us history to 1865 lecture 1. chapter 1 worlds collide europe and the americas 1450-1620 worlds...

US History to 1865Lecture 1

US History to 1865Lecture 1

Chapter 1Chapter 1

Worlds Collide

Europe and the Americas

1450-1620

Worlds Collide

Europe and the Americas

1450-1620

Native American WorldsNative American Worlds

• The First Americans – The first people to live in the Western

Hemisphere were migrants from Asia; most came across a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska.

• The First Americans – The first people to live in the Western

Hemisphere were migrants from Asia; most came across a land bridge between Siberia and Alaska.


• The First Americans – About 20,000 years after the migration

began, glacial melting isolated the people of the Western Hemisphere for 400 generations.

• The First Americans – About 20,000 years after the migration

began, glacial melting isolated the people of the Western Hemisphere for 400 generations.


• The First Americans – For centuries Native Americans were

hunter -gatherers; they developed horticulture around 3000 B.C.

• The First Americans – For centuries Native Americans were

hunter -gatherers; they developed horticulture around 3000 B.C.


• The First Americans – Agricultural surplus led to populous and

wealthy societies in Mexico, Peru, and the Mississippi River Valley.

• The First Americans – Agricultural surplus led to populous and

wealthy societies in Mexico, Peru, and the Mississippi River Valley.

• Indian America before Columbus is a mystery

• Primitive Nomads– Mexico

– Panama (?)

– South America (?)

• Indian America before Columbus is a mystery

• Primitive Nomads– Mexico

– Panama (?)

– South America (?)

• 10,000 B.C.– Mexico

– Central America

– Two waves or three waves of migration?

– Three if we include the Inuit migration 1000-1700 AD

• 10,000 B.C.– Mexico

– Central America

– Two waves or three waves of migration?

– Three if we include the Inuit migration 1000-1700 AD

• Two real migration patterns

First extremely primitive hunter gatherers maybe 20,000 years ago

Second Big game hunters spread over the continent reached tip of S. America 9000 BC

• Two real migration patterns

First extremely primitive hunter gatherers maybe 20,000 years ago

Second Big game hunters spread over the continent reached tip of S. America 9000 BC

• Archaic Age C 7000 BC– Changed from food gatherer to food

producer

– Cultivation of corn Tehuacάn near Mexico City

– Agriculture highlands of Mexico by 5000 B.C.

• Archaic Age C 7000 BC– Changed from food gatherer to food

producer

– Cultivation of corn Tehuacάn near Mexico City

– Agriculture highlands of Mexico by 5000 B.C.

• 6,700 B.C. – 5000 B.C. shift to gathering plant foods as chief means of sustenance

– Stone choppers, grinders, mortars

• 5000 – c. 3400 BC increased domestication/cultivation of corn, squash, beqans, chilli, gourds, cotton

• 6,700 B.C. – 5000 B.C. shift to gathering plant foods as chief means of sustenance

– Stone choppers, grinders, mortars

• 5000 – c. 3400 BC increased domestication/cultivation of corn, squash, beqans, chilli, gourds, cotton

• By 3400 BC 30% of total food supply came from agriculture

• By 3400 BC 30% of total food supply came from agriculture

• Formative – Pre Classic Period– Pottery

– Complex village life

• After 850 BC hybrid corn – irrigated fields

• Formative – Pre Classic Period– Pottery

– Complex village life

• After 850 BC hybrid corn – irrigated fields

4 groups of PeopleHandbook of S.A. Infians

4 groups of PeopleHandbook of S.A. Infians

• I Marginal hunting and gathering tribes: eastern Brazil, the Gran Chaco, the Pampa, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego

• II Tropical Forrest, region around Amazon basin, lowlands of coastal Brazil, slopes of montaña in Peru and the Yungas in Bolivia

• I Marginal hunting and gathering tribes: eastern Brazil, the Gran Chaco, the Pampa, Patagonia, and Tierra del Fuego

• II Tropical Forrest, region around Amazon basin, lowlands of coastal Brazil, slopes of montaña in Peru and the Yungas in Bolivia

