BREAK TIME

Using PositiveBehavioral Support toManage Avoidance of

Academic Tasks

One of the most frequent concernsexpressed by teachers and administra-tors is how to manage behavioral prob-lems in the classroom (Langdon, 1999).Behavior that disrupts instruction isproblematic for teachers and students,in part, because we have known forquite some time that the amount of timestudents engage actively in academictasks is positively correlated to howmuch they learn (Black, 2004).Functional assessment and positivebehavioral support (PBS) are two man-agement approaches that are extensionsof applied behavior analysis (Repp &Homer, 1999). Unlike some classroommanagement practices that rely heavilyon aversive consequences, theseapproaches use more proactive tech-niques to manage challenging behaviorand increase students' active engage-ment in learning. These approaches

• Use research-validated procedures toaddress causes or functions, of a

18 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Nina Zuna • Dennis McDougall

behavior in the environmental con-text in which the behavior operates.

• Teach students more efficient anddesirable ways to achieve the sameoutcome that a problematic behaviorserves.

• Emphasize simple antecedentchanges to the environment thatoften lead to substantial improve-ments in behavior.

As this article shows, "simpleantecedent changes" often includedaccommodating a student's interests,even to the extent of bringing Barbiedoll accessories into the curriculum orallowing short social breaks during aca-demic tasks. Such changes had greateffects on a young girl's disruptivebehavior.

Beyond addressing educators' con-cerns about how to manage challengingbehaviors, use of these two proceduresis mandated, in certain cases, by feder-al law (Gartin & Murdick, 2001).

•I Hi

The reauthorization of the Individualswith Disabilities Education Act of 1997(IDEA) introduced functional assess-ment to federal legislation and directedschool personnel to use this research-validated procedure. In addition, IDEAmandated that educators use PBS strate-gies to address behaviors that impede astudent's learning or interfere with the

IDEA mandated that

educators use positive

behavioral support (PBS)

strategies to address

behaviors that impede a

student's learning or

interfere with the learning

environment.

learning environment. Long beforethese legal mandates, research indicatedthat functional assessment and PBSwere effective tools for managing unde-sirable behaviors, especially behaviorsthat serve functions of seeking atten-tion, communicating one's needs, andescaping or avoiding academic tasks.For example, Carr, Newsom, andBinkoff (1976) used PBS to reduceescape-motivated behavior duringinstruction. Carr, Newsom et al. identi-fied features of the instructional envi-ronment that had promoted a student'sself-destructive behavior—behavior thathad served the function of escaping oravoiding instruction. Carr, Newsom etal.then altered key features of theinstructional environment; that is, heembedded instruction within a morepositive context. This change reducedthe student's escape-motivated self-destructive responses during instruc-tion.

The Carr, Newsom et al. (1976)study is important because it is one ofthe first studies that applied a positivebehavioral approach to ameliorate prob-lem behavior after numerous contin-gency programs had failed to help thestudent. Carr, Newsom et al. suggested,"The failure of treatment using conse-quence approaches underlines ourimperfect understanding of self-destruc-tive behavior and provides us with anincentive to seek out new interventions"(p. HO).

The Carr, Newsom et al. (1976)study and many subsequent PBS studiesdemonstrate that simple antecedentchanges to the academic environment,such as incorporating students' interestsinto curricular tasks (Clarke et ah,1995), permitting students' choice inthe sequence of assigned tasks (Kern,Mantegna, Vorndran, Bailin, & Hilt,2001), and modifying instructionalantecedents (Wheeler & Wheeler, 1995)can lead to dramatic improvements.

Not surprisingly, students with dis-abilities often struggle with learning,and they often display their most dis-ruptive behavior during academicinstruction. So, how can educators usePBS to minimize students' resistance toacademic instruction without disrupting

Tip 1: Seek Assistance

Identifying conditions and events inthe classroom that are related to astudent's disruptive behavior canbe very challenging, especiallywhen you are the student's teacher,As teachers, often we are too closeto the situation, or too busy withother students and teaching tasks,to effectively identify the classroomvariables that trigger and maintaindisruptive behavior. Therefore,seek assistance from a capableand trusted colleague.

classroom routines? The case study ofCallie may offer some answers.

