utilization of agroindustrial wastes for the · pdf filethe present review was focused on the...

Available online at www.jpsscientificpublications.com

Volume – 1; Issue - 2; Year – 2017; Page: 59 – 71

ISSN: 2456-7353

DOI: 10.22192/ijias.2017.1.2.4

I International Journal of Innovations in Agricultural Sciences (IJIAS) Journal of In

©2017 Published by JPS Scientific Publications Ltd. All rights reserved

UTILIZATION OF AGROINDUSTRIAL WASTES FOR THE CULTIVATION OF

INDUSTRIALLY IMPORTANT FUNGI – A REVIEW

P. Saranraj*1 and S. Anbu

2,

1Department of Microbiology, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur – 635 601, Tamil Nadu,

India. 2Department of Biochemistry, Sacred Heart College (Autonomous), Tirupattur – 635 601, Tamil Nadu,

India.

Abstract

Fungi are an important component of soil microbiota typically having higher biomass than bacteria

depending on soil depth and nutrient conditions. Generally, growth media for fungi contain carbon and

nitrogen sources, and most fungi require several specific elements for growth and reproduction. Cultural

medium is defined as any material in which microorganism find nourishment for growth and development.

Fungi, like any other living organism, require nutrients for their life processes. This is obvious from the fact

that they feed on varieties of food substances. Investigation into the composition of culture media has

established that the important ingredients such as nitrogen, carbon, vitamins and growth factors, mainly essential mineral salts are required for fungal growth. The feasibility of developing alternative media for

cultivation of fungi apart from the conventional ones like Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar and Potato Dextrose

Agar has been studied by different researchers. The need to develop alternative media has become

imperative as the conventional media are either not readily available or expensive in most developing

countries. The present review was focused on the utilization of fruit peels for the growth of industrially

important fungi. In this present review, we discussed about the Generation and composition of

Agroindustrial wastes, Fruit peels, Fruit peel wastes in fungal growth and Utilization of fruit peel wastes for

the cultivation of industrially important fungi.

Key words: Fungi, Industrial importance, Agroindustrial wastes and Fruit peels.

1. Introduction Ever increasing population and

industrialization has resulted in sudden increase in

pollution. Because of the detrimental effects of

pollution on humans, animals and plants, the ever

*Corresponding author: Dr. P. Saranraj E.mail: [email protected] Received: 17.05.2017; Revised: 28.05.2017; Accepted: 15.06.2017.

increasing pollution is causing concern all over the

world (Gao et al., 2010). One of the major

environmental concerns in urban areas today is the

issue of Solid Waste Management. In India, the

collection, transportation and disposal of solid

waste is normally done in an unscientific and

chaotic manner (Carlsson et al., 2012).

Uncontrolled dumping of wastes on outskirts of

towns and cities has created overflowing landfills,

which are not only impossible to reclaim because

of the haphazard manner of dumping, but also

have serious environmental implications in terms

http://www.jpsscientificpublications.com/

P. Saranraj/International Journal of Innovations in Agricultural Sciences (IJIAS), 1(2): 59 – 71 60


of ground water pollution and contribution to

global warming (Manigat et al., 2010).

Environmental issues and concerns aimed

at reducing the ambient pollution have boosted the

search for clean technologies to be used in the

production of commodities of importance to

chemical, energy and food industries. This

practice makes use of alternative materials,

requires less energy and diminishes pollutants in

industrial effluents, as well as being more

economically advantageous due to its reduced

costs. Considering this scenario, the use of

residues from agroindustrial, forestry and urban

sources in bioprocesses has aroused the interest of

the scientific community lately. The utilization of

such materials as substrates for microbial

cultivation intended to produce cellular proteins,

organic acids, mushrooms, biologically important

secondary metabolites, enzymes, prebiotic

oligosaccharides and as sources of fermentable

sugars in the second generation ethanol production

has been reported (Sanchez, 2009).

Agricultural and agro-industrial activities

generate a large amount of lignocellulosic by-

products such as bagasse, straw, stem, stalk, cobs,

fruit peel and husk, among others. These wastes

are mainly composed of cellulose (35 % – 50 %),

hemicellulose (25 % – 30 %), and lignin (25 % –

30 %) (Behera et al., 2016). Typically, in

lignocellulosic materials, the cellulose main

constituent is glucose; hemicellulose is a

heterogeneous polymer that is mainly comprised

of five different sugars (L-arabinose, D-galactose,

D-glucose, D-mannose, and D-xylose) and some

organic acids; whereas lignin is formed by a

complex three-dimensional structure of

phenylpropane units (Mussatto et al., 2012).

Nowadays the rise of the middle class and

fast economic growth in India, different varieties

of fruits produced in India and other countries are

increasingly consumed. Due to the high

consumption and industrial processing of the

edible parts of fruit, fruit wastes such as banana,

grapes, dragon fruit, orange, strawberry, lemon,

watermelon, citrus, Pomegranate, pineapple

residues, sugarcane bagasse and other fruit

residues are generated in large quantities in cities

sides area. Fruit waste has become one of the main

sources of municipal solid wastes, which have

been an increasingly tough environmental issue.

At present, the two main techniques to

dispose of solid wastes are landfill and

incineration. However, inappropriate management

of landfill will result in emissions of methane and

carbon dioxide, and incineration involves the

subsequent formation and releases of pollutants

and secondary wastes such as dioxins, furans, acid

gases as well as particulates, which pose serious

environmental and health risks. For these reasons,

there is an urgent need to seek resource and value-

added use for fruit wastes. In fact, inexpensive and

readily available use of agri-food industry waste is

highly cost-effective and minimizes environmental

impact (Deng et al., 2012; Zhou et al., 2016).

