaptedfrom Dadzie, 1999: 190).

Embracing difference involves workingwith and accepting language diversity.All basic documents and building signsneed to be translated into significantlanguage groups (symbols need to be

incorporated for non literate learners).Employing staff members and receptionstaff who are bilingual or multilingual ispractical and useful. Anti-racism andlanguage awareness training areessential. The NCCRI (2001) affirm thatanti-racism training should bepositioned within a whole organisationapproach to addressing racism andsupporting interculturalism. Backed bystrong leadership, all staff membersshould participate in training on aregular basis.

Since the publication of the White Paper,the Curriculum Development Unit(CDU) has established an InterculturalSteering Group. It includes representa-tives from the DES, FS, the EqualityAuthority, the NCCRI, the RIA andnational programme co-ordinators.However, the group does not includemembers from non-governmental organ-isations or refugee groups. Expandingmembership of the group would be avaluable exercise, as it would include abroader range of perspectives. The firstdecision of the Steering Group has beento commission research into intercul-tural practices within adult education inother countries (due in Autumn 2002),conduct a literature review and producemodules for intercultural education infurther education and training.

1.2.4 White Paper on asylumseekers

The White Paper singles out asylumseekers as a group requiring specialprovision. The Governments interest inexploring the possibility for providing anational programme through the VECsand other further education providers isnoted. Highlighting the need forresearch in this area (for which thisstudy was initiated) it also proposeddiscussions should be held with relevantstakeholders to assess the recommenda-tions from the study in relation to

funding, co-ordination of staff and imple-mentation.

The White Paper established newlearning opportunities for asylumseekers. For asylum seekers with theright to work it stated:

Free access to active labour marketprogrammes such as VTOSor PLCifover 21and six months registeredunemployed, on the same basis asother participants.


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will work with a number of designateddisadvantaged groups, for example:ethnic minorities, people with disabil-ities and other groups who have diffi-culties accessing education.

Other measures from the DES include:

An increase in the adult literacybudget by 21.5% (these funds can beused for language programmes withasylum seekers).

Back to Education Initiative (BTEI)providing 6,000 part-time places forPLC, Youthreach, Traveller, andVTOS programmes.

Extension of the Adult EducationGuidance Service.

Appointment of two FurtherEducation Co-ordinators.

A computerised Further EducationManagement Information System.

1.4 Irish Vocational EducationAssociation (IVEA)The Irish Vocational Education Associ-ation (IVEA) is the representationalbody for the VECs. In 2001, it issued apolicy on Educational Provision forAsylum Seekers, Refugees and other Non-nationals(drafted by a working group).Established by the IVEA Congress2000, the remit of the group was toexamine the educational needs ofasylum seekers. It consisted of repre-

sentatives from the VECs who hadexperience working with non-nationals.

The IVEAs report and policy provides abrief overview of current practice.Drawn up following a national surveyof the VECs, it investigated servicedelivery at Second Level (post-primary)and in Further Education. As it is thefirst report from the working group, itdoes not deviate from existingthinking on provision for non-

Access to free part-time Back to Education Initiative (173).

For all asylum seekers:

Free access to adult li teracy, English language and mother culture supports (173).

Although this is a positive development for asylum seekers, the client groupwould benefit more if this entitlement were on a statutory footing. Congruentwith the European Council on Refugees and Exiles (ECRE), Section 47 of ECREPosition on the Reception of Asylum Seekers June 1997 recommends:

State policies should in no way prevent adult asylum seekers from acquiringnew education and skills in t he host state. All asylum seekers should besupported in these aims. Again, ECREbelieves that such a policy if it meetsboth the asylum seekers needs and those of t he host state will preventexclusion from the host society and facilit ate re-integration upon return to thecountry of origin (authors own emphasis).

Taking account of these two possibilities, following the final determination of anasylum seekers application settlement in Ireland or repatriation is aconstructive way to conceptualise education policies for asylum seekers.Reception and integration policies in other European countries (Norway, Swedenand Denmark) are shaped around these two realities. ECRE proposes services beintegrated with service provision for local citizens. Undoubtedly, the VECs and

other education providers, for example community based NGOs, are in a positionto ensure that this can happen. In doing so, they would be involved in the firststep of integrating the asylum seeking population into local communities.