Calfie—A Cose Study in PositiveBehavioral SupportWe conducted this study within andmindful of the ongoing routine of aclassroom because naturalistic assess-ment examines the actual settingswhere challenging behaviors occur, notin isolated or contrived settings. Wewanted our assessment to be relativelyunobtrusive. In addition, interventionsbased on our assessment had to bepractical, flexible, and suitable to theneeds of the teacher, students, andclassroom, while using effective,research-supported methods.

Callie was a 6-year-old female withattention deficit/hyperactivity disorder(ADHD), seizure disorder, and develop-mental coordination disorder. Shereceived no medications to treat symp-toms associated with ADHD. Two weeksbefore this study, her physician discon-tinued her seizure medication due tolack of seizure activity. We observedzero seizures from 1 month before thestudy through the end of the study.Callie did not receive any physical ther-apy intervention for developmentalcoordination disorder, although she diddisplay some of its characteristics (e.g.,clumsiness in motor movements; delaysin achieving developmental motor mile-stones, such as crawling, walking, but-toning, zipping; and, in older children,difficulties in writing, ball-playing, bik-ing, and skating; Fox, 1998).

Callie, one of four students in a self-contained classroom, often behaved inways that disrupted her own and peers'work, as well as the teacher's routine,during academic tasks. She also dis-played challenging behavior duringlunch, snack, recess, and free time. Aclasswide token reinforcement system,which the teacher used before thisstudy began, failed to improve Callie'sbehavior. Her challenging behavior wasso frequent that we conducted a two-phase case study. Our purpose was to

How can educators use PBS

to minimize students'

resistance to academic

instruction without

disrupting classroom

routines?

improve Callie's behavior through theuse of PBS strategies acceptable to theteacher and Callie.

Experimental Design andAnalysis—Phase T and Phase 2During Phase 1, assessment, we used amulti-element design (Kazdin, 1982) toconduct a functional analysis. We exam-ined and compared Callie's behavior in

Tip 2: Get a Different View

• Take 15 minutes to sit back andview your students and classroomenvironment while your education-al assistant or a colleague teaches.

• When is the last time you sawyourself and your students inaction in your classroom? Viewsome videotape of yourself.

• Visit a colleague's classroom andobserve.

• Visit the cafeteria or playground topractice identifying things that"predict" and precede disruptivebehavior [e.g., overcrowding, ele-vated noise levels, inadequateequipment, age-inappropriategames, or peer-buddy mis-matches).

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • SEPT/OCT 2004 • 19

five normally occurring school contexts:academic work, snack, recess, lunch,and free-time. For Phase 2, intervention,we used a changing conditions design(Alberto & Troutman, 1999] to accom-modate teacher preferences. The class-room teacher requested no "return tobaseline" due to ethical considerationsabout withdrawing interventions. Thechanging conditions design was adesign that permitted implementation ofmultiple interventions across time, for a

Up 3: Watch for BehavioralRed Flags

"He always acts that way. I triedeverything.""He misbehaves for NO REASONat all.""She is just doing that to get backat me."

These "within-the-skin" state-ments signal frustration. Under-standing that behavior occurs fora reason and is linked toantecedent and consequenceevents is the foundation of behav-ior analytic research.

Recall Tip 1, "Seek Assis-tance." Using a colleague's inputis often helpful during times of frus-tration because their unbiasedobservations can provide objec-tive data that are free from emo-tion.

single student, with no return to base-line (Alberto & Troutman).

Phase 1: Assessment

Functional Assessment-HypothesisDevelopment

Interviews. First, the special educationteacher and Callie's parents completed asingle functional assessment interviewform (O'Neill et al., 1997).Direct Observations. Next, to better uti-lize information provided via the func-tional assessment interview, the firstauthor conducted six, 10-minute obser-vations, in several school settings, overthe course of one full school day, usingan A-B-C recording format, as outlinedby Repp and Homer (1999). These

20 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Figure 1. Frequency of Problem BehaviorAcross Sessions (Escape and AttentionCombined).

V--*: " "r

Sessions

observations—written objectively innarrative, anecdotal style—providedinsights about the times and conditionsunder which Callie did and did notexhibit various types of challengingbehavior.Functional Analysis. The first authorconducted a functional analysis to vali-date information obtained from both theinterview form and direct observations.The functional analysis was conductedduring a 4-hour period, on 1 day, begin-ning at 8 a.m. and ending at aboutnoon.