There is an urged need to seek the effect uses of

these solid materials in manure, feed for livestock

etc. Moreover fruit contains many

phytochemicals, which could be a therapeutic

agent for the modern dreadful disease. One of the

most beneficial approaches is these fruit peel can

be also used as reducing agent for the synthesis of

various nonmaterials

2. Agroindustrial wastes – Generation and

composition

Agro-industrial wastes are generated

during the industrial processing of agricultural or

animal products. Those derived from agricultural

activities include materials such as straw, stem,

stalk, leaves, husk, shell, peel, lint, seed/stones,

pulp or stubble from fruits, legumes or cereals (rice, wheat, corn, sorghum and barley), bagasses

generated from sugarcane or sweet sorghum

milling, spent coffee grounds, brewer’s spent

grains, and many others. These wastes are

generated in large amounts throughout the year,

and are the most abundant renewable resources on

earth. They are mainly composed by sugars,

fibres, proteins, and minerals, which are

compounds of industrial interest. Due to the large

availability and composition rich in compounds

that could be used in other processes, there is a

great interest on the reuse of these wastes, both



from economical and environmental view points.

The economical aspect is based on the fact that

such wastes may be used as low-cost raw

materials for the production of other value-added

compounds, with the expectancy of reducing the

production costs. The environmental concern is

because most of the agro-industrial wastes contain

phenolic compounds and/or other compounds of

toxic potential; which may cause deterioration of

the environment when the waste is discharged to

the nature.

Large amount of the agro-industrial wastes

are mainly composed by cellulose, hemicellulose

and lignin, being called “lignocellulosic

materials”. In the lignocellulosic materials, these

three fractions are closely associated with each

other constituting the cellular complex of the

vegetal biomass, and forming a complex structure

that act as a protective barrier to cell destruction

by bacteria and fungi. Basically, cellulose forms a

skeleton which is surrounded by hemicellulose

and lignin.

The cellulose structure is composed only

by glucose units, i.e., it is a homopolymer where

units of cellobiose are sequentially repeated

(Klemm et al., 1998). The long-chain of cellulose

polymers, which may have until 10,000 glucose

units, are linked together by hydrogen and van der

Walls bonds, which cause the cellulose to be

packed into microfibrils (Ha et al., 1998). By

forming these hydrogen bounds, the chains tend to

arrange in parallel and form a crystalline structure.

Cellulose microfibrils have both highly crystalline

regions (around 2/3 of the total cellulose) and less-

ordered amorphous regions. More ordered or

crystalline cellulose is less soluble and less

degradable, being strongly resistant to chemicals

(Taherzadeh and Karimi, 2008).

On the contrary of the cellulose,

hemicellulose is a heterogeneous polymer usually

composed by five different sugars (L-arabinose,

D-galactose, D-glucose, D-mannose, and Dxylose)

and some organic acids (acetic and glucuronic

acids, among others). The structure of the

hemicellulose is linear and branched. The

backbone of the hemicellulose chain can be

formed by repeated units of the same sugar

(homopolymer) or by a mixture of different sugars

(heteropolymer). According to the main sugar in

the backbone, hemicellulose has different

classifications e.g., xylans, glucans, mannans,

arabinans, xyloglucans, arabinoxylans,

glucuronoxylans, glucomannans, galactomannans,

galactoglu comannans and glucans. Besides the

differences in the chemical composition,

hemicellulose also differs from cellulose structure

in other aspects, including: 1) the size of the chain,

which is much smaller (it contains approximately

50 - 300 sugar units); 2) the presence of branching

in the main chain molecules, and 3) to be

amorphous, being less resistant to chemicals

(Fengel and Wegener, 1989).

The lignin structure is not formed by sugar

units, but by phenylpropane units linked in a large

and very complex three-dimensional structure.

Three phenyl propionic alcohols are usually found

as monomers of lignin, which include the alcohols

p-coumaryl, coniferyl, and sinapyl. Lignin is

closely bound to cellulose and hemicellulose and

its function is to provide rigidity and cohesion to

the material cell wall, to confer water

impermeability to xylem vessels, and to form a

physico–chemical barrier against microbial attack

(Fengel and Wegener, 1989).

The percentage of cellulose, hemicellulose

and lignin is different to each waste since it varies

from one plant species to another, and also

according to the process that the agricultural

material was submitted. In addition, the ratios

between various constituents in a single plant may

also vary with age, stage of growth, and other

conditions. Usually, cellulose is the dominant

fraction in the plant cell wall (35–50%), followed

by hemicellulose (20 – 35 %) and lignin (10 – 25

%).

The presence of sugars, proteins, minerals

and water make the agro-industrial wastes a

suitable environment for the development of

microorganisms, mainly fungal strains, which are

able to quickly grow in these wastes. If the



cultivation conditions are controlled, different

products of industrial interest may be produced,

avoiding the loss of potential energy sources.

There is an increasing energy demands

worldwide towards the utilization of renewable

resources, from agricultural and forest residues.

The major components of the residues are

cellulose, lignin and pectin. These materials have

paid more attention as an alternative feed stock

and energy source, since they are abundantly

available. Several microorganisms are capable of

using these substances as carbon and energy

sources by producing a vast array of enzymes in

different environmental conditions. Solid wastes

are perceived as undesirable matter that is

generated from human and animal activities. The

sources of solid waste include various sectors such

as residential, industrial, commercial, institutional

and agricultural premises.

