urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement in dar es ...urban upgrading needs in an informal...

Eindhoven University of Technology Technology Management

Urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement in Dar es

Salaam, Tanzania

An analysis based upon the interaction between urban space and the people’s livelihood strategy, the case of Keko Magurumbasi A

MSc thesis By Saskia Ruijsink

Student identity number: 440772

Technology and Development Specialisation: construction engineering and development studies

Eindhoven University of Technology, the Netherlands

Under supervision of: Dr. Henny A. Romijn

Prof.dr.ir. Bruno E.J. de Meulder Dr. ir. Emilia L.C. van Egmond-de Wilde de Ligny

Research is carried out in co-operation with:

University College of Land and Architectural Studies (UCLAS) University of Dar es Salaam, United Republic of Tanzania

Local supervisor: Dr. T.J. Nnkya

March 2004

Preface This MSc thesis presents the findings of the fieldwork of a research carried out in the field of urban upgrading in Dar es Salaam in Tanzania, for a period of six months. The six-month fieldwork was carried out as a part of the MSc programme ‘Technology and Development Science’, conducted at the ‘Eindhoven University of Technology’ (TU/e) in the Netherlands. In this programme, knowledge from a discipline in the field of a Technological Science (in this case urban planning and housing studies) is combined with knowledge from Development Science. The subject of this research, urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement, is strongly related to the disciplines urban planning, housing studies and development sciences. The research has been carried out with assistance of the ‘University College of Land and Architectural Studies’ (UCLAS) at the ‘University of Dar es Salaam’ (UDSM) in Tanzania. The research has been a good way to conclude the MSc programme at the TU/e. Especially the fieldwork has been very satisfactory. I really enjoyed to live in Tanzania and to learn about the life of urban poor in an informal settlement by visiting the site many times. A lot of people in Dar es Salaam and the Netherlands have assisted me in one way or another; I want to thank all of them. I explicitly want to thank my supervisors for their inspiration and assistance, especially Henny Romijn, my first supervisor, who managed to give a lot of support despite her health problems. Additionally, I want to thank Rayner Ndeu, he assisted me during my fieldwork in every possible way: with contacts, with searching for information, with translations from Swahili to English, etc. I would also like to thank my friends and family for their assistance during my entire graduation project, especially Jessica, Jaap and Robin.

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Executive summary Urbanisation takes place at high pace, especially in developing countries this is not without problems. In the major city of Tanzania, Dar es Salaam, 70% of the inhabitants live in informal settlements where basic services and infrastructure are lacking. To cope with the problems urban upgrading projects are initiated worldwide as well as in Dar es Salaam. It is agreed that these projects should be based on demand driven strategies. Therefore it is important to identify urban upgrading needs of the local people that live in poor informal settlements. However, no blueprint has been developed for a needs assessment. Currently applied methods that usually work with checklists for services in and around an urban area are not always satisfactory. In this research urban upgrading needs of the local people of an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam have been assessed. The needs should form a starting point for demand driven upgrading strategies. The objective of this research is twofold. The Overall research objective is: ‘The formulation of the implications of the urban upgrading needs for policies in the field of urban upgrading in Dar es Salaam’. This objective can be fulfilled when urban upgrading needs are identified and prioritised as is described in the Instrumental objective: ‘The identification and prioritisation of the urban upgrading needs of the local people in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam’. The policy recommendations are presented to the Community Infrastructure Upgrading Programme (CIUP) that is executing an upgrading program in several informal settlements in Dar es Salaam. The assumption that is underlying this research is that urban upgrading needs of the local people can be successfully assessed if one starts by understanding more about the life of the local people and the urban space they live in. Moreover, it is assumed that the urban space influences the way people live and vice versa. The overall research question is formulated as follows: What are the urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam Tanzania, with the highest priority based on the livelihood strategy1 of the local inhabitants in relation to the urban space? The method that is used to identify and prioritise urban upgrading needs is based upon five steps. The first step is the analysis of the urban space of an informal settlement. The second step is the analysis of the livelihood strategy. Thirdly, the interaction between the urban space and the livelihood strategy is explored. Based upon these three steps the relative importance of elements of the urban space is formulated, this is the fourth step. Finally the urban upgrading needs are identified and prioritised based upon the former steps. The research question can be answered by elaborating the five steps. In order to do so data was gathered with the help of key-informant interviews, household interviews, secondary sources and observation. The relations between the concepts central in this research are schematically represented in figure I, the analytical framework. The method that is used to elaborate the steps can be summarised as follows:

I. Analyse urban space and livelihood strategy of the local people II. Explore interaction between the urban space and the livelihood strategy

III. Selection of elements of urban space and judgement of relative importance of these elements

IV. Identification of urban upgrading needs V. First phase prioritisation + second phase prioritisation → final prioritisation of urban

upgrading needs The starting point of this research is the analysis of the urban space of a selected informal settlement in Dar es Salaam, named ‘Keko Magurumbasi A’. It is a residential high-density (7127 inhabitants live on 18 hectares), low-income settlement situated in an industrial area close to the city-centre. The internal circulation is characterised by a lack of porosity (only extremely narrow passages), while the external circulation is very good. The area is economically active and has an economic connection with the city that stems from good physical connections. The majority of the

1 Livelihood strategy is concerned with the strategy that people use to survive and how this is influenced by the access that they have to capital. In this respect, capital is broadly defined as financial, natural, physical, social and human capital.