– Currare

– Cannibalisms

– Simple pottery

– Basketry

– Wood tools

– Dugout canoes

– Currare

– Cannibalisms

– Simple pottery

– Basketry

– Wood tools

– Dugout canoes

• III Circum Carribean tribes – Arawaks, Caribs – all but gone

• IV Andean Civilization: Araucanians of Chile, Argentina; Chibchas of Columbia & numerous civilizations which merged into the Inca Empire

• III Circum Carribean tribes – Arawaks, Caribs – all but gone

• IV Andean Civilization: Araucanians of Chile, Argentina; Chibchas of Columbia & numerous civilizations which merged into the Inca Empire

Middle AmericaMiddle America

• Zapotecs, Mixtecs of Mitla and Monte Alban

– Temples

– Potery

– Tombs

– Metal work

• Zapotecs, Mixtecs of Mitla and Monte Alban

– Temples

– Potery

– Tombs

– Metal work

• Totonacs – Gulf Coast– Linguistically related to the Maya

– Architecture

– Sculpture

• Toltecs– “master-builder”

• Architecture, stone work, metal work

• Totonacs – Gulf Coast– Linguistically related to the Maya

– Architecture

– Sculpture

• Toltecs– “master-builder”

• Architecture, stone work, metal work

NorsemenNorsemen

– The Vikings

• Scandinavia

• Warriors, shipbuilders, and sailors

• Danes occupied – Iceland 1874

– northeastern England by 878

– part of France, Normandy

– 1000 AD coast of N America

– The Vikings

• Scandinavia

• Warriors, shipbuilders, and sailors

• Danes occupied – Iceland 1874

– northeastern England by 878

– part of France, Normandy

– 1000 AD coast of N America

CHINACHINA

CHINAMING DYNASTY

CHINAMING DYNASTY

• MILITARY RESURGENCE

• T’AI-TSU RULED FOR 30 YEARS GAINED CONTROL OF:– ALL CHINA

– DOMINATED HAMI

– SIKIANG

– INNER MONGOLIA

– NORTHERN MONGOLIA

• MILITARY RESURGENCE

• T’AI-TSU RULED FOR 30 YEARS GAINED CONTROL OF:– ALL CHINA

– DOMINATED HAMI

– SIKIANG

– INNER MONGOLIA

– NORTHERN MONGOLIA

MINGMING

• SUBJUGATION OF– KOREA

– CENTRAL AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN STATES

• YUNG-LO

• SUBJUGATION OF– KOREA

– CENTRAL AND SOUTHEAST ASIAN STATES

• YUNG-LO

MING CHINAMING CHINA

• REFORM

• WELFARE STATE

• STABILITY

• AGRICULTURE IMPROVEMENT

• LITERACY

• REFORM

• WELFARE STATE

• STABILITY

• AGRICULTURE IMPROVEMENT

• LITERACY

MING CHINAMING CHINA

• DRAMA

• PAINTING–SOOCHOW WU SCHOOL

• THOUGHT

• DRAMA

• PAINTING–SOOCHOW WU SCHOOL

• THOUGHT

• Exploratory Fleet– 1405-1434 6 large fleets sailed

• Africa• East Indies

• Exploratory Fleet– 1405-1434 6 large fleets sailed

• Africa• East Indies

Europe vs IslamEurope vs Islam

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The Early CrusadesThe Early Crusades

• The First Crusades– Pope Urban II, 1088-1099

• Alexius I asked for help• Council of Clermont, 1095

– First Crusade, 1096-1099• Jerusalem, 1099• Crusader feudal states

• Second Crusade, 1147-1149– Edessa recaptured by Muslims, 1144– Failure

• Third Crusade, 1189-1192– Saladin captures Jerusalem in 1187– Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Richard I the

Lionhearted of England, Philip II Augustus of France

• The First Crusades– Pope Urban II, 1088-1099

• Alexius I asked for help• Council of Clermont, 1095

– First Crusade, 1096-1099• Jerusalem, 1099• Crusader feudal states

• Second Crusade, 1147-1149– Edessa recaptured by Muslims, 1144– Failure

• Third Crusade, 1189-1192– Saladin captures Jerusalem in 1187– Frederick Barbarossa of Germany, Richard I the

Lionhearted of England, Philip II Augustus of France

• A quick word about Europe– Not in your text

• A quick word about Europe– Not in your text

Traditional European Society in 1450 Traditional European Society in 1450

• The Peasantry – There were only a few large cities in

western Europe before A.D. 1450; more than 90 percent of the population were peasants living in small rural communities.

