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The Hebrew grammatical tradition

Schippers, A.

Publication date1997Document VersionFinal published versionPublished inThe Semitic Languages

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Citation for published version (APA):Schippers, A. (1997). The Hebrew grammatical tradition. In R. Hetzron (Ed.), The SemiticLanguages (pp. 59-66). Routledge.

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5 8 THE ARABIC GRAMMATICAL TRADITION

Damascus: Instiiut Fran^ais de Damas. Bohas, G., J-P. Guillaume and D. Kouloughli. 1990. The Arabic Linguistic Tradition.

London: Routiedge. / Carter, Michael. 1972. "Les Origincs de la grammaire arabe."/?evue des Etudes Islamiques

40: 69-97. 1973. "An Arabic Grammarian of the Eighth Century A.D." Journal of the American

Oriental Society 93: 146-157. Ditters, E. 1992. A Formal Approach to Arabic Syntax. Luxor: Nijmegen. Fleisch, Henri. 1994. "Arabic Linguistics." lixHistory of Linguistics,yolume 1, ed. G. Lep-

'schy. London: Longman. 164-184. Haywood, J. 1959 {1965'^). Arabic Lexicography. Leiden: Brill. Howdl, M. 1882-1903. i4 Grammar of the Classical Arabic Language. Delhi: Gian Pub­

lishing House. Larcher, P. 1992. "La Particule lakinna vue par un grammarien arabe du Xllle siic\e."His-

toriographia Linguistica 19: 1-24. Langhade, J. 1994. "Etudes linguistiques au Moyen-Age, un regard interculturel: Le Si­

lence des sources sur la science lexicographique arabe." Bulletin d'Etudes Orientales 46:99-110.

Owens, Jonathan. 1988. The Foundations of Grammar: An Introduction to Medieval Arabic Grammatical Theory. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

1990. Early Arabic Grammatical Theory: Heterogeneity and Standardization Am­sterdam: Benjamins.

1991. "Models for the Interpretation of the Development of Medieval Arabic Gram­matical Theory." Journal of the American Oriental Society 111: 225-238.

Rabin, Chaim. \95\. Ancient Westarabian. London: Taylor's University Press. Rundgren, Frithiof. 1976. "Uber den griechischen Einfluss auf die arabische Nationalgram-

matik." Uppsala: Acta Universitatis Upsalensis. Talmon, R. 1992. Review of Owens 1990, Early Arabic Grammatical Theory. Linguistics

30:816-820. Tesniere, L. 1959. Elements de syntaxe siructurale. Paris: Klincksieck. Versteegh, C. 1977. Greek Elements in Arabic Linguistic Thinking. Leiden: Brill.

1993. Arabic Grammar and Qur'aanic Exegesis. Leiden: Brill. Weil, G. 1913. Die grammatischen Streitfragen der Basrer und Kufer. Leiden: Brill. Weiss, B. 1966. "Language in Orthodox Muslim Thought: A Study of Wad" al-Luga and

its Development." Ph.D. dissertation, Princeton University. Wild, S. 1965. Das Kitaab al-'ain und die arabische Lexicographie. Wiesbaden: Harras-

sowitz.

Further Reading

Arabic Ibn Jinni, Abu 1-Fath. 1954. al-Munfif ed. I. Mustafa and A. Amin. Cairo: Idarat Ihya' al-

Turath al-Qadim. Nahhas, Abu Ja'far. 1977. 'I'raab al-qur'aan, ed. Z. Zahid. Baghdad: Wizarat al-Awqaf.

Secondary Larcher, P. 1991. "Quand, en Arabe, on parlait de I'Arabe ... (II): Essai sur la catdgorie de

'Insha' (vs. xabar)." Arabica 38: 246-273. Owens, Jonathan. 1989. "The Syntactic Basis of Arabic Word Classification."/4rai;ica 36:

211-234. Wright. W. 1859 (1977)./! Grammar of the Arabic Language. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni­

versity Press.

n̂ 4 The Hebrew Grammatical Tradition

Arte Schippers

Grammatical activities in the field of Hebrew appeared relatively late, in a period when Hebrew was no longer spoken. Even the most colloquial Hebrew variant, rabbinical Hebrew, had died out in the second century. Hebrew had for centuries been limited to synagogical and literary use. The Bible was transmitted by the Jews from generation to generation, but the vocalization and accentuation notes had to be added as "punctuation" to the consonantal text, probably only from the beginning of the seventh century. This was at least the opinion of the Rabbanites (the mainstream of Judaism) who recognized later traditions such as the orally re­vealed Mishnah and the Talmud as a completion of the Written Law of the Bible.