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Livelihood StrategyUrban space

Urban upgrading needs with highest

priority

Importance of elements of urban

space

LOCAL SETTING

NATIONAL SETTING INTERNATIONAL SETTING

Figure 1

houses are constructed by means of self-help techniques. There are no paved roads, drainage and sewerage in the area. One of the borders is a small river that is a potential hazard because it often floods in the rainy season. The major pollution problems are: water pollution of the river and solid and liquid waste problems. The next step is the analysis of the livelihood strategies of the local people in the settlement. The livelihood strategies of local households in an informal settlement are determined by the access they have not merely to income but to the complete range of financial, human, physical, natural and social capital. In Keko Magurumbasi A people need access to all forms of capital to survive and all these forms of capital are interconnected to one and another. The people have a low income and are often very vulnerable and underprivileged, therefore they are forced to adapt themselves to the circumstances in which they live. Several Local Government committees, NGO’s and CBO’s mediate in gaining access to capital. The majority of the organisations deal with access to financial capital and to a lesser extent to human, natural and social capital. Because all organisations have few resources their influence on the actual livelihood strategies of the households is poor. After analysing the urban space and the livelihood strategy, the interaction between urban space and the people's livelihood strategy is explored. The nature of this interaction can be summarised by several themes that together represent the most important interactions. The first theme ‘Centrality versus periphery’, deals with the influence of the location of the settlement - in relation to services and to other parts of the city - on the livelihood strategy of the local people. ‘Accessibility versus inaccessibility’, discusses how both the internal and external circulation determine access to capital. ‘Availability versus unavailability of infrastructure’ shows that the availability of infrastructure determines how the local people use resources. In the discussion of the theme ‘resourcefulness versus low potential of existing buildings’ it becomes clear that the potential of buildings determines extent to which people have access to e.g. services. ‘Natural resourcefulness versus hazardous potential’ deals with how access to natural resources affects the livelihood strategies of the local people. The exploration of these interactions has been the basis for the selection of specific elements of urban space that are of major importance in relation to the livelihood strategy of the local people

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in Keko Magurumbasi A. The selected elements form a starting point in the identification of urban upgrading needs. The relative importance of the elements is determined by ranking exercises applied to households and by results from the interaction. The relative importance forms the basis for the first phase prioritisation of the needs. The second phase prioritisation is based upon an exercise made by key informants and households. The respondents were asked to rank the identified needs. The input of the two prioritisation phases generated the final prioritisation of needs. The final prioritisation is shown in table I. This table gives an overview of the actual needs with highest priority that should be fulfilled by means of public action and the needs to be fulfilled by private action. The needs that are to be fulfilled by private action are not prioritised because people decide themselves whenever they do so. Priority and need Clarification Priority 1. Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of opportunities to generate income.

This need can be fulfilled as an integral part of a project, but some extra stimulation via improving access to credit can be necessary as well. It is considered to be the need with the highest priority since it directly improves the standard of living of the people and it directly influences the cots-recovery of an upgrading project

Priority 2. Needs regarding social improvements: Improvement of access to health care

Good access to health care increases the quality of life and the productivity.2

Priority 3. Needs regarding social improvements: Improvement of access to (primary) education

Education increases the quality of life and job opportunities to a very high degree.

Priority 4. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of situation concerning the river

The situation of the river leads to inconvenience, unhygienic situations and capital destruction3. Improvement of this situation is very important for the inhabitants.

Priority 5. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Construction of roads in Keko Magurumbasi A. Integral to this need is the Maintenance of car free areas

Construction of roads4 can improve the accessibility and therefore can be a forward linkage for other forms of development. It can also improve the general health and safety situation. In order to continue valuable activities the construction should be dosed carefully, areas should be kept car free and accessibility should only be possible in specific cases.

2 One sick household member can decrease the productivity of a household drastically. The sick person cannot work, somebody else has to stop working (or work less) to take care of the sick person and income that is needed for good food has to be spend on medication. 3 Improvement of the situation around the river is probably not possible without destroying some of the houses that are constructed close to it. This implies that some form of capital destruction is inevitable. 4 Construction of roads is only possible if some houses are destroyed and thus leads to a form of capital destruction.

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Priority and need Clarification Priority 6. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities

In order to improve the health and hygiene situation the construction of sewerage and drainage is important. Although it is not as important as the improvement of the higher ranked elements, it is clearly ranked higher than other elements by the people and it serves a public goal.

Priority 7. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: A private water connection

It is very expensive to get connected to the water system,5 but buying water from others is costly as well and time consuming. However, since people come from rural areas where water supply is a lot worse, a private water connection is not given a very high priority.

Priority 8; priority 9.; priority 10. – Needs regarding the improvement of

the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of waste collection.

– Needs regarding improvement of political and institutional organisation: More money and powerfor LG

– Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of market place

For the people the improvement of waste collection, giving more money and power to the LG and the improvement of the market place do not seem to be very important items, relative to the other elements. A distinction between the several needs is hardly present.

Priority 11. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: A private electricity connection

Electricity increases opportunities and the quality of life, but since it is so expensive the way of life is not adapted to the use of it and the local people do not give it a high priority. Therefore the electricity connection is the least important upgrading need.

Private action Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of quality of house Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at the plot

Both the quality of sanitation facilities and the quality of the house are very important to the people, but it is believed that people can improve it as a private action. Therefore it is not included as a need that should be fulfilled by public action; however the private fulfilment could be stimulated within an upgrading project

Table I Prioritised urban upgrading needs The applied method for the needs assessment unravelled insight in interactions that are very useful for the formulation of sustainable demand driven urban upgrading strategies and is therefore considered to be quite useful. Nevertheless, the application of the method has been very complex and time consuming. This makes the method less suitable for general applications. More research on how to formulate a manageable method based upon the same principles is desirable. Policy recommendations are made for the CIUP that is running in Keko Magurumbasi A as well as in other informal settlements in Dar es Salaam. The main recommendation is to implement the identified and prioritised urban upgrading needs together with local actors. An overview of how needs can be fulfilled and which local organisations can participate is outlined in table II.

5 The connection costs are more or less 300 US Dollars, this is a lot higher than the average year salary per capita in the sample.

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Type of need Possible actions to fulfil needs Organisations that can participate

in fulfilment of needs Economical − Provision of low-interest loans

− Education related to (small-scale) business

− Creating opportunities to work for the CIUP (e.g. assist in construction of roads)

− Market canteen − Market place − Small-scale industrial

organisations − Small-scale industrial

organisations − Informal credit groups

Social − Expansion of capacity of primary school

− Increase capacity of public hospital and arrange cheap transport

− Construction of public dispensary within the sub-ward

− Tasodefa (NGO) − Education Committee (LG) − Health and Sanitation Committee

(LG)

Man-made and natural environment

− Dosed construction of roads, that allows car free areas

− Improve drainage of river − Demolishing of houses might be

necessary: relocation of people with a compensation (land, money)

− Stimulation of improvement of house and sanitation facilities by extra income opportunities

Informal community initiatives: − Plans to clean the river − Garbage collection system, − Private initiatives to improve

housing and sanitation

Political and institutional organisation

− Co-operation with city council and/ or central government to increase money and power of Local Government

− Judgement of upgrading plans: good access to informal forms of social capital should be maintained

Local Government

Table II Fulfilment of needs, possible actions and participation by local organisations Working with focus groups and committees that are formed by the local people should also lead to participation of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A. It is important to realise that these actor groups should agree with the suggested improvements, derived form the needs. Besides this, in order to implement as much improvements as possible, they can try to find alternative sources to finance the fulfilment of some needs. A useful guideline for the implementation process is outlined in table III. Action Estimated time spanDiscuss upgrading needs with local organisations and focus groups of local people.