1.3 Developments since the White Paper on Adult EducationSince the publication of the White Paper, major progress in adult education hasbeen made. The DES have issued letters clarifying the legal situation of non-nationals in regard to access for Post Leaving Certificate (PLC), VocationalTraining Opportunities Scheme (VTOS) and Youthreach programmes (September2001 and January 2002 from Peter Kelly, Assistant Principal Officer, FurtherEducation Section). In January 2001, the Minister of State for Adult Education,

Willie ODea, announced that the Government would establish a National AdultLearning Council (NALC) as an executive agency of the DES. The Council willadvise on policy, promote co-ordination and liaison, engage in research, staffdevelopment, support international co-operation and essentially implement therecommendations from the White Paper. Designated staff may have responsibilityfor asylum seekers and other minority linguistic groups.

The Minister also announced the approval of 35 Community Education Facili-tators. Directed by existing ad hoc adult education boards (before the intro-duction of Local Adult Learning Boards), the Facilitators will be expected tosupport and develop new community-based learning groups and centres. Assis-tance with accessing funding, sharing good practice, networking, formingpartnerships and monitoring quality will also be part of their role. The facilitators


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nationals. Many of the ideas expounded derive from othergovernmental and non-governmental sources. However, itdoes make recommendations, which would have significantorganisational and resource implications. Framed by tenliberal principles, the IVEA made proposals relating tofurther research and specific areas of educational provision.The IVEA also recommends structures for co-ordinating at anational, local and community level. Recommendations foreducational provision are intended to provide for practi-tioners basic requirements. Most pertain to resourcing:

1. Additional resources for extra language classes.2. Intercultural education as a central element of the

curriculum of all schools.3. Cultural and civic education incorporated into all

programmes for the target group.4. An increase in budgets for language and education

support for the target group.5. Ensuring Adult Education Services for asylum seekers

and refugees are adequately resourced, the DES shouldreceive individual submissions for specific needs.

6. Asylum seekers and refugees to be consulted and repre-sented on management structures.

7. Support time to provide assistance to asylum seekers.

8. Extra class time for adult learners with special needs.9. Comprehensive in-service training for all teachers,including country of origin information.

10.Free computer classes for all asylum seekers (adaptedfrom IVEA, 2001: 24).

The IVEA proposed recommendations outlining supportservices for asylum seekers to ensure the holistic nature ofeducational service delivery. These include: a compre-hensive training programme for all personnel working withthe target group; counselling services for asylum seekers inschools and centres; increased accessibility of interpretation

and translation facilities; more accessible information/legalservices for asylum seekers and library resources. In terms ofpolicy development for asylum seekers, refugees and othernon-nationals, the IVEA policy is extremely significant. TheIVEA has a broad mandate and started promoting its policy.Regular meetings will be held with the DES to act as a singlecontact point for the VECs. A second IVEA policy documentwill be published in Autumn 2002 on lifelong learningwhich will outline a structure for the delivery of educationalservices to asylum seekers, refugees and other minoritylinguistic groups.

1.5 Integrate Ireland Language and Training (IILT)(formerly the RLSU)

The DES under the aegis of Trinity College Dublin estab-lished the Refugee Language Support Unit (RLSU) in 1999.The RLSU also incorporated Interact Ireland (formerly theRefugee Language and Training Project) which wassupported by European Integra Funds and set up to developservices and language support to assist second languagelearners access vocational training/work. However, theRLSU had a wider remit and was set up:

to establish and maintain a database of the languageexperience of all non-national pupils and adult refugeesand to track their English language training progress.

to develop suitable English language programmes fornon-nationals.

to develop new English language training materials andidentify sources of suitable existing materials.

to provide training for English language support teachersand their principals at primary and post-primary level.

to develop benchmarks of English competence at variouslevels.

to advise the DES on matters relating to the Englishlanguage provision of non-nationals, as requested.

Co-ordinating language support for refugees, the RLSUpreviously contracted language provision to privatelanguage schools (for example, Kosovar programmerefugees) and currently deliver courses to adult refugees(and others with legal residency) in conjunction with FSand its centre.