Fruit residues may cause serious

environmental problems, since it accumulates in

agro-industrial yards without having any

significant and commercial value. Since disposal

of these wastes is expensive due to high costs of

transportation and a limited availability of landfills

they are unscrupulously disposed causing concern

as environmental problems. Furthermore, the

problem of disposing by-products is further

aggravated by legal restrictions. A high level of

BOD and COD in pineapple wastes add to further

difficulties in disposal. Researcher have focused

on co-digestion of fruit waste along with several

other fruit and vegetable wastes, manure, and

slaughter house wastes to reduce volatile solids by

50 to 65 % (Alvarez and Liden, 2007). Recently,

composting of pineapple wastes using earthworm

is reported (Mainoo et al., 2009). They have

reported that vermicomposting rapidly

decomposed about 99 % of fruit pulp wet mass

while peel had a loss in weight by almost 87 %.

The pH of the waste changed from acidic to a

neutral to alkaline during composting. However,

cost effectiveness is yet to be studied.

3. Fruit peels

Tropical and subtropical fruits processing

have considerably higher ratios of by-products

than the temperate fruits (Schieber et al., 2001).

Fruit by-products are not exceptions and they

consist basically of the residual pulp, peels, stem

and leaves. The increasing production of

pineapple processed items, results in massive

waste generations. This is mainly due to selection

and elimination of components unsuitable for

human consumption. Besides, rough handling of

fruits and exposure to adverse environmental

conditions during transportation and storage can

cause up to 55 % of product waste (Nunes et al.,

2009). These wastes are usually prone to microbial

spoilage thus limiting further exploitation. Further,

the drying, storage and shipment of these wastes is

cost effective and hence efficient, inexpensive and

eco-friendly utilization is becoming more and

more necessary.

Peel, also known as rind or skin, is the

outer protective layer of a fruit or vegetable.

Botanically, the rind is usually the exocarp, which

includes the hard shell in fruits such as nuts.

Depending on the thickness and taste, peel is

sometimes eaten as part of the fruit, as seen with

apples. In some fruits such as banana or grape, the

peel is unpleasant or inedible; thus, it is removed

and discarded.

Oladiji et al. (2010) reported that most

fruit peels are discarded as waste after the inner

fleshy portions have been eaten. It is vital that

peels be removed from most fruits before eating;

and more importantly before using them in fruit

juice industries to prevent contamination.

Processing of fruits into juices reduces and

prevents wastage when fruits are in season.

Olukunle et al. (2007) opined that the fruit

juice is the next best thing to fresh fruit, and can

be packaged in aseptic, easily transportable

containers that are less susceptible to damage and

have a relatively long storage life. Juice extraction

and separation therefore open up new market

opportunities for tailoring fruit products to modern

consumer demands.



At the time of producing fruit juice, a lot of

peels are produced. This could cause

environmental pollution and health problems if

left untreated. Peels can be removed manually,

mechanically and by the use of enzymes. A lot of

money, time, equipment and other resources are

used to remove the peels in the industry.

Enzymatic removal of peels could be cheaper and

more effective than manual and mechanical

methods. The use of enzyme in the manufacture of

various industrial products is wide spread

(Forgatty and Kelly, 2013). Development of

microbes that will synthesize these enzymes will

then be useful to man.

Mondal et al. (2012) used cucumber and

orange peels to evaluate the production of single

cell protein using Saccharomyces cerevisiae by

submerged fermentation. The authors state that the

bioconversion of fruit wastes into single cell

protein production has the potential to solve the

worldwide food protein deficiency by obtaining an

economical product for food and feed. Fruit

wastes rich in carbohydrate content and other

basic nutrients could support microbial growth.

Apple, turnip, papaya and banana peels were used

for alcohol fermentation and biomass production

by Kondari and Gupta (2012). The use of legume

seeds as alternative nutrient media for bacteria and

fungi has been reported (Tharmila et al., 2011;

Arulanantham et al., 2012; Ravimannan et al.,

2014).

4. Fruit peel wastes and fungal growth

The current fruit production of India is

around 32 million metric tones (MMT), accounts

for about 8 % of the world’s fruit production (Ravi

et al., 2007). India is the second largest producer

of Fruits after China. A large variety of fruits are

grown in India, of which mango, banana, orange,

guava, grape, pineapple and apple are the major

ones. Apart from these, fruits like papaya, sapota,

annona, phalsa, jackfruit, ber, pomegranate grown

in tropical and sub-tropical areas and peach, pear,

almond, walnut, apricot and strawberry in the

temperate areas. Although, fruit is grown

throughout the country, the major fruit growing

states are Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,

Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.

Improved fruit and vegetable production

through efficient agricultural practices mobilizes

huge investments in fruit and vegetable processing

across the world. Banana, pineapple and papaya

are among the most widely acceptable fruits

planted on commercial level worldwide (Jamal et

al., 2012). Waste generation through these fruits is

on the increase due to sustained surge in world

population, improved economic growth in

developing nations and improved access to

nutrition education in high fruit producing

countries.

Wastes emanating from aforementioned

fruits include peels, pulp and seeds that constitute

about 40 % of the total mass of each fruit. The

majority of these waste materials were often

improperly disposed, hence constitute huge

environmental disorders (Essien et al., 2005; Lim

et al., 2010). Fruit waste dumping sites provide

necessary impetus for vectors, pathogenic bacteria

and yeast to thrive. A popular approach to

mitigating fruit waste poor handling is landfill and

incineration. These methods orchestrate an acute

air pollution problem by generating massive

leachates that contaminate ground water and

destroy aquatic lives (Taskin et al., 2010; Ali et

al., 2014).