The Qara'ites, however, were of the opinion that the Bible was self-explanatory and required no completion by Oral Law such as the Mishnah and Talmud, which were considered by the Rabbanites as writings with great authority. The Qara'ites claimed that the Bible had been revealed in its entirety, "graven upon the tablets," i.e. "full with vowel and accent signs and not lacking in vowel and accent signs" Eskol ha-kofer (see p. 61). Consequently, they were very active in adding diacrit­ics. This activity was called the Masorah, i.e. 'transmission' or 'numbering of the verses' (Arabic al-ma:sirah). The first Masoretes were the Ben Aser family of whom Abu Sa'id Aharon ben Moseh was the most conspicuous member (first half of the seventh century).

One of the systems of vocalinng, the so-called Tiberian system, acquired pri­ority in the Jewish world. That may be the reason that a ninth-century author even pretended that he had heard common people in the streets of Tiberias s p e ^ n g He­brew, suggesting that there was siill a living tradition.

The development of philology led to the addition of diacritics and served as a foundation for the grammatical work starting in the tenth century. In the begirming writing about grammar was considered by many to be a vain activity. Grammar­ians tried to prove that language studies were necessary for the proper understand­ing of the written Word. (Qara'ites and Rabbanites disagreed in their interpretations of Biblical Hebrew. Another factor which stimulated grammar studies was the activity in the fidd of Arabic grammar by Muslim scholars. The

H

59

6 0 THE HEBREW GRAMMATICAL TRADITION

abundance of Arabic philological and grammatical literature was no doubt a stim­ulus for the Jews who occupied themselves with Hebrew. This phenomenon of the sudden renaissance of Hebrew studies in the tenth and eleventh centuries may also have been the reaction of the su'u:biyyah against the dominant position of the Ar­abic language. This movement, supported mainly by officials of Persian origin, stressed the particular values of the non-Arab peoples {su'u:b) within Islam.The Jews became more aware of the value of their own culture and their holy language as well.

The Golden Age of Hebrew Grammar: The Creative Period The first among the philologists of the Hebrew language was Sa'adyah Ga'on or Sa'adiyyah ibn Yu:suf (892-942), bom in Fayyurm (Egypt), the head of the Jew­ish community in Babylonia (Iraq) and the foremost personality in Rabbanite Ju­daism during the first half of the tenth century. He wrote the Kita:b al-sab^i:n lafzah al-mufradah 'Book of the seventy unique words', the first to explain hapax legomena (words or roots found only once in the text) of the Bible according to their use in rabbinical literature. He also compiled the Kita:b ufu:l al-si'r al-'ibra:ni: 'Book of the Roots of Hebrew Poetry', usually referred to by its He­brew title Agron 'Compendium', the first Hebrew dictionary with glosses in Ara­bic. It consists of two alphabetic listings, according to the first and the last letters. Sa'adyah Ga'on wanted poets to use a better Hebrew. He pointed out the differ­ence between letters that stand for the basic meaning of the word, and added letters that represent affixes. Equally important was his Kita:b fasish luyat al-''ibra.-niyyah 'Book of the pure Hebrew language', in which morphological questions of the Hebrew language were dealt with for the first time.

The interest in linguistic problems spread quickly through North Africa. In Tahort, a town in what is now Algeria, lived Yehudah ibn Quraysh (tenth cen­tury), who dedicated his Risa:lah 'Treatise, Epistle' to the Jewish community of Fez. He compared Biblical Hebrew with Aramaic, Mishnaic Hebrew, Arabic and other languages such as Berber.