1 month

Educate local organisations and search for alternative financing. 1-2 months Decide what is financed by CIUP and what is not. Formulate plans of action, make people responsible for execution.

1-2 months

Execute plans of action and discuss progress with responsible people. Every 2-3 weeks Table III Policy recommendations for the CIUP

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PREFACE .........................................................................................................................................I GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................................. XII LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS............................................................................................................. XII

PART A. INTRODUCTION AND METHODOLOGY ..............................................................2 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND...........................................................................................3

1.1 General introduction......................................................................................................3 1.2 Urbanisation in the third world .....................................................................................3 1.3 Urbanisation in Tanzania ..............................................................................................3 1.4 The problematic urban areas: the informal settlements ................................................3 1.5 Housing strategies and policies .....................................................................................4 1.6 Towards a demand driven strategy of urban upgrading................................................5

2. METHODOLOGY.........................................................................................................................7 2.1 Research objectives and target group............................................................................7 2.2 Research question ..........................................................................................................7 2.3 Theoretical background, analytical frame work and definition of concepts..................7 2.4 Sub-questions ...............................................................................................................10 2.5 Beneficiaries of the research........................................................................................11 2.6 Type of research...........................................................................................................11 2.7 Research method ..........................................................................................................11 2.8 Selection of the research area......................................................................................11 2.9 Data collection methods...............................................................................................12 2.10 Sample Methods .......................................................................................................14 2.11 Definition of ‘household’ .........................................................................................16 2.12 Reliability and validity .............................................................................................16 2.13 Generalising.............................................................................................................17 2.14 Readers guide...........................................................................................................17 References: ..............................................................................................................................19

PART B. EMPIRICAL FINDINGS ............................................................................................20 3. THE CONTEXT ..........................................................................................................................21

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................21 3.2 International setting.....................................................................................................21 3.3 National setting ............................................................................................................22 3.4 Local setting.................................................................................................................25 3.5 CIUP in Dar es Salaam ...............................................................................................27 References: ..............................................................................................................................28

4. THE URBAN SPACE ...............................................................................................................29 4.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................29 4.2 Context .........................................................................................................................30 4.3 The physical characteristics.........................................................................................32 4.4 The social and economic characteristics .....................................................................35 References: ..............................................................................................................................37

5. THE LIVELIHOOD STRATEGY OF LOCAL PEOPLE IN KEKO MAGURUMBASI A.......................38 5.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................38 5.2 Financial capital ..........................................................................................................38 5.3 Human capital..............................................................................................................41 5.4 Physical capital............................................................................................................42 5.5 Natural capital .............................................................................................................43 5.6 Social capital................................................................................................................44 5.7 Livelihood strategies and outcomes .............................................................................46 References: ..............................................................................................................................47

6. INTERACTION BETWEEN URBAN SPACE AND THE LIVELIHOOD STRATEGY ...........................48 6.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................48 6.2 Centrality versus periphery..........................................................................................48 6.3 Accessibility versus inaccessibility ..............................................................................48

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6.4 Availability versus unavailability of infrastructure .....................................................49 6.5 Resourcefulness versus low potential of existing buildings .........................................49 6.6 Natural resourcefulness versus hazardous potential ...................................................49 6.7 Conclusions interaction ...............................................................................................49

7. MOST IMPORTANT ELEMENTS OF THE URBAN SPACE ...........................................................51 7.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................51 7.2 Selection of elements: first phase.................................................................................51 7.3 Selection of elements: second phase ............................................................................52 7.4 Elements with relatively low importance .....................................................................52 7.5 Conclusion: selection of most important elements.......................................................53 References: ..............................................................................................................................54

8. URBAN UPGRADING NEEDS ..................................................................................................55 8.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................55 8.2 Phase I: Identification and prioritisation of needs ......................................................55 8.3 Phase II: Prioritisation and judgement of needs .........................................................57 8.4 Combining phase I and phase II: Final prioritisation of needs ...................................58 8.5 Fulfilment of the needs .................................................................................................60 References: ..............................................................................................................................62

PART C. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS .....................................................64 9. CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................65

9.1 Introduction..................................................................................................................65 9.2 The research questions answered ................................................................................65 9.3 Usefulness of applied needs assessment method for demand driven urban upgrading strategies .................................................................................................................................68 9.4 Bottom-up versus top-down approaches ......................................................................68 9.5 Discussion of the results ..............................................................................................69 References: ..............................................................................................................................71

10. RECOMMENDATIONS ........................................................................................................72 10.1 Introduction..............................................................................................................72 10.2 Local initiatives ........................................................................................................72 10.3 Recommendations for the CIUP...............................................................................73 10.4 Recommendations for further research ....................................................................75

REFERENCES................................................................................................................................76 Literature.................................................................................................................................76 Internet ....................................................................................................................................77 Interviews ................................................................................................................................78

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APPENDICES...............................................................................................................................80 APPENDIX I URBAN UPGRADING AND DEVELOPMENT ................................................................81 APPENDIX II THE URBAN SPACE, OPERATIONALISATION.............................................................86 APPENDIX III LIVELIHOOD STRATEGY, OPERATIONALISATION ...................................................90 APPENDIX IV INTERACTION BETWEEN URBAN SPACE AND LIVELIHOOD STRATEGY, OPERATIONALISATION .................................................................................................................94 APPENDIX V KEY INFORMANTS...................................................................................................99 APPENDIX VI HOUSEHOLD INTERVIEW FRAMEWORK................................................................105 APPENDIX VII PREFERENCE RANKING.......................................................................................107 APPENDIX VIII TESTING OF URBAN UPGRADING NEEDS............................................................110 APPENDIX IX PHOTO IMPRESSION OF KEKO MAGURUMBASI A.................................................113 APPENDIX X PHOTO IMPRESSION OF SELECTED SUB-AREAS......................................................115 APPENDIX XI KEKO MAGURUMBASI A, AERIAL PHOTOGRAPH.................................................115 APPENDIX XII KEKO MAGURUMBASI A MAP OF THE AREA ......................................................117 APPENDIX XIII SETTLEMENTS FOR UPGRADING IN DAR ES SALAAM........................................118 APPENDIX XIV SETTLEMENTS FOR UPGRADING IN TEMEKE MUNICIPALITY ............................119 APPENDIX XV KEKO MAGURUMBASI A MARKED MAP.............................................................120 APPENDIX XVI RESIDENT’S ROUTES IN KEKO MAGURUMBASI A.............................................121 APPENDIX XVII CLIMATE IN DAR ES SALAAM .........................................................................122 APPENDIX XVIII THE INTERACTION BETWEEN URBAN SPACE AND LIVELIHOOD STRATEGY ....124 APPENDIX XIX RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ELEMENTS.............................................................132

