1- Volume

2- Color

3- Odor

4- Reaction/pH

5- Specific gravity

6- Turbidity (Aspect or transparency)

7- Consistency

Interpretation: 1-Polyuria: increase volume of urinCauses: Physiological In winter ( ↓ Temp.) Excess water intake. Pathological Hormonal disturbanceDiabetes insipidus. Diabetes mellitus.Hyper adrenocortisismDisease conditionsKidney affectionsPolyuric phase of ARFLiver disease↑ ammonia level → toxic to renal tubules.TherapyFluid therapeyDiuretics Crticosteroides

2- Oliguria: ↓ urine volumeCauses:Physiological In summer (↑ Temp.) Decrease water intakePainting in dog( hyperventilation)Pathological Dehydration (Burns, vomition, Diahrria………etcCirculatory dysfunction↓ cardiac output, ShockKidney diseaseRenal ischemia, oligouric phase of RFIncomplete obstruction of renal passage

3- Anuria: Complete cessation of urine flowCauses:oObstruction of urinary passage either by•Stones•Parasitic eggs (Schistsoma)•Tumors (prostatic tumor)

Color Possible causes

Pale Excess water intake.

Diabetes insipidus. Diabetes mellitus.

Deep amber yellow-orange

Extremely concentrated. Good muscular exercises. High grade of fever.

Red to brownish red

Hematuria Hemoglobinuria. Myoglobinuria.

Drugs as phenothiazine.

2- ColorThe normal color of urine is straw yellow which is due to Urine pigments(Urochrom, Urobiline and uroerythrin Pigments)

Interpretation:

Brown-black Lead, Mercury poisoning

Greenish tint Jundice

Putrified sample. Phenol poisoning.

Milky Chylouria.

Colourless Obstructive jundice (absence of urobilinogen)

Odor Possible causes

Ammoniacal

Bacterial contamination (Proteus, Coryne renal)

Long standing sample

Putrid Urinary tract infection (UTI.),

and presence of Pus cells.

Fruity

Ketonuria(Diabetic ketosis).Aceton, acetoacetic and b-

hydroxybutyric acid.

MousyPhenol ketonuria.

3- OdorNormal urine has faint aromatic odor (urinephrous) , which due to volatile acid

Interpretation:

Normally, fresh urine (except equines) is clear to very slightly cloudy. Excess turbidity results from the presence of suspended particles in the urine. The cause can usually be determined based on the results of the microscopic urine

sediment examination.

Common causes of abnormal turbidity include Increased cells (RBC, WBC). Numerous crystals. Bacteria. Lipiduria (lipids often rise to the surface). Mucus (especially in horses). Semen. Fecal contamination.

o It reflects ability of the kidney to maintain H+ ion concentration in extracellular fluid and plasma.

o it’s measurment reflect type of urine crystals

Measurement pH indicator paper. Electronic pH meter. Reagent strips. The pH differ according to  Animal spp.

Type of food intake

Carnivoras Acidic pHHerbivoras Alkaline pH Omnivroas Acc. To diet.

InterpretationAciduria Alkalinuria

• Starvation : ( degradation of body fat).

• fever ( muscle dgradation)

• metabolic and respiratory acidosis)

•Admin. Of Acid salts( amm. And Sod. Chloride)

•Infection by H+ producing bacteria

• proximal renal tubular acidosis(↓coservation of HCo3 by PCT that buffer more H+ in tubular fluid producing H2Co3 .

•Hypokalemia

• Urea splitting or hydrolysis in old sample or urease +ve bacteria

• Respiratory and metabolic alkalosis.

•Distal renal tubular acidosis

(↓ H+ excreation by DCT)

Def. It is the ratio of weight of one ml of urine to that of weight

of one ml of distilled water. • Factors affecting SpG:

1- concentration of various particles/solutes in the urine.

2- Volume of urine.

• Significance of SpG measurement: used to measure the concentrating and diluting power of the kidney.

• Methods for estimation SpG:

• Urinometer.

• Refractometer.

• Reagent strips.

Interpretation

Abnormal specific gravity Possibl causes

Decreased specific gravity Excess water intake. Diabetes insipidus.

Increased specific gravity Dehydration.

Albumineuria.

Glucosuria.

Solute overload

N.B. Isosthenuria (fixed specific gravity) It is the excretion of urine having the same specific gravity of plasma or

glomerular filtrate (1.008-1.012 with average 1.010). The inability to excrete urine with a higher or lower specific gravity indicates significantly impaired

renal tubular function as in chronic nephritis (tubular destruction) or ADH

deficiency.

Corrected sp. gr.