In the East we have the work by the Qara'ite Abu:-1-Farag Harurn ibn al-Farag from Jerusalem, \heKita:b al-ka:fi:fi-l-luyah al-'ibra:niyyah 'The adequate book on the Hebrew language' and the 579-page manuscript, written in Jerusalem about 1000, Mustamil ^ala:-l-ufu:l wa-l-fufu:lfi:-l-luyak al-'ibra:niyyah 'Comprehen­sive Book on the Roots and Branches of the Hebrew Language'. Part 1 of the latter is devoted to the ten principles (ufu.i) used to determine a form in language; part 2 deals with infinitives; part 3 with the letters of the alphabet and their division into essential [gawhariyyah) and servant letters {xawa:dim\ roughly the same dis­tinction between basic letters and added ones as made by Sa'adyah, see p. 60). Part 4 deals with particles while part 5 considers many kinds of grammatical ques­tions: gender, number, pronouns, transitivity and lexicology. Part 6 is concerned with the conjugation of the verb haleq; part 7 with a lericography and triliteral verbs according to the anagram system; part 8 is a comparison of Hebrew with

THE HEBREW GRAMMATICAL TRADITION 61

biblical Aramaic. Abu:-1-Farag's anagram method looks very much like that of the Arabic gram­

marian al-Xali:l ibn Ahmad (710-786) in his dictionary Kita:b al-'ayn. This dic­tionary is not arranged alphabetically, but by groups of sounds, probably under Indian influence, starting with the consonant combinations with the Arabic letter 'ayn. Abu:-1-Fara| started by explaining all the root combinations containing the Hebrew consonant letter 'ayn, subsequently dealing with other consonant combi­nations. The following roots are found in the extant remnant oial-Mustamil'% let­ter 'ayn: 'BR, 'RF, 'MR, 'SB, 'FL, 'SB. Under 'BR all the pennutations of the three consonant letters are listed, namely: 'BR, 'RB, B'R, BR', RB', R'B.

Among other Qara'ite works are David ben Abraham al-Fa:si:'s extensive dic­tionary of Biblical Hebrew in Arabic, called Kita:bja:mi' al-alfa:z 'Comprehen­sive book of sounds' and two grammatical texts: the anonymous book Me'or 'ayin 'Eye Light' or 'Enlightenment of the Eye', composed at the end of the elev­enth century and the Eskol ha-kofer 'The cluster of camphire' (cf Song of So­lomon l:14)/'The grape of henna' by the twelfth-century author yhudah Hadassi. The former work does not seem to have been influenced by the Andalusian Rab­banites and has a completely different grammatical system, whereas the latter is heavily influenced by the Andalusian grammarians Hayyu:| and Ibn 6ana:h (see pp. 62-63).

The renaissance of Hebrew which manifested itself in the study of Hebrew grammar and the new school of Hebrew secular poetry, took place in tenth- and eleventh-century Muslim Spain. Jewish patrons emulated the courtly habits of their Muslim colleagues. Moseh ibn 'Ezra (1055-1138), himself a poet, tells us in his Kitaib al-muha:darah wa-l-mu5a:karah 'Book of discussion and commemo­ration' about the learned men who made the revival of Hebrew possible. In the fifth chapter of his Kita:b, devoted to a survey of Hebrew literature in Muslim Spain, Moseh ibn 'Ezra begins (28b) by stating that the reason for the Spanish Jews' mastery of the Hebrew language was the fact that they originated from Jews in Jerusalem, where the purest Hebrew was acquired and from where God's Law and Word had come. After the arrival of the Arabs in Andalusia (711 CE), the Jews delved deeply into Arabic science, linguistics and poetty (29b). Thereupon God revealed to them the secret of their own holy language: phenomena such as weak and additional letters were recognized. The first grammarians lived at the Cor-doban court of the Jewish patron Abu: Yu:suf Hasday ibn Ishaq ibn Shapru:{ (915-970). About this maecenas, whose activities initiated the flowering-of He­brew Andalusian poetry, MoJeh ibn 'Ezra says in his Kita:b (30ab): "He fumly established the pillars of science by surrounding himself with wise men firom Syr­ia and al-'Iraq. The authors of his time ... wrote admirable works. They praised him in their beautiful poems and writings in the Arabic language. In exchange, therefore, he distinguished them with his graceful gifts, while he provided all the necessary means to satisfy their wishes."

One can conclude from MoSeh ibn 'Ezra's sketch that the new poetical school arose at a time when there were also many linguistic activities. Linguistic and

6 2 THE HEBREW GRAMMATICAL TRADITION

poetic activities stimulated and influenced each other. Hebrew poets rivaled the Arabs in their poetry and adopted the ideal of distilling the purest poetic language fi-om the Hebrew of Holy Scripture.