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LIST OF TABLES Table 2.1 Data collection methods .......................................................................................... 13 Table 2.2 Demographic figures of Dar es Salaam................................................................... 15 Table 2.3 Sex and age characteristics of the sample ............................................................... 16 Table 3.1 Urban policy in Tanzania ........................................................................................ 23 Table 3.2 Municipal leadership in Dar es Salaam................................................................... 25 Table 3.3 Income distribution in Dar es Salaam ..................................................................... 26 Table 3.4 Costs of living in Dar es Salaam ............................................................................. 26 Table 4.1 Wards en sub-wards in Keko, Dar es Salaam.......................................................... 30 Table 5.1 Organisations and access to capital ......................................................................... 38 Table 7.1 Relative importance of elements ............................................................................. 53 Table 8.1 Elements and needs ................................................................................................. 56 Table 8.2 First phase prioritisation.......................................................................................... 56 Table 8.3 First and second phase prioritisation ....................................................................... 58 Table 8.4 Prioritised upgrading needs ..................................................................................... 60 Table 9.1 Overview of identified and prioritised urban upgrading needs ............................... 66 Table 10.1 Needs and local initiatives..................................................................................... 73 Table 10.2 Fulfilment of needs, possible actions .................................................................... 73 Table 10.3 Recommended actions for the CIUP ..................................................................... 74

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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Research objectives.................................................................................................. 7 Figure 2.2 Analytical framework .............................................................................................. 9 Figure 2.3 Selection of the household sample......................................................................... 14 Figure 2.4 Framework readers guide....................................................................................... 18 Figure 4.1 Map of Keko Magurumbasi A (1992).................................................................... 29 Figure 5.1 Income in Keko Magurumbasi A........................................................................... 39 Figure 5.2 Expenditures in Keko Magurumbasi A.................................................................. 39 Figure 8.1 The second phase prioritisation.............................................................................. 57 Figure 10.1 Research objectives.............................................................................................. 72

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Glossary Daladala – public transport in the form of a minibus Gongo - locally produced liquor Kariakoo - the market place in Dar es Salaam Mchicha - a leaf vegetable comparable with spinach Mtaa - sub-ward or literally ‘street’ Pombe - locally produced booze and beer

List of abbreviations CBO Community Based Organisation CCM Chama Cha Mapinduzi (Party of the Revolution) CIP Community Infrastructure Programme CIUP Community Infrastructure Upgrading Programme CPP Community Prioritisation Process EPM Environmental Planning and Management ESAF Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facilities GDP Gross Domestic Product GDRC Global development research centre- urban environment management GNI Gross National Income GNP Gross National Product HBS Household Budget Survey HDI Human Development Index HIPC Highly Indebted Poor Countries ILO Industrial Labour Organisations IMF International Monetary Fund LG Local Government:

− DC Development Committee − H&SC Health and Sanitation Committee − EC Education Committee − SC Security Committee

MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology NBS National Bureau of Statistics NGO Non Governmental Organisation NHC National Housing Corporation NIGP National Income Generating Programme PFP Policy Framework Paper PPP Purchasing Power Parity PPS Public Private Partner Ship PRS Poverty Reduction Strategy PRSP Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper RWG Redistribution With Growth SAP Structural Adjustment Program SCP Sustainable City Program SDP Sustainable Dar Program TANU Tanganyika African National Union TSh Tanzanian Shilling TU/e Eindhoven University of Technology UCLAS University College of Land and Architectural Studies UDSM University of Dar es Salaam UN United Nations UNCHS United Nations Centre for Human Settlements UNCTAD United Nations Conference of Trade and Development VETA Vocational Education Training Association VIP (latrines) Ventilated Improved Pit (latrines) WB World Bank

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WEO Ward Executive Officer

Abbreviations used in this report HH Household HHI Household Interview KI Key Informant KII Key Informant Interview O Observation P.R. Preference Ranking Different forms of capital:

− FC Financial Capital − HC Human Capital − NC Natural Capital − PC Physical Capital − SC Social Capital

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Part A. Introduction and Methodology

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1. Introduction and background

1.1 General introduction The topic of this research is the assessment of urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam Tanzania. This chapter deals with background information regarding urban upgrading in general and more specifically in Dar es Salaam. It introduces the problems related to urbanisation, the strategies and policies applied in the recent history to cope with the issues and it concludes with the onset of another way of defining demand driven urban upgrading strategies.

1.2 Urbanisation in the third world The world is urbanising rapidly; in the 1950’s one third of the world population lived in cities, now, 50 years later this number increased to half of the population (UNCHS 2003). In the Sub-Saharan region the urbanisation process took place at a rapid pace especially in the last decades. Here, cities such as Accra, Lagos, Kinshasa, Nairobi, Lusaka and Dar es Salaam experience growth rates of more than 5% per annum. The urbanisation process does not occur without problems (Kyessi 2002). Kyessi mentions that: “Among the most pressing and difficult problems facing cities and towns in the developing world are inadequate and deteriorating technical infrastructure and services. Technical or physical infrastructure refers to roads, drainage facilities, water supply, sanitation (sewage disposal), solid waste collection and disposal, electricity, telecommunication and the houses and buildings for which most of the infrastructure is created (UNCHS 1999). Despite the efforts made by world development agencies, national governments and urban authorities during the past two decades, many millions of people in the developing world still remain unserved with these basic services (...) Across Africa basic urban infrastructure services are inadequate and in a worsening state (Syagga 1992, Hardoy et al. 1999)” (2002; p.3). Numerous worldwide organisations try to tackle the problem of poverty and the problems related to the urbanisation process. The United Nations (UN) puts a lot of effort in solving both urban and rural poverty problems, with the implementation of the Millennium Development Goals. The UN defines urban upgrading (which partly consists of improvement of infrastructure provision) as a dimension of poverty reduction.6 UN Habitat has launched several programs to guide the rapid urbanisation process in the developing world.7 Recently the World Bank (WB) has become involved in a big urban upgrading project in co-operation with MIT University.8