Banana peel, pineapple peel, mango peel

and papaya peel (Pp) are major wastes generated

by fruit processing and agro-allied industries

(Rasu Jayabalan et al., 2010). These wastes

contain simple and complex sugars that are

metabolizable by microorganisms through

secretion of extracellular products (Saheed et al.,

2013). Fruit peels, which constitute a huge part of

the waste streams, provide anchorage for

filamentous fungi during bioconversion process

(Essien et al., 2005). Bioconversion of single fruit

waste is a common practice in valorization of fruit

peels. Pineapple waste, palm tree waste and

cassava waste have received attention for their

conversion to bio-ethanol, biogas and animal feed

(Alam et al., 2005, Dhanasekaran et al.,

http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1018364715000725#b0080

















2011; Tijani et al., 2012). Designing treatment

schemes for specific agricultural residue limits

efficiency of waste collection and prolong

treatment period. Therefore, adoption of a method

that accommodates several fruit wastes is highly

robust, cheap and realistic in ameliorating

impediments associated with fruit waste disposal

(Aggelopoulos et al., 2014). The cultivation of

microbial cells (bacteria, yeast, and fungi) that

converts fruit wastes into value added products

such as biomass that can serve as animal feed

supplement is a unique approach.

The cost of all the microbiological media

is rising at a fast pace. To tackle this problem

some new microbiological media should be

designed which are efficient as well as cost

effective. This may be achieved by using

agricultural wastes as raw materials for microbial

media. Utilization of agricultural waste as a

substrate for fungal cultures for the production of

value added products has been reported which

includes cellulase production by some fungi

cultured on pineapple waste (Omojasola et al.,

2008). Carotenoids production is carried out on

agricultural waste using Blakeslea trispora

(Papaioannou and Liakopoulou Kyriakides, 2012)

and cellulase enzyme production on agricultural

waste by Aspergillus niger (Milala et al., 2005).

Sugarcane bagasse has been also reported as an

energy source for the production of lipase by

Aspergillus fumigatus (Naqvi et al., 2013).

A growth medium is a liquid or gel

designed to support the growth of

microorganisms. The commercially available

media are very costly. Routine practical require

large amount of media on regular basis for streak

plate, pour plate, spread plate experiments.

Availability of low cost media rich in nutrients,

giving comparative results is the need of the day.

The search for alternative, cheap media for use in

laboratory agents for routine microbiological

experiments is going on. Recent research has been

focused on finding alternatives to gelling agents of

media, agar in particular, and media, in general,

because of its exorbitant price (Tharmila et al.,

2011; Mateen et al., 2012; Ravimannan et al.,

2014).

Generally fungi are grown on Potato

dextrose agar (PDA), Sabouraud’s dextrose agar

(SDA), Rose Bengal Agar (RBA) or Corn Meal

agar (CMA) which are very expensive. Basically,

every fungus requires carbon, nitrogen and energy

source to grow and survive. Fruit peel wastes may

meet these requirements and work as a fungal

growth medium and can replace expensive media

in the market. This will add a benefit of minimal

contamination in the cultures as it does not meet

the needs of every microbe. Fruit peel wastes has

been exploited for the production of many high

value products but its potential as fungal growth

medium has never been reported. The aim of the

current study was to design a cost effective and

efficient medium for fungal cultures, that is,

Aspergillus niger, Rhizopus stolonifer and

Penicillium chrysogenum using fruit peel wastes

as raw material.

5. Utilization of fruit peel wastes for the

cultivation of industrially important fungi

Wastes are materials that have not yet

been fully utilized. They are leftovers from

production and consumption. However, waste is

an expensive and sometimes unavoidable result of

human activity. It includes plant materials,

agricultural, household, industrial and municipal

wastes and residues (Okonkwo et al., 2006). The

disposal of agricultural wastes on land and into

water bodies is common and has been of serious

ecological hazards (Smith et al., 1987). In

developing countries, there is a growing interest

regarding the utilization of organic wastes

generated by the food processing sector and

through other human endeavors. This has led to a

new policy geared towards complete utilization of

raw materials so that little or no residue is left to

pose pollution problems (Ofuya and Nwajuiba,

1990).

India is the second major producer of fruits

and vegetables in the world. It contributes 10 % of

world fruit production. According to India

Agricultural Research Data Book 2016, the total





waste generated from fruits and vegetables comes

to 50 million tons per annum. Fruit wastes rich in

carbohydrate content and other basic nutrients

could support microbial growth. Thus, fruit

processing wastes are useful substrates for

production of microbial proteins. The utilization

of fruit wastes in the production of SCP will help

in controlling pollution and also in solving waste

disposable problem to some extent in addition to

satisfy the world shortage of protein rich food.

It is anticipated that the discarded fruit as

well as the waste material can be utilized for

further industrial processes like fermentation,

bioactive component extraction, etc. There has

been numerous works on the utilization of waste

obtained from fruit and vegetable, dairy and meat

industries. In this regard, several efforts have been

made in order to utilize pineapple wastes obtained

from different sources. The wastes from pineapple

canneries have been used as the substrate for

bromelain, organic acids, ethanol, etc. since these

are potential source of sugars, vitamins and

growth factors (Larrauri et al., 1997; Nigam,

1999; Dacera et al., 2009). Several studies have

been carried out since decades on trying to explore

the possibility of using these wastes. In past, sugar

has been obtained from pineapple effluent by ion

exchange and further use it in syrup for canning

pineapple slices (Beohner and Mindler, 1949).

This paper would try to collect and gather

information regarding the utilization of pineapple

wastes.