M^nahem ibnSaruq (borne. 915,Tonosa) livcdatthecourt of Hasday ibn Sha-pru:?. His lexicon of the Hebrew language, the Mahberet 'Book, Compendium', was believed to be a step forward compared with Sa'adyah Ga'on's dictionary. Menahem differentiated between roots {y'sod, 'iqqar, sores) and the paragogic or added element {tosefit 'addition', mssar'tim, 'servants') within the Hebrew word (seep. 60). ^

This differentiation, however, already appears in the writings of the Tiberian Masorete Aharon ben ASer (see p. 59) and of Sa'adya ha-Ga'on (p. 60). But M'nahem did not possess the theoretical foundations to discover the weak con­sonants. For him any consonant that could disappear during the flexion of a root does not belong to its basis, but is an added consonant. By means of this empirical process, he admits a large number of monoconsonantal and biconsonantal roots. Contrary to the widespread custom of writing scientific works in Arabic, his dic­tionary was written in Hebrew. It was therefore widely disseminated in Europe.

IvTnahem's critic, Dunai ibn Labrat (a name of Berber origin; bom c. 925 in Morocco; educated in Baghdad by Sa'adyah), established himself in Cordoba, at the court of Hasday ibn Shapru:t. Dunas ibn Labrat's criticisms were directed mainly against the identification of roots by M'nahem and against the meanings he attributed to words, which often entailed theological consequences. Dunal's criticisms of M'nahem unleashed a polemic between the pupils of M'nahem and of Dunal. The pupils of M'nahem also criticized the new metrics introduced by Dunas in the poetry of the new Hebrew Andalusian school. This criticism of the inadequacy of the Arabic meters for Hebrew poetry was to be repeated later by YTiudah ha-Le:wi (p. 63).

The discovery of the triradicalism of the Hebrew words and verbs by Yehudah (Abu: Zakariyya Yahya:) ben David al-Fa:si: Hayyu:g (c. 930-c. 1(X30; bom at Fez, lived in Cordoba) was revolutionary for Hebrew grammar. He hoped that, by the correct philological knowledge of Biblical forms, the holy language would be used again by scholars and poets just as in antiquity. Hayyu:| wrote two mono­graphs. He came to the conclusion that every Hebrew verbal root consisted of at least three letters (consonants). He called alef, yod, waw and he: "weak" or "soft," because these letters are not written phonetically, but visible in the text. He recog­nized that the primae yod verb yasav has three radicals, and not two, as earlier grammarians would say on the basis of the sometimes invisible yod. He also dis­covered the concept of compensatory lengthening (Arabic madd 'lengthening') from the basic forms (Arabic afliyyah) of the sound verbs (e.g. pa'al, or samar). To represent the verbal forms he uses the rooip-'-l (inspired by the similar use of /- '-/ in Arabic). In his Kita:b al-afa:l Sawa:t huru:f al-li:n 'Book of the verbs with weak letters' he recognizes the following four categories of weak verbs: (I) the verba primae alef, (2) the verba primae yod; (3) the verba mediae infirmae (with a medial weak radical: yod or waw); (4) the verba teniae infirmae (whose

- THE HEBREW GRAMMATICAL TRADITION 6 3

final radical is weak alef or he: = yod or waw). These are weak because they may be omitted in part of the paradigms. In his Kita:b al-afa:l Sawa:t al-midlayn 'Book of the geminate verbs' Hayyuig dealt with defective forms of verbs that have identical second and third radicals {verba mediae geminatae).

Yonah ibn Gana:h (bom in Cordoba c. 990) wanted to whie a comprehensive and systematic grammar of Biblical Hebrew in the tradition of Hayyu:g. In his old age, after 1039, he composed the work which he had been preparing for a long time, namely the Kita:b al-tanqi:h 'Book of detailed investigation'. The first part of this book, the Kita:b al-luma' 'Book of variegated flower beds' was a most comprehensive grammar in the tradition of Hayyu:g. The second part, the Kita:b al-usu:l 'Book of the roots', contains a complete vocabulary of Biblical Hebrew, without personal or place names. The letters are listed under their Arabic equiva­lents, following the order of the Arabic alphabet (according to roots, geminates coming before teniae alef words). Each derived word is translated into Arabic.