In the White Paper, the Government noted its intention toexpand the role of the RSLU to include asylum seekers. TheDES provided a grant to develop language-teachingmaterials for adult asylum seekers, together with other non-

nationals and training on materials use. A SteeringCommittee was set up by the DES to oversee the devel-opment of these materials and includes representatives fromNALA, the IVEA and the City of Dublin VEC (refer toSection 8.10). The RLSU has now become Integrate IrelandLanguage and Training (IILT) and is a campus company ofTrinity College Dublin.

1.6 National Adult Literacy Agency (NALA)Non-governmental organisations (NGOs) are framing policyfor language and literacy provision for asylum seekers,together with other ESOL learners. Established in 1980,


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introducing some approaches in ESOL in Dublin, Cork, Athlone and Kilkenny.Finally, the organisation intends to integrate ESOL into all areas of work organi-sation, including assessment, materials production and other developmentalareas.

1.7 Summary of key points

Laying down the foundations for a new national structure for adult learning,the White Paper on Adult Education Learning for Life, singles out areas ofeducation, which traditionally have been neglected. These include: literacy,community education, workplace education, higher education, supportservices, co-operation with Northern Ireland, structures and priority areas.

Three principles frame adult education in the White Paper: (a) Lifelonglearning as a systemic approach, (b) Equality and (c) Interculturalism. Designedto transform adult education in order to accommodate difference, each hasparticular relevance for asylum seekers.

Encompassing an individuals education from the the cradle to the grave,lifelong learning is characterised as being lifelong, lifewide, voluntary and self-motivated. Advancing lifelong learning given the current educational struc-tures will be a long-term project. Recognising adults attend programmes in amultiplicity of learning sites, the White Paper recognises the need to offer

support to the community-based sector. Furthermore, ensuring all practices arebased on the notion of learner autonomy, active engagement in learning mustbe encouraged.

Recommending targeted interventions directed at learners facing barriersaccessing education, the White Paper marks the first time the DES has made apledge to promote equality in all sectors of education. Defining equality interms of access, participation and outcome, the White Paper does not explicitlystate, how each is to be achieved in a practical sense. Although, the DES hasmade several efforts to promote equality, advancing equality in adult educationfor minority linguistic groups demands further measures. Ensuring equality ineducation requires: implementing equality proofing procedures, enforcing

codes of practice, eliminating economic inequalities and an examination of theschooling system.

Taking diversity as the norm, the White Paper accepts that special needsgroups experience difficulties negotiating the education system. Challengesfacing the sector are recognised in terms of modes of teacher selection/training,language, inter-relationships between tutors and learners, curricula, coursematerials and extra-curricular activities. However, the White Paper does notrecommend how interculturalism needs to be promoted. Anti-racism/anti-discrimination should be a central component of an intercultural policy.Creating an enabling environment involves a series of actions: the adoption ofa whole organisation approach to address racism; a commitment to raceequality; anti-discrimination policy objectives in all strategic planning

NALA is a co-ordination, training andcampaigning body for all those inter-ested or involved in adult literacy inIreland. Primarily funded by the DES,NALA offers training to tutors andorganisers on a wide range of subjectsbased on good practice principles inAdult Basic Education, together withliteracy awareness workshops for thepublic/private sector. In addition to aresearch programme (focusing onassessment, training needs analysis,health and literacy), NALA hasinitiated several projects to expand andenhance literacy provision.

In January 2002, NALA established anESOL Executive Working Groupfollowing a resolution from an AnnualGeneral Meeting (2001). The terms ofreference for the group include: under-taking an audit of current provisionand drawing up a discussion documentwith proposals for the DES. Working

group members involve stakeholdersfrom statutory and non-statutoryagencies. In addition, under theheading of new approaches to literacy,NALA made a commitment in itsStrategic Plan 2002-2006 to developpolicy guidelines/supports for practi-tioners, together with implementingan ESOL policy and developmentprogramme for the literacy service (17-18). The audit of the literacy service isnow complete and NALA will publish

the ESOL Working Group report inAutumn/Winter 2002.

Working in collaboration withWaterford Institute of Technology(WIT), NALA have developed severalprofessional third level accreditedcourses for adult literacy practitioners.NALA/WIT intend to develop an ESOLmodule to be delivered as part of itsNational Certificate in Adult andCommunity Education (Tutoring). In2001, NALA organised one-day sessions


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exercises; a grievance procedure; involving black andethnic minorities in policy development; monitoringaccess and participation of marginalized groups;employing minorities to work in organisations; ensuringall documents are translated and ensuring all staffmembers attend anti-racism/cultural awareness training.