The functional analysis occurred ona separate day from other data-collec-tion events (i.e., after the interviews anddirect observations, and prior to inter-vention). We conducted a total of 23,10-minute observations of five regularlyoccurring routines—academic work (9sessions), snack (1 session), recess (1session), lunch (3 sessions), free-time(5 sessions), plus four "mixed" sessionsin which routines overlapped (seeFigure 1). We counted the frequency ofCallie's escape-motivated and attention-seeking behaviors during each 10-minute observation session. In Figure I,we have grouped data from similar rou-tines (i.e., lunch and snack; recess andfree time) to promote presentation clar-ity.

Functional Assessment Results

Interviews. Information gleaned fromthe teacher interview suggested tenta-tively two possible types (i.e., func-tions) of challenging behavior—escapeand attention. The teacher (a) reported

that Callie's behavior was "very unpre-dictable," (b) was unaware of specificclassroom settings that contributed toCallie's problem behavior, and (c) didnot identify specific reinforcers that hadmaintained such behavior.Direct Observations. Direct observa-tions suggested further that Callieengaged in two distinctive types ofproblem behaviors. The first type,escape-motivated behavior, included• Refusing to begin academic tasks.• Hurrying to complete academic tasks.• Asking unrelated questions and voic-

ing unrelated comments during aca-demic tasks (e.g., "Why do I have todo this work?" and "My chair is tooshort").

Tip 4: Who ChangesWhat First?

Recall Abbott and Costello'sfamous skit, "Who's on First?"Well, consider our PBS sequel,"Who Changes What First?" Asprofessionals, we must acknowl-edge that by changing our ownactions, or by modifying how wearrange classroom settings andtasks, we can mitigate students'disruptive behavior. Habituallychallenging behavior is often asign that the current environmentdoes not meet the needs of a par-ticular student. Who's more likelyto change what first—the studentor teacher?

• Fidgeting during academic tasks (e.g..handling materials in and on her deskunrelated to task, excessive erasing,repositioning body in seat, andtwirling hair).The second type, attention-seeking

behavior, included• Tattling on peers.• Asking personal questions (e.g., "Do

you have any sisters?").• Soliciting adults' attention (e.g., ask-

ing an adult to watch her].Direct observations also suggested

that Callie's problematic behavior, dur-ing academic tasks, was maintained andreinforced inadvertently via specificconsequences. That is, the teacher oftensent Callie to a timeout corner, or direct-ed Gallic to place her head on her desk,after Callie exhibited disruptive behav-ior during academic tasks.

These consequence-based proce-dures allowed Callie to escape fromwhat was, for her, an aversive situation(i.e., academic tasks or demands) byengaging in disruptive behaviors. Directobservations, combined with interviewdata, also revealed minimal behaviorproblems from 12:00-2:30 p.m., a periodthat included group activities, free time,snack, recess, and dismissal— but notacademic tasks or demands.Functional Analysis. Functional analy-sis results confirmed that Callie dis-played the highest frequencies of prob-lematic behaviors during instructionalperiods that included academicdemands, as opposed to free time-recessand snack-lunch (see Figure 1). Duringthe nine academic demand sessionsobserved, total problem behaviors aver-aged 26.6 occurrences per session andranged from 14 to 52.

Escape-motivated behaviors consti-tuted 26.2 of this total, whereas atten-tion-seeking behaviors constituted only0.4, The "spike" in Figure 1 during ses-sion 7 (n = 52 problematic behaviors)occurred during Callie's least favoritesubject, math. According to the teacher.high frequencies of problem behaviorduring math assignments were typicalresponses from Callie. While this datapoint might be a statistical outlier, it isconsistent with the teacher's descriptionand interview data about Callie's day-to-day performance.

Figure 2. Hypotheses

1. Callie's escape-motivated behavior will be reduced during academic workwhen

a. Her escape behavior is no longer followed by timeout or other escape-allowing strategies.b. She is given praise for appropriate academic behavior, and inappropri-ate behavior is ignored.c. Her tasks are modified to reduce escape behavior by incorporating herinterests.d. Verbal attention is provided as a reward for task completion.e. Choice is provided during instructional periods.