Insufficient and improper methods of

disposal of solid wastes result in scenic blights,

serious hazards to public health (including

pollutions of air and water resources), accident

hazards and increase in rodents and insect vectors

of disease. Improperly handled wastes ultimately

become a nuisance to the public and interfere with

community life and development (Tchobanoglous

and Theisen, 1993). The agricultural based

industries generate significant quantities of

organic wastes including peels from cassava,

plantain, banana, oranges and straw from cereals.

Rather than allow these wastes to become solid

municipal wastes, it is necessary to convert them

to useful end products. It is now realized that these

waste could be utilized as cheap raw materials for

some industries or as cheap substrates for

microbiological processes (Nwabueze and Otowa,

2006). The food processing industry generates a

large amount of wastes annually including crop

residues like peels, husks, cobs, and shells (Gomez

Pazos et al., 2005). Such wastes are rich in sugar

and are easily assimilated by microorganisms; this

makes the wastes suitable materials for growth of

microorganisms. Inability to salvage and reuse

such materials economically results in the

unnecessary waste and depletion of natural

resources (Selke, 1990; Tchobanoglous and

Theisen, 1993).

Fungi constitute one of the largest groups

of plants with richest arrays of species. They are a

group of eukaryotic spore bearing,

achlorophyllous organisms that generally

reproduce asexually and sexually (Pelczar et al.,

1993). Some are agents of diseases in plants

(parasitic), while others are saprophytic.

Saprophytic fungi tend to be responsible for most

of the disintegration of organic materials, and

some of them render food material toxic (Pelczar

et al., 1993). The saprophytic fungi represent the

largest proportion of fungal species and they

perform a crucial role in the decomposition of

plant chemical compounds such as cellulose,

hemicellulose and lignin, thus, contributing to the

maintenance of the global carbon cycle. Fungi

grow on diverse habitat in nature and are

cosmopolitan, requiring several specific elements

for growth and reproduction. In the laboratory,

fungi are isolated on specific culture media for

cultivation, preservation, macroscopic

examination and biochemical and physiological

characterization. A wide range of media are used

for isolation of different groups of fungi. These

media influence vegetative growth, and colony,

morphology, pigmentation and sporulation

depending on their composition, pH, temperature,

light, water availability and surrounding

atmospheric gas mixture (Northolt and Bullerman,

1982; Kuhn and Ghonnoum, 2003).



Fungi are an important component of soil

microbiota typically having higher biomass than

bacteria depending on soil depth and nutrient

conditions (Ainsworth and Bisby, 1995).

Generally, growth media for fungi contain carbon

and nitrogen sources, and most fungi require

several specific elements for growth and

reproduction (Walker and White, 2005; Gao et al.,

2007). Cultural medium is defined as any material

in which microorganism find nourishment for

growth and development (Pelczar et al., 1993).

Fungi, like any other living organism, require

nutrients for their life processes. This is obvious

from the fact that they feed on varieties of food

substances (Hawker and Alan, 1979).

Investigation into the composition of culture

media has established that the important

ingredients such as nitrogen, carbon (a source of

energy), vitamins and growth factors, mainly

essential mineral salts are required for fungal

growth (Ruth et al., 2012). The feasibility of

developing alternative media for cultivation of

fungi apart from the conventional ones like

Sabouraud’s Dextrose Agar (SDA) and Potato

Dextrose Agar (PDA) has been studied by

different researchers (Weststeijn and Okafor,

1971; Adesemoye and Adedire, 2005; Tharmilla

and Thavaranjit, 2011). The need to develop

alternative media has become imperative as the

conventional media are either not readily available

or expensive in most developing countries

(Weststeijn and Okafor, 1971).

Apple, orange, banana and other fruits

locally available and thus serve as readily

available raw materials for the separation of

ethanol yeasts. Eghafona (1999) isolated various

strains of indigenous yeasts capable of producing

ethanol from local fermented pineapple juice.

Bansal and Singh (2003) and Hossain et al. (2014)

did comparative study on ethanol production from

molasses using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and

Zymomonas mobilis.

Silva et al. (2005) showed that the

agricultural waste materials supports the good

growth of fungi. Microbiological studies depend

on the ability to growth and maintain

microorganisms under laboratory conditions by

providing suitable culture media that offer

favourable conditions (Beever and Bollard, 1970;

Domsch and Anderson, 1980). The nutrients in the

wastes included protein, carbohydrate and

minerals. Protein constitutes a significant portion

of microbial cells and thus is necessary for the

growth of microorganisms (Prescot and Harley,

2002). The protein content of the formulated

media must have ensured a good supply of

nitrogen while the carbohydrate content served as

additional carbon source both of which are

essential for good fungal growth. The mineral

content of the wastes in the formulated media was

probably useful for some aspects of the fungi’s

metabolism. Although, moisture (water) is

required by all organisms for their life processes

and fungi in particular require water for

extracellular digestion of nutrients (Pelczar et al.,

1993), the moisture content of each of the samples

has negligible or no effect on the growth of fungi

tested because they were grown in the media

containing water. In terms of mean radial growth,

Sweet Potato Peel Agar was found to be the best

media for growing three (Aspergillus niger,

Geotrichum candidum and Saccharomyces

cerevisiae) out of the four fungi. It thus produced

the highest growth rates in these three fungi.

According to Meletiadis et al. (2010),

optimal nutrient medium should provide not

simply adequate growth but the best possible

growth in order to allow molds and yeast grow

without restriction and express all phenotypes.

The ability of Sweet Potato Peel Agar to support

good growth of the fungi shows that it not only

contained the right nutrients but also probably

contained them in the right proportions. The fact

that the fungi grown on Sweet Potato Peel Agar

performed better in most cases than when they

were grown on the conventional Sabouraud’s

dextrose agar shows that Sweet Potato Peel Agar

could serve as a good and possibly cheaper

alternative medium for the cultivation of some soil

fungi.