The White Paper singles out asylum seekers as a grouprequiring special provision. Making asylum seekerseligible for language and literacy provision, the WhitePaper provides for free access to literacy, languageprovision and mother culture supports. An extremelypositive development for asylum seekers, educationpolicies need to be designed to prevent exclusion in thehost country and facilitate re-integration upon return to acountry of origin. Highlighting the need for research inthe area, the White Paper proposes discussions shouldtake place with relevant stakeholders in order to considerrecommendations.

In 2001, the IVEA Working Group on asylum seekers,refugees and other non-nationals issued a policy. Providinga brief overview of current practice, the IVEA recommendsthe establishment of a national co-ordinating structure for

the reception of asylum seekers. Educational recommenda-tions made by the IVEA predominantly relate to resourcing.Calling for additional resources to be made available formore language classes, computer classes and educationalsupport, the IVEA recommends all programmes shouldincorporate a cultural civic dimension. Ensuring asylumseekers, together with other non-nationals, are consultedand represented on management structures, the IVEAmakes proposals for a whole range of support services: acomprehensive training programme for all personnelworking with the target group, counselling services,increased accessibility to translation services, greater avail-

ability of information/legal services and library resources. The DES under the aegis of Trinity College Dublin estab-

lished the Refugee Language Support Unit (RLSU) in 1999.Interact Ireland (formerly the Refugee Language andTraining Project) was incorporated into the RLSU.Supported by European Integra Funds, Interact Irelandbegan as a two-year project set up to develop services andlanguage training to assist second language learners accessvocational training/work. The DES provided a grant todevelop language-teaching materials for work with adultasylum seekers, together with other non-nationals andtraining on materials use.

Established in 1980, NALA is the national membershiporganisation for learners and providers involved in adultliteracy work. NALA is responsible for national co-ordination, training and policy development. NALA haveinitiated a wide range of programmes to expand andenhance current literacy provision in Ireland.

NALA established a working group on ESOL in January2002 to devise policy guidelines for literacy and languageproviders following a national audit of the Adult LiteracyService. NALA will publish guidelines for practitionersand a discussion document with recommendations forthe DES.

NALA/WIT intend to develop an ESOL module, whichwill be delivered as part of its National Certificate inAdult and Community Education (Tutoring). NALAorganised one-day sessions introducing some approachesin ESOL on a national basis and intend to integrate ESOLinto all areas of work organisation.


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2.1 Introduction

There is no single set of basic assumptions or principles governing thepractice of educationalists. The objective of this section is to introduceunderlying beliefs informing day-to-day practices of language and literacyproviders in Ireland and briefly explain how they relate to asylum seekers andother minority linguistic groups. This chapter attempts to chart progress inEnglish language teaching and examines the role of literacy in second languageeducation. The fields of language provision and literacy have evolved inisolation of each other. Developments within the study of human psychologyhave influenced both areas, while ideas from adult education/literacy have infil-trated language teaching. A complete overview of international research onlanguage and literacy theory has not been provided as the following section ismeant to be instructive rather than definitive (refer to Appendix C for secondlanguage acquisition and cognitive view of language learning). Finally, anoverview of research on the language issues for refugees in Ireland is providedas no research, to date, has been undertaken on language issues for asylumseekers.

2.2 English Language Teaching (ELT)Practices within English Language Teaching (ELT) have developed into a numberof distinct groups of methodologies and approaches. Reflecting the diversecontexts and needs of language learners, they fall under the umbrella termEnglish for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL). Two of the most widely known

forms of language teaching are English as a Foreign Language (EFL) and Englishas a Second Language (ESL). EFL, ESL and ESOL contrast in the following ways:

EFL refers to circumstances where English is not the primary means of communi-cation and instruction. Most EFL settings offer limited exposure to the targetlanguage outside the classroom; syllabuses are carefully structured with extensiverecycling of key target language items (Carter & Nunan, 2001). In EFL, accredi-tation mechanisms usually dictate course direction and the teacher has overallresponsibility for introducing a cultural dimension to programmes. In addition,EFL is taught in the learners mother tongue and frequently in private languageschools (Jordan, 2001).