• The Peasantry – There were only a few large cities in

western Europe before A.D. 1450; more than 90 percent of the population were peasants living in small rural communities.


• The Peasantry

– Most peasants yearned to be yeomen, but few achieved that goal.

• The Peasantry

– Most peasants yearned to be yeomen, but few achieved that goal.


• The Peasantry – Cooperative farming was a necessity and

most farm families exchanged their surplus farm products with their neighbors or bartered it for local services.

• The Peasantry – Cooperative farming was a necessity and

most farm families exchanged their surplus farm products with their neighbors or bartered it for local services.


• The Peasantry

– As with the Native American cultures, many aspects of European life followed a seasonal pattern.

• The Peasantry

– As with the Native American cultures, many aspects of European life followed a seasonal pattern.


• The Peasantry – Mortality rates among the peasants were

high life consisted of little food and much work

– The deprived rural classes of Britain, Spain, and Germany constituted the majority of white migrants to the Western Hemisphere.

• The Peasantry – Mortality rates among the peasants were

high life consisted of little food and much work

– The deprived rural classes of Britain, Spain, and Germany constituted the majority of white migrants to the Western Hemisphere.


• Hierarchy and Authority

– In the traditional European social order, authority came from above; kings and princes lived in splendor off the labor of the peasantry.


– In the traditional European social order, authority came from above; kings and princes lived in splendor off the labor of the peasantry.



– Collectively, noblemen had the power to challenge royal authority; after 1450 kings began to undermine the power of the nobility and create more centralized states.


– Collectively, noblemen had the power to challenge royal authority; after 1450 kings began to undermine the power of the nobility and create more centralized states.


• Hierarchy and Authority– The peasant man ruled his women and

children; his power was justified by the teachings of the Christian church.

– The inheritance practice of primogeniture forced many younger children to join the ranks of the roaming poor; there was little personal freedom or individual identity for these peasants.

• Hierarchy and Authority– The peasant man ruled his women and

children; his power was justified by the teachings of the Christian church.

– The inheritance practice of primogeniture forced many younger children to join the ranks of the roaming poor; there was little personal freedom or individual identity for these peasants.


• Hierarchy and Authority– Hierarchy and authority prevailed

because they offered a measure of social stability, and these values later shaped the American social order well into the eighteenth century.

• Hierarchy and Authority– Hierarchy and authority prevailed

because they offered a measure of social stability, and these values later shaped the American social order well into the eighteenth century.

Traditional European Society in 1450Traditional European Society in 1450

• The Power of Religion – The Roman Catholic Church served as

one of the great unifying forces in western European society; the Church provided a bulwark of authority and discipline.

– Christian doctrine penetrated the lives of peas ants; the merging of the sacred with the agricultural cycle endowed all worldly events with spiritual meaning.

• The Power of Religion – The Roman Catholic Church served as

one of the great unifying forces in western European society; the Church provided a bulwark of authority and discipline.

– Christian doctrine penetrated the lives of peas ants; the merging of the sacred with the agricultural cycle endowed all worldly events with spiritual meaning.


• The Power of Religion – Crushing other religions and suppressing

heresies among Christians was an obligation of rulers and a task of the new orders of Christian knights.

– Between A.D. 1096 and 1291, successive armies of Christians embarked on Crusades; Muslims were a prime target of the crusaders.

• The Power of Religion – Crushing other religions and suppressing

heresies among Christians was an obligation of rulers and a task of the new orders of Christian knights.

– Between A.D. 1096 and 1291, successive armies of Christians embarked on Crusades; Muslims were a prime target of the crusaders.


• The Power of Religion – The Crusades strengthened the Christian

identity of the European population and helped broaden the intellectual and economic horizons of the European privileged class.

• The Power of Religion – The Crusades strengthened the Christian

identity of the European population and helped broaden the intellectual and economic horizons of the European privileged class.

Europe Encounters Africa and the Americas, 1450-1550


• The Renaissance

– Around 1450 Europeans engaged in a major revival of learning; the Renaissance had the most impact on the upper classes.

• The Renaissance

– Around 1450 Europeans engaged in a major revival of learning; the Renaissance had the most impact on the upper classes.