1.3 Urbanisation in Tanzania Only 25 percent of the total population of Tanzania lives in urban areas. Nevertheless Tanzania is urbanising rapidly at a rate of over 6 percent per annum, which is around twice the international rate of the population growth. The ten major towns each have a population of over 150,000 inhabitants. Dar es Salaam is the major city and port, it has a population of approximately two and a half million, and continues to attract the majority of migrants. Like in other large cities in developing countries, the urbanisation process in Dar es Salaam has created some big problems. Amongst the biggest problems are: a lack of technical or physical infrastructure, basic services (such as health care and education) and increasing poverty and inequality (UCLAS 2002, World Bank 2002).

1.4 The problematic urban areas: the informal settlements Not all urban areas face problems as described in 1.2 and 1.3, the problems are present in several areas that both in housing literature and working environments are referred to with the concepts: slum, squatter settlement, informal settlement, shantytown, unserviced or unplanned settlement, etc. Not one specific term, or one specific definition fits to describe settlements that are ready for upgrading; this is widely agreed (World Bank 2003, MIT 2003, GDRC 2003, UNCHS 2003a). However, a common view is that these settlements are neglected parts of a city where basic 6 The Millennium Development Goals that are formulated by the UN have the overall objective to reduce poverty; the reduction of slums is one of its sub goals. For more information see internet page: www.un.org/mdg 7 Information on these projects is available at the internet page: www.unchs.org. 8 Information on this project is available at the internet page: www.mit.edu/urbanupgrading

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services are appallingly lacking. Inhabitants of a slum (or shantytown, squatter settlement, etc) are usually poor and these areas have generally developed in an unplanned way (MIT 2003). Although some definitions do describe a certain settlement better than others, usually it does not seem to be problematic to use the terms interchangeably. In Dar es Salaam the term “slum” is hardly used to refer to poor and unplanned parts of the city. These areas are mostly referred to as informal settlements; therefore this will be the term used in this research. In Dar es Salaam an informal settlement land is obtained informally; this means that land is obtained by occupation without permit, allocation by local leaders or landowners, inheritance and purchase (Kironde 1995). The inhabitants are usually poor, urban planners do not plan the development of the settlements and the settlements are unserviced, which means that the plots are not provided with basic infrastructure such as water and electricity connections, connection to a road network and a sewerage system. Summarising, the informal settlements in Dar es Salaam are characterised by an unplanned nature, a lack of basic infrastructure and ever-increasing poverty (World Bank 2002).

1.5 Housing strategies and policies Low-income groups in the third world have individual housing strategies such as renting, squatting and constructing houses by means of self-help techniques in order to fulfil their housing needs. The role of the state is demonstrated in the housing policy that is applied in a country (Lindert 1991). According to Harms “conventional housing policy stands for completed housing projects produced by the building industry in combination with private investment or state funding, using plans made by architects or engineers, yet without any involvement or participation in the planning or building procedures by the users except financial down-payments”(1992; p.38). Non-conventional housing policy combines a form of self-help with state assistance and various forms of participation of the users in the production, distribution and exchange system of housing. Examples of non-conventional housing policies are upgrading programmes, sites-and-services programmes and other forms of assisted self-help (Harms 1992). After the Second World War the most commonly applied housing policy was inspired by the modernist ideas that dominated the majority of the development policies9 in that period. This type of policy is referred to as a conventional housing policy and implied the bulldozing of slums and the provision of modern industrialised housing based on Western cultural and technical standard. In the mid-1960’s it became obvious that this policy was failing. The low-income groups could not afford the high standard houses and even if they could, income opportunities necessary for survival such as the use of residence as a workplace and subletting as a source of income, disappeared. As a reaction on the failure of the development policies inspired by modernisation theory, policies in developing countries in the 1970’s and 1980’s were inspired on redistribution with growth (RWG) and basic needs paradigms (Romijn 2001). For housing policies this resulted in policies aimed at stimulating self-help housing and other non-conventional housing strategies (Burgess 1992). Unfortunately, these policies focussed only at a small geographical area and often did not meet the high demand, nor did they reach the poorest. The oil crisis in the mid 70’s changed the investment climate completely and paved the road for structural adjustment. In the late 1980’s development policies of most third world countries were heavily influenced by the implementation of the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP’s), enforced by the World Bank and IMF (Wegelin and Borgman 1994). This implied cuts in social expenditures such as health care, education and housing. Housing projects mainly focussed on upgrading and infrastructure provision with full cost recovery (Burgess 1992). In 1987 the world stage changed again when the Brundtland Commission presented a report to address the importance of sustainability10 in the context of development. In housing policies this issue started to yield its influence in the early 1990’s in programmes such as the Sustainable Cities Programme (SCP) initiated by the United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (UNCHS) in 1990 and the Capacity Building for the Urban Environment initiated by the Institute for Housing

9 In appendix I ‘urban upgrading and development’ the relation between improvement of the housing situation and overall development in a country is explained. 10 The Brundtland Commission defined sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (Leitmann 1999, p.41).