Ruth et al. (2012) reported the use of

alternative culture media for growing fungi. The



growth of the fungi on the formulated media

implies that the wastes (peels) which were used in

formulating the media contained the required

nutrients for fungal growth. Amadi and Moneke

(2012) also reported higher mycelia growth rate in

Purple sweet potato dextrose agar than in Yam

dextrose agar.

Fruit waste contains many reusable

substances of high value. The wastes from

canneries have high exploitation potential with

encouraging future. Furthermore, dietary fibers

and phenolic antioxidants could be used as

impending nutraceutic resource, capable of

offering significant low-cost nutritional dietary

supplement for low-income communities. The

booming market of functional food has created a

mammoth vista for utilization of natural resources.

If novel scientific and technological methods are

applied, valuable products from fruit wastes could

be obtained. In this regard, cheap substrates, such

as pineapple wastes have promising prospect.

Thus, environmentally polluting by-products

could be converted into products with a higher

economic value than the main product. However,

verification of this hypothesis is indispensible in

order to apply fruit cannery waste as industrial raw

materials.

6. Conclusion

Waste utilization in fruits and vegetable

processing industries is one of the important and

challengeable jobs around the world. It is

anticipated that the discarded fruits as well as its

waste materials could be utilized for further

industrial purposes viz. fermentation, extraction of

bioactive components, extraction of functional

ingredients etc. Fruit waste contains many

reusable substances of high value and novel

scientific technological methods are applied,

valuable products from fruit wastes could be

obtained. In this regard, cheap substrates, such as

fruit peel wastes have promising prospect. Thus,

environmentally polluting by-products could be

converted into products with a higher economic

value than the main product.

7. References

1) Adesemoye AO, Adedire CO (2005). Use

of cereals as basal medium for the

formulation of alternative culture medium

for fungi. West African Journal of

Microbiology and Biotechology, 21: 329-

336.

2) Aggelopoulos, T., Katsieris, K.,

Bekatorou, A., Pandey, A., Banat, I. M.,

Koutinas, A.A., (2014). Solid state

fermentation of food waste mixtures for

single cell protein, aroma volatiles and fat

production. Food Chemistry 145: 710–716.

3) Ainsworth R, Bisby T (1995). Dictionary

of Fungi Sedition Oxon, CAB

International Uk: 6.

4) Alam, M.Z., Muhammad, N., Mahmat,

M.E., (2005). Production of cellulase from

oil palm biomass as substrate by solid state

bioconversion. Am. Journal of Applied

Science. 2 (2): 569.

5) Alavrez R. and Liden G. (2007). Semi-

continuous co-digestion of solid

slaughterhouse waste, manure and frut and

vegetable waste. Renewable Energy, 33:

726-734.

6) Ali, S.M., Pervaiz, A., Afzal, B., Hamid,

N., Yasmin, A., (2014). Open dumping of

municipal solid waste and its hazardous

impacts on soil and vegetation diversity at

waste dumping sites of Islamabad city.

Journal of King Saud University Science.

26 (1): 59–65.

7) Amadi OC, Moneke AN (2012). Use of

Starch Containing Tubers for the

Formulation of Culture Media for Fungal

Cultivation. Afr. J. Microbiol. Res., 6 (21):

527-4532.

8) Arulanantham, R, Pathmanathan, S,

Ravimannan, N and Kularajany, N.(2006).

Alternative culture media for bacterial

growth using different formulation of

protein sources. Natural Product Plant

Resource, 2: 697-700.

9) Bansal R, Singh RS (2003). A comparative

study on ethanol production from molasses

using Saccharomyces cerevisiae and



Zymomonas mobilis J, Ind. Microbiol, 43:

261-264

10) Beever S, Bollard CV (1970). The Nature

of the Stimulation of Fungal Growth by

Potato Extract. J. Gen. Microbiol., 60: 273-

279.

11) Behera, S.S.; Ray, R.C. Solid, (2016). state

fermentation for production of microbial

cellulases: Recent advances and

improvement strategies. International

Journal of Biological Macromolecule. 86:

656–669.

12) Beohner H.L. and Mindler A.B. (1949).Ion

exchange in waste treatment. Industrial

and Engineering Chemistry, 41: 448-452.

13) Dacera D.D.M., Babel S. and Parkpian P.

(2009). Potential for land application of

contaminated sewage sludge treated with

fermentaed liquid from pineapple wastes.

Journal of Hazardous Materials, 167: 866-

872.

14) Dhanasekaran, D., Lawanya, S., Saha, S.,

Thajuddin, N., Panneerselvam, A., 2011.

Production of single cell protein from

pineapple waste using yeast. Innovative

Romen Food Biotechnology. 8.

15) Domsch KH, Gam W, Anderson T (1980).

Compendium of soil fungi. Academic Press

Limited Mc Graw-Hill Publishers London.

pp. 105-106.

16) Eghafona NO, Aluyi HAS, Uduehi IS

(1999). Alcohol yield from pineapple

juice: Comparative study of Zymomonas

mobilis and Saccharomyces uvarum.

Niger. J. Microbiol. 13: 117-122.

17) Essien, J., Akpan, E., Essien, E., (2005).

Studies on mould growth and biomass

production using waste banana peel. Bio

resource. Technol. 96 (13): 1451–1456.

18) Fengel, D., & Wegener, G. (Eds.) (1989).

Wood: Chemistry, ultrastructure,

reactions, Walter de Gruyter, New York.

19) Forgatty WM, Kelly CT. (2013). Pectic

enzymes. In: Forgatty WM, Ed. Microbial

enzymes and biotechnology. London:

Enviromnental and Applied Science

Publishers. 131-82.