• The Renaissance

– The artists and intellectuals of the Renaissance were humanists who celebrated individual human potential.

• The Renaissance

– The artists and intellectuals of the Renaissance were humanists who celebrated individual human potential.



• The Renaissance

• – Following Niccolo Machiavelli's advice in

The Prince (1513), an alliance of monarchs, merchants, and royal bureaucrats challenged the power of the agrarian nobility.

• The Renaissance

• – Following Niccolo Machiavelli's advice in

The Prince (1513), an alliance of monarchs, merchants, and royal bureaucrats challenged the power of the agrarian nobility.



• The Renaissance

– The increasing wealth of the monarchical nation-state propelled Europe into its first age of expansion.

• The Renaissance

– The increasing wealth of the monarchical nation-state propelled Europe into its first age of expansion.



• The Renaissance

– Because Arabs and Italians dominated trade in the Mediterranean, Prince Henry of Portugal sought an alternate oceanic route to Asia; under Henry's direction, Portugal led European expansion overseas.

• The Renaissance

– Because Arabs and Italians dominated trade in the Mediterranean, Prince Henry of Portugal sought an alternate oceanic route to Asia; under Henry's direction, Portugal led European expansion overseas.



• The Renaissance

– By the 1440s the Portuguese were the first Europeans engaged in the African slave trade.

• The Renaissance

– By the 1440s the Portuguese were the first Europeans engaged in the African slave trade.



West African Society and Slavery

• Most West Africans farmed small plots and lived in extended families in small villages that specialized in certain crops; they traded goods with one another.


• Most West Africans farmed small plots and lived in extended families in small villages that specialized in certain crops; they traded goods with one another.




• West Africans spoke many different languages and formed hundreds of distinct groups, the majority of which lived in hierarchical societies ruled by princes


• West Africans spoke many different languages and formed hundreds of distinct groups, the majority of which lived in hierarchical societies ruled by princes



• West African Society and Slavery– Their spiritual beliefs were varied; some

were Muslim, but most recognized a variety of deities.

• West African Society and Slavery– Their spiritual beliefs were varied; some

were Muslim, but most recognized a variety of deities.

– At first, European traders had a positive impact on the West African peoples because they introduced new plants, animals, and metal products to West Africa.

– At first, European traders had a positive impact on the West African peoples because they introduced new plants, animals, and metal products to West Africa.



• West African Society and Slavery– Europeans living in West Africa were

stricken by disease, and their death rate was more than. 50 percent a year.

– Europeans soon joined the West African's long established trade in humans; by 1700 Europeans shipped hundreds of thousands of slaves to American plantations.

• West African Society and Slavery– Europeans living in West Africa were

stricken by disease, and their death rate was more than. 50 percent a year.

– Europeans soon joined the West African's long established trade in humans; by 1700 Europeans shipped hundreds of thousands of slaves to American plantations.



• Europe Reaches the Americas– While they traded with the Africans, the

Portuguese continued to look for a direct ocean route to Asia.

– Bartholomew Dias sailed around the southern tip of Africa in 1488.

– In 1502 Vasco da Gama's ships outgunned Arab fleets; the Portuguese government soon opened trade routes from Africa to Indonesia and up the coast of Asia to China and Japan.

• Europe Reaches the Americas– While they traded with the Africans, the

Portuguese continued to look for a direct ocean route to Asia.

– Bartholomew Dias sailed around the southern tip of Africa in 1488.

– In 1502 Vasco da Gama's ships outgunned Arab fleets; the Portuguese government soon opened trade routes from Africa to Indonesia and up the coast of Asia to China and Japan.



• Europe Reaches the Americas – The Portuguese replaced the Arabs as leaders

in world commerce and African slave trade.– Spain followed Portugal's example, but they

sought a western route to the riches of the East.

– Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sea captain, set sail on August 3, 1492, with the support of Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, and financially backed by Spanish merchants

• Europe Reaches the Americas – The Portuguese replaced the Arabs as leaders

in world commerce and African slave trade.– Spain followed Portugal's example, but they

sought a western route to the riches of the East.

– Christopher Columbus, a Genoese sea captain, set sail on August 3, 1492, with the support of Spanish monarchs, Ferdinand and Isabella, and financially backed by Spanish merchants



• Europe Reaches the Americas– October 12, 1492, Columbus landed on

what he thought was the "Indies" and called the native inhabitants "Indians"; he had actually landed at the present day Bahamas.