2. Collie's attention-seeking behavior will be reduced when

a. The staff ignores instances of tattling.b. The staff ignores inappropriate attempts to gain attention.c. She is taught appropriate methods for soliciting attention.d. The staff provides praise for polite and appropriate social interactions.

Figure 1 also indicates that Callietended to exhibit attention-seekingbehavior during the snack-lunch andfree time-recess contexts. Averageoccurrence of all problem behavior dur-ing the snack-lunch context was 11.75

Tip 5: Consider theAlternatives

Functional behavior assessment[FBA) and positive behavioral sup-port (PBS) interventions range frominformal and simple to formal andcomprehensive. You can applyPBS to individual students, class-rooms, and school systems. Simplechanges within a classroomteacher's control include• Making task or instructional

modifications.• Incorporating student interests.• Chunking or reducing assign-

ments.• Providing advance organizers.• Using peer tutors or models.• Allowing student choice.• Teaching alternative forms of

communication.• Limiting homework assignments

to tasks that the student hasclearly mastered previously.

and ranged from 4 to 20, with a mean of3.5 for escape-only and 8.25 for atten-tion-seeking behavior. Average occur-rence of problem behavior during thefree time-recess context was 8.7, with arange from 3 to 17. Escape-only behav-iors during this context averaged 1.0,while attention-seeking behaviors aver-aged 7.7.

The assessment results indicatedclearly that, from the standpoint of fre-quency, escape-motivated behavior dur-ing academic demands constituted ourgreatest concern. The assessmentresults also identified the academic con-text as the antecedent setting most like-ly associated with this behavior.Therefore, in conjunction with theteacher, we (a) selected escape-motivat-ed behavior as the dependent variableworthy of immediate intervention, and(b) used functional analysis results fromthe academic-demand context as ourbaseline data.

We developed several hypothesesand interventions based on our assess-ment data. We did not develop or imple-ment specific interventions to manageCallie's attention-seeking behaviorbecause of our aforementioned decisionto prioritize and immediately addressescape-motivated behavior. Figure 2,however, includes some approaches

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • SEPT/OCT 2004 • 21

Table 1. Interventions We Used to Help Callie Do Academic Work

Name of Intervention

DRA (Miltenberger, 2001}

DRA and task modification

DRA and social breaks

DRA and choice of task and breakactivity

Description

Positive verbal reinforcement for on-taskbehavior, plus extinction/no responsefor inappropriate behavior.

DRA plus modification of academic tasksto include student's interests [Barbie dollaccessories, pink rather than standardpaper/pencil, and stencils).

DRA plus a short social break consistingof 2-3 minute conversations with theEducational Assistant (EA).The social break was provided contin-gent on assignment completion.

DRA plus choice of task and choice ofbreak activity. Choice of tasks wasallowed for all academic seatwork. Aftercompleting 3 tasks, a 5-minute breakwas provided. To ease transitions frombreak back to work, Callie was askedwhat she would like to do for her nextbreak. This was written on her assign-ment as a visual reminder.

Note. DRA = differential reinforcement of alternate behavior.

that, if needed, might help Callie andher teacher address both escape-moti-vated and attention-seeking behaviors.

Phase 2: Intervention

We based our interventions on assess-ment results. Because escape-motivatedbehavior occurred almost entirely in thepresence of academic demands, wechose to modify curricular activities andreinforcement contingencies that theteacher used during academic periods.

Four Interventions

We implemented four interventions (seeTable 1) in the following order; differen-tial reinforcement of alternative behav-ior (DRA) = 6 sessions during 1 morn-ing; DRA and task modification = 6 ses-sions during the next morning; DRAand social breaks = 5 sessions duringthe next morning; and DRA and choice= 14 sessions during the next 2 morn-ings, with 5 sessions 1 morning and 9sessions the next morning.

We collected data for the final inter-vention for 2 days, rather than 1 day,because the teacher expressed a stronginterest in this intervention. Finally, 19days after Intervention 4, we collecteddata for three sessions, during 1 morn-ing, to assess maintenance of interven-tion results. Intervention 4 conditions

Figure 3. Frequency of Escape Behavior Across

Sessions and Phases

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22 • COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

Resources for Positive Behavioral Support

Seek out PBS resources, which are readily available via Web sites, books, journals,conferences, and professional associations.