The poets S'mu'el han-Nagid (993-1055), S'lomo ibn Gabirol (1021-1058), and Yehudah ha-Le:wi (1075-1141) were also interested in grammar. S'lomo wrote a didactic poem in Hebrew on grammar called Se:fer ha-'anaq 'Book of the necklace'; 98 lines from the original 400 are still extant. S'mu'el han-Nagid is re­ported to have written some comments on grammatical works and a dictionary of Biblical Hebrew. Yehudah ha-Le:wi wrote his Maqa:lat al-'aru:4 'Treatise on metrics' - metrics were considered to belong to linguistics - and his Kita:b al-xaz-ari: 'Book of the Khazar king', in which he made important remarks on the con­temporary situation of the Hebrew language.

Moseh ibn Chiquitilla or Chicatella lived in the eleventh century. Moseh ibn 'Ezra considered him "one of the principal learned men and linguists" (36b). He published a volume entitled Kita:b al-taSki:r wa-l-ta'm:6 'The Book of masculine and feminine genders'.

Y'hudah ibn Bal'am or Bil'am also lived in the eleventh century. Apparently he was bom in Toledo, but settled down in Seville after the Christian conquest of To­ledo. He was gifted with a polemical spirit and criticized Sa'adyah Ga'on, Yonah ibn Gana;h and S'mu'el han-Nagid. He even accused MoSeh ibn Chiquitilla of be­ing an atheist, and attacked his rationalism, he himself being a traditionalist. His writings include the Kita:b al-tagni:s 'Book of Homonyms' and the Kita.b al-afa:l al-mustaqqah min al-asma:' 'Book on the denominative verbs'.

Ibn Baru:n (c. 1100, Saragossa) was the author of the Kita:b al-muwa:zanah bayn al-luyah al-Ubra:niyyah wa-l-'arabiyyah 'Book of comparison between the Hebrew and the Arabic language'. In this work he mentions nearly all the preced­ing linguists and also Arab grammarians. It contains a section on the compararive grammar of Arabic and Hebrew, and a lexicographical section. In the latter he pre­sents the biblical roots which have an equivalent in Arabic in pronunciation and meaning.

6 4 THE HEBREW GRAMMATICAL TRADITION

The Second Period of the Grammarians of Hebrew: The Period of Dissemination In this period the grammarians of Hebrew were less original than their predeces­sors. But philosophical linguistic questions still n-oubled them: they developed ideas about the essence of language and its epistemological nature, thoughts about the origin of language and the reason for the multiplicity of the languages, the links between language and climate, the question whether language was natural or conventional, and of whether it was created or pre-existent (Zwiep 1995).

After the Christian reconquest of some territories and the expulsion of the Jews from Muslim Spain by the Almoravids arid Almohades, most Jewish intellectuals lived in Christian Spain and Provence, where the knowledge of Arabic was declin­ing. They therefore translated most of the grammatical works from Arabic into Hebrew. The Hebrew versions were disseminated all over Europe. The translators tried to express in concise Hebrew the findings of Hayyu:g and Ibn Ganarh. Ad­aptations for Western Europe were made by Abraham ibn 'Ezra (1089-1164), Ibn Parhon (twelfth century), Y'hudah ibn Tibbon (c. 1120-C.1190), Jose:f Qimhi: (c. 1105-1235) and his sons Dawid QimM: (c. 1160-1235) and Moseh Qimhi: (died c. 1190, and Yi?haq ben Moseh ha-Le:wi, called Profiat Duran (died c. 1414). Jose:f Qimhi: is specially worth mentioning because of his vowel theory. Instead of the traditional seven 'kings' (vowels), he opted for five contrasting pairs of long and short vowels [a:-a; e:-h; u:-u; o:-o; i:-i]. In connection with David Qimhi: we have to mention his Miklol 'Magnificence', the most widely dissemi­nated grammar and dictionary of Hebrew in the Middle Ages.

Further Reading For more detailed lists of recent and older editions of the Arabic and Hebrew ver­sions of grammatical works, see Saenz Badillos (1988a), Loewe (1994), Tene (1970), Del Valle Rodriguez (1988), and Zwiep (1997).

Bacher, W. 1894a. "Die hebraische SprachwissenschafL" In Gesc/iic/i/f des rabbinischen Litteratur wdhrend des Mittelaliers und ihreNachbtUte in der neueren Zeit, ed. J. Winter and A. Wunsche. Trier Siegmund Meyer. 133-235.