– Although Columbus found no gold, the mon archs sent three more voyages over the next twelve years; the Spanish monarchs wanted to make the New World their own.

• Europe Reaches the Americas– October 12, 1492, Columbus landed on

what he thought was the "Indies" and called the native inhabitants "Indians"; he had actually landed at the present day Bahamas.

– Although Columbus found no gold, the mon archs sent three more voyages over the next twelve years; the Spanish monarchs wanted to make the New World their own.



• The Spanish Conquest – In 1519 Hernando Cortes and his fellow

Spanish conquistadors landed on the Mexican coast and overthrew the Aztec empire.

– Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, believed that Cortes might be a returning god and allowed him to enter the empire without challenge.

• The Spanish Conquest – In 1519 Hernando Cortes and his fellow

Spanish conquistadors landed on the Mexican coast and overthrew the Aztec empire.

– Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, believed that Cortes might be a returning god and allowed him to enter the empire without challenge.

In this Aztec pictograph (c. 1540) Cortes is shown with his Nahuatl-speaking interpreter, mistress, and advisor Malinche (or Marina in Spanish). Signifying her dual identity as an Indian and a European, Malinche wears native clothes while holding up the Christian rosary.


• The Mayas and the Aztecs – The flowering of civilization

began among the Mayan peoples of the Yucatan Peninsula and Guatemala; they built large religious centers and urban communities.

• The Mayas and the Aztecs – The flowering of civilization

began among the Mayan peoples of the Yucatan Peninsula and Guatemala; they built large religious centers and urban communities.


• The Mayas and the Aztecs – An elite class claiming descent from the

gods ruled Mayan society and lived off the goods and taxes of peasant families; beginning around A.D. 800, Mayan civilization declined.

• The Mayas and the Aztecs – An elite class claiming descent from the

gods ruled Mayan society and lived off the goods and taxes of peasant families; beginning around A.D. 800, Mayan civilization declined.


• The Mayas and the Aztecs– A second major Mesoamerican

civilization developed around the city of Teotihuacan; by A.D. 800 Teotihuacan had also declined.

• The Mayas and the Aztecs– A second major Mesoamerican

civilization developed around the city of Teotihuacan; by A.D. 800 Teotihuacan had also declined.


• The Mayas and the Aztecs– In A.D. 1325 the Aztecs built the city of

Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) where they established a hierarchical social order and subjugated most of central Mexico.

• The Mayas and the Aztecs– In A.D. 1325 the Aztecs built the city of

Tenochtitlan (Mexico City) where they established a hierarchical social order and subjugated most of central Mexico.


• The Mayas and the Aztecs– By A.D. 1500 Tenochtitlan had grown

into a metropolis of over 200,000 inhabitants, and the Aztecs posed a formidable challenge to any adversary.

• The Mayas and the Aztecs– By A.D. 1500 Tenochtitlan had grown

into a metropolis of over 200,000 inhabitants, and the Aztecs posed a formidable challenge to any adversary.

Skilled Inca artisans created gold jewelry and artifacts of striking beauty. Found in a tomb, this figurine may be a stylized image of the dead man, who was undoubtedly a noble of considerable status. Note the intricate detail on the man's headdress and garment.


• The Indians of the North – The Indians north of the Rio Grande had

smaller, less coercive societies; in A.D. 1500 most of these societies were self-governing tribes composed of clans.

• The Indians of the North – The Indians north of the Rio Grande had

smaller, less coercive societies; in A.D. 1500 most of these societies were self-governing tribes composed of clans.


• The Indians of the North – Clan leaders resolved feuds and

disciplined individuals, yet clan leaders had less power than the Mayan and Aztec nobles.

• The Indians of the North – Clan leaders resolved feuds and

disciplined individuals, yet clan leaders had less power than the Mayan and Aztec nobles.


• The Indians of the North – Some tribes exerted influence over their

immediate neighbors through trade or conquest; by A.D. 100 the Hopewells had spread their influence through Wisconsin and Louisiana.

• The Indians of the North – Some tribes exerted influence over their

immediate neighbors through trade or conquest; by A.D. 100 the Hopewells had spread their influence through Wisconsin and Louisiana.