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and Urban Development Studies in 1994. The baseline of these programmes is that outcomes of housing projects should be sustainable and in order to achieve this the local community should participate (Leitmann 1999). Currently, development policies in the third world mainly focus at sustainable development and poverty reduction by means of liberalising economies in a globalising world (WB 2003, UN 2003). A shared view in the formulation of poverty reduction strategies is the need for demand-driven strategies with a focus on the participation by the local people (World Bank 2002, Hentschel and Seshigir 2002 (?)). Hardoy and Satterthwaite (1989) claim that this is true for housing strategies as well. “Government failure to understand the particular needs of poorer groups- or the diversity of need- is a major reason why government housing projects are so ineffective” (Hardoy and Satterthwaite 1989; p.67). Recent housing policies mainly focus on solving problems in urban areas (slums and squatter settlements), by stimulating forms of self-help housing. The most general applied policy is urban upgrading. The development of policy from the 70’s until now can be summarised as: assisted self-help projects transformed from projects that focussed mainly on the provision of basic services by NGO’s and the state, to projects that emphasised on enabling local people to create access to basic services. Providing local people with knowledge, liberalisation of markets and stimulation of entrepreneurship e.g. by Public Private Partnerships (PPS), or the stimulation of small-scale business by credit provision are forms of enabling people to solve their problems. Community participation still is a central theme in the currently running urban upgrading projects. Participation of the community and enabling local people in upgrading projects, should lead to demand driven and sustainable outcomes that directly benefit the poor in an effective and economically efficient way (MIT 2003, WB 2003). Urban upgrading is the housing policy that will be central in this research; it is a process that is concerned with the improvement of the housing situation and the quality of life in an urban area in general.11

1.6 Towards a demand driven strategy of urban upgrading Unfortunately there is no blue print for the formulation of demand driven strategies with sustainable outcomes. The process of formulating such strategies and policies is still in a stage were a lot of questions have remained unanswered. Many researchers, policymakers and engineers have defined urban upgrading indicators that can be used to assess urban upgrading needs. Nevertheless it seems to be very difficult to find out what the local people actually experience as the most pressing (collective) urban upgrading needs (Othman and Liviga 2002, World Bank 2002, Farrington, Ramasut and Walker 2002, Hardoy and Satterthwaite 1989). Therefore, one of the broad objectives of this MSc research is to contribute to research aimed at the identification and prioritisation of the urban upgrading needs as experienced by the local people. This should contribute towards the formulation and implementation of successful demand-driven urban upgrading strategies.

11 Urban upgrading is defined based upon a literature revision that is presented in Appendix I, ‘Urban Upgrading and Development’. The definition that will be used in this research is: Urban upgrading consists of economic, social, environmental (both natural and man-made) and organisational (both political and institutional) improvements undertaken co-operatively and locally among citizens, community groups, businesses and local authorities.

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References:

Literature: Burgess, R., 1992, Helping Some to Help Themselves, Third World Housing Policies and Development Strategies, published in ‘Mathéy, K., 1992, Beyond Self-Help Housing, Profil Verlag München’. De Certeau, M.; 1984, The practice of everyday life Erkelens, P. A.; 1991, Self-help building Productivity, Bouwstenen 20, Eindhoven University of Technology. Farrington, J.; Ramasut, T.; Walker, J.; 2002, Sustainable Livelihoods Approaches in Urban Areas, Overseas Development Institute (ODI) working paper 162. Goodman, P. and Goodman, P.; 1960 Communitas, means of livelihood and ways of life. Hardoy, J. E. and Satterthwaite, D.; 1989, Informal Citizen, life in the urban third world Harms, H., 1992, Self-Help Housing in Developed and Third World Countries, published in ‘Mathéy, K., 1992, Beyond Self-Help Housing, Profil Verlag München’. Hentschel, J. and Seshigir, R.; 2002 (?), The City Poverty Assessment, World Bank. Kironde, J.M.L, 1995, Access to land by the urban poor in Tanzania: some findings from Dar es Salaam, UCLAS, University of Dar es Salaam. Kyessi, Dr. A.G.; 2002, Community Participation in Urban Infrastructure Provision. Servicing informal settlements in Dar es Salaam, Spring Research Series, no. 33, University of Dortmund. Le Febvre, H. 1991, The Production of Space Leitmann, J., 1999, Sustaining Cities, Environmental planning and management in urban design, McGraw-Hill. Lekule, M.Arch. C.T., 2004, unpublished PhD research conducted at the Royal Danish Academy in Copenhagen on the meaning of informal settlements from a resident’s point of view. The fieldwork has been executed in Keko Magurumbasi in Dar es Salaam from 2000-2003. Lindert, P. van, 1991, Huisvestingsstrategieën van lage-inkomensgroepen in La Paz. Netherlands Geographical Studies, University of Utrecht Mathéy, K., 1992, in ‘Mathéy, K., 1992, Beyond Self-Help Housing, Profil Verlag München’. Othman, Prof. H. and Liviga, Prof. A.; 2002, Local Governance and Poverty Reduction, Tanzania Country paper for AGF V, UNDP. Romijn, H., 2001, Reader for course Multidisciplinary Development Theories ON411, Technology Management, Eindhoven University of Technology. Turner, J.F.C., 1976, Housing by People, towards Autonomy in Building Environments, ideas in progress-open forum. UCLAS committee headed by Prof. W.J. Kombe, 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority communities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. Temeke Municipality Sub-wards Profile. UNCHS, 2003a, The UN-Habitat strategic vision 2003, The United Nations Human Settlement Programme, Nairobi, Kenya. Wegelin and Borgman, 1994, in ‘Thung, P.H. and Beekman, P.C., 1996, Huisvesting en overwinning van armoede, handelingen van het symposium, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven’. World Bank AFTU 1&2; 2002, Upgrading low-income urban settlements, country assessment report, Tanzania.

Internet GDRC: www.gdrc.org/uem (2003) MIT: www.mit.edu/urbanupgrading (2003) UN: www.un.org/mdg (2003) UNCHS: www.unchs.org (2003) WB: www.wb.org (2003) We The People: www.wtp.org (2004)

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2. Methodology

2.1 Research objectives and target group The objective central in this research is to give policy recommendations for the formulation of demand driven urban upgrading strategies in Dar es Salaam, based upon the identification and prioritisation of urban upgrading needs. The overall research objective has a rather practical nature and the identification and prioritisation of needs is an instrumental objective that helps to accomplish the overall objective. The target population in this research is defined as the local people that live in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam. This refers to all the local people, also the ones who have difficulties to make themselves heard, a group that will often not be consulted in more traditional needs assessments, because they are difficult to reach. Nevertheless it is an important group because they have few opportunities to escape from their situation without public action. In section 2.10 ’sample methods’ it is explained how local people are selected in order to give a representation of the entire target population, including the vulnerable and underprivileged. The objectives of this research can be schematically presented as:

Figure 2.1 Research objectives

Overall research objective: The formulation of the implications of the urban upgrading needs for

policies in the field of urban upgrading in Dar es Salaam.