• www.pbis.org Office of Special Education Programs (OSEP) TechnicalAssistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions & Support (U.S.Department of Education). Includes a series of PBS Practices (two-page how-to-do papers plus resource lists) on

- Conducting FBAs.- Collaborative teaming in PBS.- Proactive support strategies.- Teaching replacement skills.- Systems change in PBS.- Using competing behavior models.- Group action planning and PBS.- Addressing cultural and economic diversity in PBS.

« www.nichcy.org National Information Center for Children and Youth withDisabilities (NICHCY). On the NICHCY Web site you will find a useful bibliog-raphy for using PBS in schools, home, and community. While this document isnow out of print, it is still available on the Web site and contains useful infor-mation for practitioners. To locate, follow the links starting at the home page:publications, out of print, Resource list (BIB3).

• www.beachcenter.org Beach Center on Disability. An organization devoted toimproving the quality of life for families and individuals affected with disabili-ty. Members of this organization conduct research, provide training and tech-nical assistance, and service at the local, state, and national level. Currentresearch topics include PBS, law and public policy, self-determination, familyquality of life, access to the general curriculum, and school-community part-nerships reform. To access information regarding PBS, follow links on homepage: General topics, Positive Behavior Support, and then select a resourcetype.

• http://www.apbsinternational.org An organization dedicated to the advance-ment of positive behavior support. Members of this organization receivenewsletters, conference discounts, and a subscription to The Journal of PositiveBehavior Interventions.

• http://cfs.rmhi.usf.edu/dares/apbs/PBS05CaII Final.pdfInternational Conference on Positive Behavior Support; The World of PBS:Science, Value, & Vision

• Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions. Pro-Ed

• Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis. University of Kansas

• Carr, E. G., Levin, L., McConnachie, G., Carlson, J. I., Kemp, D. C., & Smith, C.E. (1994). Communication-based interventions for problem behavior: A user'sguide for positive change. (1994) Baltimore, MD: Brookes Publishing.

• Koegel, L. K., Koegel, R. L., & Dunlap, G. (Eds.). (1996). Positive behavioralsupport: Including people with difficult behavior in the community. Baltimore,MD: Paul H. Brookes.

• Luiselli, J. K., & Cameron, M. J. (Eds.). (1998). Antecedent control: innovativeapproaches to behavioral support. Baltimore, MD: Paul H. Brookes.

• O'Neill, R. E., Horner, R. H., Albin, R. W, Sprague, J. R., Storey, K., & Newton,J. S. (1997). Functional assessment and program development for problembehavior: A practical handbook. Pacific Grove, CA:Brooks/Cole.

• Repp, A, C., & Horner, R. H. (1999). Functional analysis of problem behavior:From effective assessment to effective support. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

were in effect during these last threesessions.

Intervention Results

Figure 3 shows that occurrences ofCallie's escape behavior slightlydecreased from baseline (M = 26.2) tothe initial DRA intervention (M = 22.5).Escape behavior was considerably lessfrequent during subsequent interven-tions including: DRA plus task modifi-cation (M - 12.3); DRA plus socialbreaks (M = 16.0); DRA plus choice oftask or break (M = 13.0); and follow-up(M = 12.0).

Beginning and ExpandingUse of PES—A Matterof Professionalism

Our experiences with Callie and herteacher, our own students, and theresearch literature suggested that teach-ers can use PBS effectively to managedisruptive behaviors, within the contextof ongoing classroom routines, whenthey have sufficient assistance andexpertise. Callie's improvement pro-vides further support that PBS strate-gies, specifically those incorporatingauricular modifications, improve prob-lematic behaviors (Carr et al., 1976;Horner, Day, & Day, 1997). More wide-spread use of PBS may depend onteachers' successful experiences withefficiency and practicality of PBS appli-cations in their classrooms, as well aschanges in teachers' perceptions of theprogram's success.

Moreover, researchers and practition-ers must continue to address manypragmatic issues if PBS is to become amore routine tool among educators,especially in more inclusive settings,including general education classeswhere teachers typically manage class-room environments with 20 to 35 stu-dents per instructional period. In this

Visit www.pbis.org for a

series of PBS Practices

(two-page how-to-dopapers plus resource lists).

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN • SEPT/OCT 2004 • 23

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