20) Gao LM, Sun H, Liu XZ, Che YS (2007).

Effects of carbon concentration and carbon

to nitrogen ratio on the growth and

sporulation of everal bio-control fungi.

Mycological Research, 111: 87-92.

21) Gomez-Pazos JM, Cuoto SR, Sanroman

MA, (2005). Chestnut and barley bran as

potential substrate for lactase production

by Coriolopsis rigida under solid state

conditions, Food Journal of Engnieering,

68:315-319.

22) Ha, M-.A., Apperley, D.C., Evans, B.W.,

Huxham, I.M., Jardine, W.G., Vietor, R.J.,

Reis, D., Vian, B., & Jarvis, M.C. (1998).

Fine structure in cellulose microfibrils:

NMR evidence from onion and quince.

The Plant Journal, 16: 183-190

23) Hawker LE, Alan L (1979).

Microorganisms function, form and

environments 2nd edition McGraw-Hill

Publishers London. pp 90-182.

24) Hossain Z, Golam F, Jaya NS, Mohmmad

SA, Rosli H, Amru NB (2014). Bio ethanol

Production from Fermentable Sugar Juice.

Scientific J. World. 1: 1-11

25) Jamal, P., Saheed, Olorunnisola K., Alam,

Zahangir, (2012). Biovalorization potential

of banana peels (Musa sapientum): an

overview. Asian Journal of Biotechnology.

4 (4): 1–14.

26) Kandari, V. and S. Gupta, (2012).

Bioconversion of vegetable and fruit peel

wastes in viable product, Journal of

Microbiology and Biotechnology, 2: 308-

312.

27) Klemm, D., Philipp, B., Heinze, T.,

Heinze, U., & Wagenknecht, W. (Eds.)

(1998). Comprehensive Cellulose

Chemistry, Wiley VCH, Chichester.

28) Kuhn DM, Ghonnoum MA (2003). Indoor

mould, toxigenic fungi and Stachybotrys

chartarum. Infectious disease perspective.

Clinical Microbiology Review, 16 (1):144-

172.

29) Larrauri J A, Ruperez P. and Calixto F. S.

(1997). Pineapple shell as a source of

dietary fiber with associated polyphenols.



Journal of Agricultural and Food

Chemistry, 45: 4028-4031.

30) Lim, J.Y., Yoon, H.-S., Kim, K.-Y., Kim,

K.-S., Noh, J.G., Song, I. G., (2010).

Optimum conditions for the enzymatic

hydrolysis of citron waste juice using

response surface methodology (RSM).

Food Science Biotechnology. 19 (5): 1135–

1142.

31) Mainoo N.O.K, Barrington S., Whalen J.K.

and Sampedro L. (2009). Pilot-scale

vermicomposting of pineapple wastes with

earthworms native to Accra, Ghana.

Bioresource Technology, 100: 5872-5875.

32) Mateen A, S. Hussain, SU. Rehman, B.

Mahmood, MA. Khan, A. Rashid, M.

Sohail, M. Farooq and A. Shah, (2012).

Suitability of various plant derived gelling

agents as agar substitute in microbiological

growth media. African Journal

Biotechnology, 11: 10362-10367.

33) Meletiadis J, Jacques FG, Meis PE (2001).

Analysis of growth characteristics of

filamentous fungi on different nutrient

media. J. Clin. Microbiol., 39(2):478-484.

34) Milala, M. A., A. Shugaba, A. Gidado, A.

C. Ene, and J. A.Wafar, (2005). Studies on

the use of agricultural wastes for cellulase

enzyme production by Aspegillus niger.

Research Journal of Agriculture and

Biological Sciences, 1(4): 325–328.

35) Mondal AK, S. Sengupta, J. Bhowal, DK.

Bhattacharya, (2012). Utilization Of fruit

wastes in producing single cell protein.

International Journal of science, 1: 430–

438.

36) Mussatto, S.I.; Ballesteros, L.F.; Martins,

S.; Teixeira, J.A. (2006). Use of Agro-

Industrial Wastes in Solid-State

Fermentation Processes. In Industrial

Waste; InTech: Rijeka, Croatia; 121–141.

37) Naqvi, S. H. A., M. U. Dahot, M. Y. Khan,

J. H. Xu, and M. Rafiq, (2013). Usage

of sugar cane bagasse as an energy source

for the production of lipase by Aspergillus

fumigates. Pakistan Journal of Botany,

45(1): 279–284.

38) Nigam J.N. (1999b). Continuous

cultivation of the yeast Candida utilis at

different dilution rates on pineapple

cannery waste. World Journal of

Microbiology & Biotechnology, 15: 115-

117.

39) Northolt M.D, Bullerman LB (1982).

Prevention of mould Growth and Toxin

Production through Control of

Environment Conditions. Food.

Production, 6: 519-526.

40) Nunes M.C.N., Emond J.P., Rauth M., Dea

S. and Chau K. V. (2009). Environmental

conditions encountered during typical

consumer retail display affect fruit and

vegetable quality and waste. Postharvest

Biology and Technology. 51: 232-241.

41) Nwabueze TU, Otuwa U (2006). Effect of

Supplementation of African bread fruit

(Treculia africana) hulls with organic

wastes on growth of Saccharomyces

cerevisiae. African Journal of

Biotechnology, 5(16): 1494-1498.

42) Ofuya A, Nwajuiba CJ (1990). Microbial

dedgradation and utilization of cassava

peels, Word Journal Microbiology and

Biotechnology. 6:144-148.