Instrumental objective: The identification and prioritisation of the urban upgrading needs of the

local people in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam.

The outcomes of the research should lead to conclusions at a more theoretical level as well. These conclusions could be useful in the formulation of a methodology of research that can be applied in the process of assessing urban upgrading needs of the local people of an informal settlement.

2.2 Research question In order to understand the urban upgrading needs of the local people one should start by understanding more about the life of the local people and the urban space they live in. Moreover, the urban space influences the way people live and vice versa. How the livelihood strategy12, the urban space and their interaction form the basis of an urban upgrading needs assessment is further explained in the next section. Prior to the more detailed explanation of the applied needs assessment approach, the overall research question is formulated as follows: What are the urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam Tanzania, with the highest priority based on the livelihood strategy of the local inhabitants in relation to the urban space?

2.3 Theoretical background, analytical frame work and definition of concepts In order to answer the research question and fulfil the research objectives an analytical framework is constructed based upon an orientation in relevant literature. The analytical framework is based upon five steps that have been eliminated from this literature orientation.

12 Livelihood strategy is concerned with the strategy that people use to survive and how this is influenced by the access that they have to capital. In this respect, capital is broadly defined as financial, natural, physical, social and human capital. In Appendix III, ‘livelihood strategy, operationalisation’ the concept is defined and operationalised.

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1. The ideas that Turner13 formed about housing needs of people in informal settlements in the late 70’s are still useful. He claims that the needs are different for each household but three universal housing needs (access, shelter and tenure) seem to be important for each household. “Even to provide a temporary home or abode, a dwelling must give its users access to the people, institutions and amenities on which their livelihoods depend; it must provide a tolerable degree of shelter from climate and neighbours; and the users must have a tenure long enough to make the move worthwhile” (Turner 1976; p.96-97). Hardoy and Satterthwaite (1989) mention that each individual and each household have different housing needs, because they have different ways of living. Concluding, in order to understand more about the diversity of the urban upgrading needs14 of households and individuals one could start by learning more about the way these households and individuals live. A commonly used method to analyse the way of living of people is to study their livelihood strategy. In addition to this, it is argued that: “policy will be much more effective if it begins with an understanding of household level livelihood strategies…” (Farrington, Ramasut and Walker 2002; p.26). Besides this for several reasons15 it is believed that the local community should participate in upgrading projects. If participation is to be achieved one should analyse what activities and organisations in the field of improving the livelihood of the community are already running and active in an area. An example of such an activity is the construction of a health centre by a NGO or CBO (MIT 2003). This analysis can also give insight in what issues are important for the community. Therefore, in this research the first step in the identification process of urban upgrading needs is the analysis of the livelihood strategies of the local people of an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam.

2. Second, it is important to identify upgrading needs that can be fulfilled complementary to the existing urban space. As early as in the 60's; Goodman and Goodman (1960) mention the inefficiency, in American planning studies, of trying to rebuild slums, instead of designing a plan that is adapted to the existing situation in a city. Mathéy (1992) sets forth that Turner, describes that housing needs are created by local circumstances and that the local people themselves make the majority of the existing structures in an informal settlement and thus are adapted to these local circumstances. But, both Mathéy (1992) and Erkelens (1991) mention that the self-help strategy that is applied by the local people leads to problems as well: infrastructure still needs to be provided; it is difficult for people to select the right materials or to find a suitable plot for their house. It can be argued that locally built structures can be very valuable for the local people, while on the other hand they can create serious problems. Upgrading plans should not be based on bulldozing informal settlements and thus overruling the locally built structures; improvements of an urban area should be based on the analysis to what already exists in the area (Erkelens 1991). The existing environment where people live in seems to influence and determine their upgrading needs. A sound knowledge of the existing urban infrastructure is thus an important requirement for defining complementary upgrading strategies. The second starting point in the process of the identification of urban upgrading needs is surveying the urban space.

3. Thirdly, several authors have pointed out that it is very important to explore the interacting relationship of the urban space and the livelihood strategy of the urban poor. Philosophers have studied this relationship at a rather abstract level, they have described that daily life activities and the physical space adapt to one another (Le Febvre 1991, de Certeau 1984). Elaborately, Lekule (2004) studied the meaning of space in informal settlements for its inhabitants, since he argues that this space is very important in their daily life and struggles. The importance of interaction can be demonstrated with a more practical example as well; if people work in an unhealthy environment, due to a lack of sanitation, people get sick and spend most of their day on getting medicines (Farrington, Ramasut and Walker 2002). The

13 Turner is one of the pioneers in discussing the positive aspects of the process of self-help housing. He started publishing his ideas in the late 60’ and is still present in some discussions (We The People 2004). 14 It seems to be more appropriate to refer to urban upgrading needs in stead of housing needs. The term urban upgrading needs makes clear that this research is about improvement of more than nearly the shelter of people, since urban upgrading is the housing policy in focus. 15 Reasons to encourage participation differ from more ideological reasons to reasons concerned with efficiency. So it is believed that the local people should have the democratic right to co-operatively decide what is best for them. On the other hand the local community has the most knowledge about the environment they live in and should be committed to executed projects to ensure maintenance of it (MIT 2003).

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other way around one can see that people construct houses and create their own small spaces in a way that suits their way of living (Lekule 2004). Exploring this interaction thus is a third step in the process of identifying upgrading needs.

4. The fourth step is concerned with the fact that specific elements of the urban space (e.g. a market place, a school or the economic climate) are of great importance for the success of the livelihood strategy of the urban poor (Hardoy and Satterthwaite 1989). Thus local people attach a certain importance to the different elements of the urban space. If the elements of the urban space, to which the local people attach importance, are known, it should be possible to identify urban upgrading needs.

5. A fifth step is the prioritisation of the needs. It should be possible to prioritise the urban upgrading needs based upon the relative importance that local people attach to both the elements of the urban space.

Finally, one should take into account that, the process of formulating implications for policies in the field of technology and development does not take place in a vacuum (Egmond de Wilde de Ligny 2002). In the process of upgrading an informal settlement, characteristics of the local, national and international setting in which the settlement is embedded have its influence. This process is schematically represented in figure 2.2, the analytical framework that is explored in this research.