• The Indians of the North – The Hopewell trading network gradually

collapsed around A.D. 400.

• The Indians of the North – The Hopewell trading network gradually

collapsed around A.D. 400.

This meticulously carved ceramic bottle in the shape of a nursing mother was presumably not made to hold liquid for everyday use, but for ritualistic or symbolic purposes - perhaps it was placed in a grave for use in the afterlife


• The Indians of the North – In the Southwest, the complex Mogollon

culture developed by A.D. 600, and the Anasazi culture developed by A.D. 900; drought brought on the collapse of both of these cultures after A.D. 1150.

• The Indians of the North – In the Southwest, the complex Mogollon

culture developed by A.D. 600, and the Anasazi culture developed by A.D. 900; drought brought on the collapse of both of these cultures after A.D. 1150.

The artistically and architecturally talented Mogollon and Anasazi peoples of Arizona and New Mexico took utilitarian objects-- such as this ordinary pot -- and decorated them with black-on-white designs. Their cultures flourished from 1000 to 1250, after which they slowly declined, probably because the climate became increasingly arid.


• The Indians of the North – The advanced farming technology of

Mesoamerica spread into the Mississippi Valley around A.D. 700; the Mississippian society was the last large scale culture to emerge north of the Rio Grande.

• The Indians of the North – The advanced farming technology of

Mesoamerica spread into the Mississippi Valley around A.D. 700; the Mississippian society was the last large scale culture to emerge north of the Rio Grande.


• The Indians of the North– By A.D. 1350 disease and warfare over

fertile bottomlands led to the decline of the Mississippian civilization.

• The Indians of the North– By A.D. 1350 disease and warfare over

fertile bottomlands led to the decline of the Mississippian civilization.


• The Indians of the North– Eighteenth-century British settlers

referred to the Indian peoples of this region as the "Civilized Tribes" because of their stable, agriculture-based way of life.

• The Indians of the North– Eighteenth-century British settlers

referred to the Indian peoples of this region as the "Civilized Tribes" because of their stable, agriculture-based way of life.


• The Indians of the North – Horticulture was a significant part of the

lives of the women of the eastern Woodland Indians, and because of the importance of farming, a matrilineal inheritance system developed.

• The Indians of the North – Horticulture was a significant part of the

lives of the women of the eastern Woodland Indians, and because of the importance of farming, a matrilineal inheritance system developed.


• The Indians of the North

– Indian peoples ate better due to farming, but their populations grew slowly.

• The Indians of the North

– Indian peoples ate better due to farming, but their populations grew slowly.


• The Indians of the North – By A.D. 1500 there were no great Indian

empires left to lead a military campaign against the European invasion.

• The Indians of the North – By A.D. 1500 there were no great Indian

empires left to lead a military campaign against the European invasion.



• The Spanish Conquest – The empire's collapse was mainly due to

internal rebellion and death by disease.– In the late 1520s the Spanish conquest

entered a new phase when Francisco Pizarro overthrew the Inca empire in Peru

– The Incas were also easy prey due to internal fighting over the throne and because of disease

• The Spanish Conquest – The empire's collapse was mainly due to

internal rebellion and death by disease.– In the late 1520s the Spanish conquest

entered a new phase when Francisco Pizarro overthrew the Inca empire in Peru

– The Incas were also easy prey due to internal fighting over the throne and because of disease



• The Spanish Conquest – The conquests diminished the Native

American population and survivors were forced to work on plantations.

– The Spanish invasion of the Americas had a significant impact on life in Europe and Africa due to a process of transfer known as the "Columbian Exchange.“

– Native Americans lost part of their cultural identity; a new mestizo, or mixed race, culture emerged.

• The Spanish Conquest – The conquests diminished the Native

American population and survivors were forced to work on plantations.

– The Spanish invasion of the Americas had a significant impact on life in Europe and Africa due to a process of transfer known as the "Columbian Exchange.“

– Native Americans lost part of their cultural identity; a new mestizo, or mixed race, culture emerged.

us history to 1865 lecture 1. chapter 1 worlds collide europe and the americas 1450-1620 worlds...

Documents

bc slide

agriculture slide

ad slide

cotton slide

mexico central america

centuries native americans

waves of migration

native american worlds