43) Okonkwo IO, Oiabode OP, Okeleji OS

(2006). The role of Biotechnology in the

Socio-economic Advancement and

National Development. African Journal of

Biotechnology, 5(19): 2354-2366.

44) Oladiji AT, Yakubu MT, Idoko AS,

Adeyemi O, Salawu MO (2010). Studies

on the physicochemical properties and

fatty acid composition of oil from ripe

plantain (Musa parasidiaca) peel. African

Science, 11: 73-8.

45) Olukunle JO, Oguntunde PG, Olukunle

OF. Development of a system for fresh

fruit juice extraction and dispensary.

Proceeding of the Conference on

International Agricultural Research for

Development; 2007 October 9-11,

Tropentag, University of Kassel-

Witzenhausen and University of

Göttingen, Germany 2007,pp. 1-4.



46) Omojasola, P. F., Jilani, P. Omowumi, and

S. A. Ibiyemi, “Cellulase production by

some fungi cultured on pineapple waste,”

Nature and Science, 6(2): 64–79.

47) Papaioannou, E. H. and M. Liakopoulou-

Kyriakides, (2012). Agrofood wastes

utilization by Blakeslea trispora for

carotenoids production,” Acta Biochimica

Polonica, 59(1): 151–153.

48) Pelczar MC, Chan ECS, Krieg NR (1993).

Microbiology. 5th ed. Tata McGraw-Hill,

New Delhi, India: 917.

49) Prescot LM, Harley DA (2002).

Microbiology 5th Edition McGraw-Hill

Publishers London. pp 105-106.

50) Rasu Jayabalan, K.M., Sathishkumar,

Muthuswamy, Swaminathan,

Krishnaswami, Yun, Sei.-Eok, 2010.

Biochemical characteristics of tea fungus

produced during kombucha fermentation.

Food Science Biotechnology. 19 (3): 843–

847.

51) Ravimannan N, R. Arulanantham, S.

Pathmanathan and Kularajani N,

Alternative culture media for fungal

growth using different formulation of

protein sources, Annals of Biological

Research, 2014; 5: 36-39.

52) Ruth AO, Gabriel A, Mirrila EB (2012).

Basal media formulation using Canavalia

ensiformis as carbon and nitrogen source

for the growth of some fungi species.

Journal of Microbiological and

Biotechnological Food Science. 1:

(4)1136-1151.

53) Sachdeva, A., C. P. Cannon, P. C.

Deedwania, K. A. Labresh, S. C. Smith

and D. Dai. 2009. Lipid levels in patients

hospitalized with coronary artery disease:

an analysis of 136,905 hospitalizations in

get with the guidelines. American Health

Journal, 157: 111–117.

54) Saheed, O.K., Jamal, P., Karim, M.I.A.,

Alam, Z., Muyibi, S.A., (2013).

Cellulolytic fruits wastes: a potential

support for enzyme assisted protein

production. Journal Biological Science. 13

(5), 379–385.

55) Sanchéz, C. (2009). Lignocellulosic

Residues: Biodegradation and

Bioconversion by Fungi. Biotechnology

Advances, Vol.27, No.2, (March-april

2009), pp. 185–194, ISSN 0734- 9750.

56) Schieber A., Stintzing F.C. and Carle R.

(2001). By-products of plant food

processing as a source of functional

compounds-recent developments. Trends

in Food Science and Technology, 12: 401-

413.

57) Selke SE (1990). Package and the

environment. alternative trends and

solutions, Tecnomic Publishing Company,

Lanchester PA.67.

58) Smith JE, Anderson JG, Aidoo EK (1987).

Bio-processing of Lignocellulose

Philosophical Transaction of the Royal

Society of London Series A. 321: 507-521.

59) Taherzadeh, M.J., & Karimi, K. (2008).

Pretreatment of lignocellulosic wastes to

improve ethanol and biogas production: a

review. International Journal of Molecular

Science, 9: 1621-1651.

60) Tchobanoglous GH, Theisen SV (1993).

Integrated solid waste managememte

engineering principles and management

issues, NewYork Mc Graw-Hill: 20-22.

61) Tharmila S, Jeyaseelan EC and Thavaranjit

AC, (2011). Preliminary screening of

alternative culture media for the growth of

some selected fungi, Arch. Applied Science

Research, 3: 389-393.

62) Tharmila TS, Thavaranjit AC (2011).

Preliminary Screening of Alternative

Culture Media for the Growth of Some

Selected Fungi Arch. Appl. Sci. Res..

3(3):389-393.

63) Tijani, I.D.R., Jamal, P., Alam, M.,

Mirghani, M., (2012). Optimization of

cassava peel medium to an enriched animal

feed by the white rot fungi Panus tigrinus

M609RQY. International Food Research

Journal 19 (2): 427–432.

64) Walker G.M, White NA (2005).

Introduction to Fungal Physiology.

McGraw-Hill Publishers London: 10.



65) Weststeijn G, Okafor N (1971).

Comparison of Cassava, Yam and Potato

Dextrose Agar as Fungal Culture Media.

Nether. Journal of Plant Pathology. 11:

134-139.

Access this Article in Online

Quick Response Code

Website www.jpsscientificpublications.com

DOI Number DOI: 10.22192/ijias.2017.1.2.4

How to Cite this Article:

P. Saranraj* and S. Anbu. 2017. Utilization of Agroindustrial wastes for the cultivation of

industrially important fungi – A Review. International Journal of Innovations in Agricultural

Sciences, 1 (2): 59 – 71.

DOI: 10.22192/ijias.2017.1.2.4

http://www.jpsscientificpublications.com/

utilization of agroindustrial wastes for the · pdf filethe present review was focused on the...

Documents