1894b. "Die Massora." In Geschichte des rabbinischen Litteratur wdhrend des Mittel-aiters und ihre Nachbtiite der neueren Zeit, ed. J. Winter and A. Wunsche. Trier: Sieg­mund Mayer. 121-132.

Bekkum, W. J. van. 1982. "The 'Risala' of Yehuda ibn Quraysh and its Place in Hebrew Linguistics." In The History of Linguistics in the Near East, ed. C. H. M. Versteegh et a/. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 71-91.

1997. "Semantics in the Hebrew Tradition." InSemantics in Four Traditions: Greek, Hebrew, Arabic, Sanskrit, ed. C. H. M. Vastccgh. Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Benavente, S., ed. 1986. Tesubot talmide Menahem. Granada: Universidad de Granada. Drory, R. 1988. Re:sit ha-magga'im sel sifrut ha-yhudit 'im ha-sifrut ha-'orbit ba-me'ah

ha-'asirit [The emergence of Jewish-Arabic contacts at the beginning of the tenth cen­tury]. Tel Aviv: ha-Qibbus ha-mc'uhad.

Ibn 'Ezra, MoSeh. 1975. Kita.b al-muha:darah wa-l-mu6a:karah, ed. A. S. Halkin. Jerus­alem: Nezike Nirdanim.

THE HEBREW GRAMMATICAL TRADITION 6 5

\9iS-\9?i(i.Kita.bal-muha:darah wa-l-mu6a:karah, ed. M. Abumalhan Mas, 2 vols. (Volume 2, translation into Spanish.) Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Ci-entificias.

Kutscher, E. Y. 1982. The History of the Hebrew Language. Jer\isalem/Leiden: Magnes/Brill.

Loewe, Raphael. 1994. "Hebrew Linguistics." In History of Linguistics, volume 1: The Eastern Traditions of Linguistics, ed. Giulio Lepschy. London/New York: Longman. 97-163.

Saenz Badillos, A. 1993. A History of the Hebrew Language, trans. John Elwolde. Cam­bridge: Cambridge University Press.

SSenz Badillos, A., ed. 1980. Tesubot de Dunas ben Labraf. Granada: Universidad de Gra­nada.

Saenz Badillos, A. and J. Targarona Bortds. 1988a.DiccJonano de autores judios (Sefarad Siglos X-XV). Cordoba: El Almendro.

1988b. Gramdticos hebreos de al-Andalus (siglosX-XII) (Filologi'a y Biblia). Cordo­ba: El AJmendro.

Steinschneider, M. 1902/1964. Die arabische Literatur der Juden. Frankfurt: Kauffmann, repr. Hildesheim: Georg 01ms.

Tene, David. 1970, "Linguistic Literature, Hebrew." ]i\EncyclopaediaJudaica, volume 16. Jerusalem: Keter. 1352-1400.

Valle Rodriguez, C. del. 1982a. "Die Anfange der hebraischen Grammatik in Spanien." In The History of Linguistics in the Near East, ed. C. H. M. Versteegh et al. Amsterdam: Benjamins. 153-166.

1982b. Die grammatikalische Terminologie derfriihen Hebrdiichen Grammatikern Madrid: CISC, Inst. Francisco Suarez.

1988. El Divan poeiico de Dunash ben Labrat. Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investi­gaciones Cientificias.

Valle Rodriguez, C. del, ed. 1977. Sefer fahot de Abraham Ibn Ezra. Salamanca: Univer­sidad Pontificia.

Varela Moreno, M. E., ed. 1981. Tesubot de Yehudi ben Seset. Granada: Universidad de Granada.

Versteegh, C. H. M., Konrad Koemer and Hans-J. Niederehe, eds. 1983. The History of Linguistics in the Near East (Studies in the History of Linguistics 28 = Historiographia Linguistica 8,2/3, 1981). Amsterdam: Benjamins.

Zeslin, M., ed. 1990. We^or 'ayin. Moscow: USSR Academy of Sciences. Zwiep, Irene E. 1995. "Aristotle, Galen, God: A Short History of Medieval Jewish Linguis­

tic Thought." Ph.D. dissertation, Univereity of Amsterdam. 1997. The Mother of Reason and Revelation: A Short History of Medieval Jewish Lin­

guistic Thought. Amsterdam: Gieben.