ESL refers to situations where English is being taught in countries in which it isthe principal means of communication. In the United States of America, Britainand Australia, ESL programmes were originally developed for migrants andrefugees and modelled on foreign language education. Early classes were needsbased and concentrated on Survival English with progression to vocationallanguage programmes. However, the term ESL fails to recognise that somelanguage learners originate from polyglot cultures where more than one languageis spoken in daily exchanges (Jordan, 2001).

ESOL learners are primarily concernedwith developing speaking andlistening skills in functional languagefor everyday use. Programmes arelearner centred and needs based withattainable short-term goals. Preparinglearners for independence, ESOL takesaccount of educational/employmentaspirations. ESOL also incorporatescommunicative language techniquesfor mixed levels and cross-culturalapproaches which recognises alearners other languages/cultures.ESOL is used in the UK to describelanguage teaching to all learners overthe age of 16 (Refer to Adult ESOL CoreCurriculum, 2001), while English as anAdditional Language (EAL) is theaccepted term for ELT for learnersunder 16.

In searching for the best method ofteaching languages, various method-

ologies and approaches have beendeveloped. They are grouped into thefollowing broad headings: grammartranslation, audio-lingual, commu-nicative, learner centred and the socialaction approaches (grammar trans-lation and audio-lingual will not bediscussed here).

2.2.1Communicative approachThe communicative approach to

language teaching gained prominencein the 1970s. It brought a new under-standing of the necessity to makelanguage relevant to the learnersneeds as well as providing opportu-nities for language use in theclassroom through task-based learning(Willis & Willis, 2001). The commu-nicative approach incorporates amultitude of methodologies andstrategies. In its weakest form thisapproach is concerned with developingthe learners communication skills in

CHAPTER TWO Language and literacy approaches


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CHAPTER TWO

the target language to enable them todeal with everyday situations. With abias towards oral communication,dialogues and role-play in coursebooks; importance is placed on usingauthentic materials such as bustimetables, bills, official letters andminimal study of grammar (Little &Lazenby-Simpson, 1996). In itsstrongest form communication isprimarily the means of naturalisticlanguage acquisition. This version ofthe approach assigns central impor-tance to authentic texts not only fortheir cultural value but because theyare themselves communicative eventsand as such can stimulate and feed thecommunicative process of languagelearning(Little & Lazenby-Simpson,1996: 10). However, Day and Bamford(1998) have questioned the cult ofauthenticity and recommend the useof simplified texts in languageteaching which incorporate the

natural qualities of authenticity(Tomlinson, 2001: 68).

One of the driving forces behind thecommunicative approach has been theCouncil of Europe. Vigorouslypromoting this approach, the Councilswork in teaching and learninglanguages is designed to facilitatecommunication, co-operation,mobility and interaction amongEuropeans as well as combating

prejudice and discrimination. It hassuccessfully introduced the CommonEuropean Framework of Reference forLanguages, the European LanguagePortfolio, level descriptors for specificlanguages and drafted policy, togetherwith launching important events suchas the European Year of Languages.

The Common European Framework ofReference for Languages guidespractice and policy within the Councilof Europe. Devised after wide consul-

tation (with over 1,000 institutions andindividuals) and research, it is aplanning instrument which provides acommon basis for: describing objec-tives, assessment, planning syllabuses,examinations, textbooks and teachertraining programmes.

Espousing a communicative languagelearning approach, the Framework islearner-centred, action orientated,content based, reflective, interculturaland orientated towards learnerautonomy (RLSU, 2000). As a linguistictool, it sets out standards to be attainedat successive points in languagelearning. It details common standardsfor evaluating outcomes that can becompared internationally. In addition,the Framework outlines the compe-tences or abilities necessary forcommunication, relatedknowledge/skills and situations anddomains of communication.

The Framework and recommendationsfrom the Council relate specifically to:language learning in schools andhigher education, language learningfor migrants and measures for interna-tional co-operation. In addition, theFramework has been used extensively,in English as a Foreign Language (EFL)to develop materials. In November2001, the European Union CouncilResolution recommended the

Framework be used to set up avali

vec info on esl elt asylum

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