Livelihood Strategy Urban space

Urban upgrading needs with highest priority

Importance of elements of urban space

LOCAL SETTING

NATIONAL SETTING

INTERNATIONAL SETTING

Figure 2.2 Analytical framework The concepts that are central in this research are defined as follows: Livelihood strategies are the efforts of men and women in securing and stabilising their livelihoods. They usually include a range of activities designed to build asset bases and access to goods and services for consumption. Assets: “These are the resources on which people draw in order to carry out their livelihood strategies” (Farrington, Ramasut and Walker 2002; p.2). These resources include a broad range of: Financial capital: income (usually obtained by the sale of labour) in the form of money. Human capital: skills, knowledge and ability to work. Physical capital: assets such as housing, tools and equipment that people own, rent or use and public infrastructure that people have access to.

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Natural capital: environmental assets such as land, common property resources or free (open access) natural resources such as water, forest or grazing lands. Social capital: networks of mutual support that exist within and between households, extended family, and communities, which people can mobilise to access, for example, loans, childcare, food, accommodation and information about employment opportunities (Farrington, Ramasut and Walker 2002). Urban space: The natural and the built environment in a (part of the) city that exist of the total stock of stationary physical elements such as houses, squares and infrastructure (built environment) and natural elements such as the ground, the rivers and the fields (Van der Meulen and Erkelens 1996, Lynch 1960). These elements are influenced by characteristics of the context of this environment (e.g. the location); by physical characteristics (e.g. the topography); and by socio-economic characteristics, (e.g. population density) (Caminos and Goethert 1978, Dix 1983; 2000, Xiadong Li, 1993). The terms physical and natural capital and urban space have an overlap; physical capital and natural capital are resources that are a part of the urban space. Nevertheless, these forms of capital are studied in order to analyse the livelihood, because the extent to which people have access to them directly determines their livelihood. Urban upgrading needs are the needs felt by the local people regarding economical, social, environmental (both natural and man-made) and organisational (both political and institutional) improvements in the informal settlement they live in (MIT 2003, Cities Alliance 2003).16 Examples of the felt needs for each dimension of the urban upgrading needs clarify the definition: − Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of income-earning opportunities

and access to credit − Needs regarding social improvements: improved access to education and health care,

increasing security − Needs regarding improvement of man-made and natural environment: improvement of basic

infrastructure, home improvement, removal or mitigation of environmental hazards − Needs regarding improvement of political and institutional organisation: improving access to

social capital, improving the land tenure situation, improving community management (MIT 2003, Cities Alliance 2003).

2.4 Sub-questions In order to answer the overall research question, several sub-question have been formulated based upon the analytical framework. 1. What are the livelihood strategies of the local people in an informal settlement in Dar es

Salaam? 1a. What are the livelihood strategies of the local households in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? 1b. What local organisations and initiatives influence the livelihood strategies of the local households in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam?

2. What are the major characteristics of the urban space of an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam?

3. What is the nature of the interaction between people's livelihood strategies and the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam?

4. To which elements of the urban space do the local people attach (major) importance in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam?

5. Which urban upgrading needs can be identified based on the importance that local people attach to the elements of the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam?

6. How can these urban upgrading needs be prioritised based on the importance that local people attach to the elements of the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam?

16 Background information regarding the definition of this concept is found in Appendix I, ‘Urban Upgrading and development’.

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2.5 Beneficiaries of the research As mentioned in Chapter 1 this research is conducted at the TU/e in co-operation with UCLAS. For the universities it is interesting to gain more knowledge about the entire process of identifying and prioritising urban upgrading needs. For more practical relevance, the results of this research will be also be presented to the CIUP, in section 3.5 ‘CIUP in Dar Es Salaam’, this project is further explained. Dr. T.J. Nnkya, the local supervisor in Tanzania is connected to UCLAS and he works as a part-time consultant as local project manager in the CIUP project team. The CIUP is very interested in the urban upgrading needs of the local people and in implications for policy in the field of urban upgrading in general in Dar es Salaam. Additionally, they can learn from the evaluation of the applied method used to identify and prioritise needs of the local people. In the CIUP project the focus is more on implementing a set of measurements, than on thoroughly researching the needs of the local people. They do conduct an interview to gain some insight in their needs, but the programme they implement is rather inflexible. This can lead to the implementation of intended improvements that can conflict with the actual needs of local people in the settlement. The results of this research can show that using less traditional methods can lead to identifying needs that can be the basis for more sustainable upgrading policies.

2.6 Type of research This research has both an explorative and a descriptive nature. − The analysis of the urban space is a descriptive study that will result in the presentation of the

urban space in the form of a descriptive text completed with a map of the informal settlement. − The analysis of the livelihood strategy and its relation with the urban space is a part of the

research that has an explorative nature. Assessing the importance of elements of the urban space and identifying and prioritising urban upgrading needs has an explorative nature as well.

2.7 Research method In order to answer the research questions a case, the informal settlement Keko Magurumbasi A in Dar es Salaam, is selected as is explained in the next section. The research method that is used thus is the case study method; this seems to be the most suitable method to study the local community of an informal settlement.17 In this case, it facilitates easy access to in depth information on the concepts central in this research. As is common in the case study method, the data are collected in different ways; this is further explained in the section data collection methods.

2.8 Selection of the research area Each area in Dar es Salaam has its own characteristics, however in the most informal settlements one can distinguish common patterns of development and common problems. In Dar es Salaam 31 sub-wards18 have been selected for upgrading in the Community Infrastructure Programme (CIUP) as is further explained in section 3.5 ‘CIUP in Dar es Salaam’. In a recent study it is concluded that: “The most notable issues which, more or less cut across all the 31 settlements are: – Basic Community Infrastructure especially roads, water supply and storm drainage is

generally in poor conditions. – Petty trading is main source of income and employment. – Housing densities vary within each settlement. In the most settlements among main access

roads the housing density is high, while it is relatively low on the outlying areas. Due to this vehicular access is a problem.

– If infrastructure design standards are applied in the informal settlements, a lot of houses would need to be destroyed” (UCLAS 2002; p.1).

One of the oldest informal settlements in Dar es Salaam is Keko, located in Temeke municipality. Keko ward already began to develop in the 1940’s (Bersani and Bogoni 2001), while the government has intervened very little ever since. Now, three sub-wards within Keko have been

17 “The case study method is useful for the in-depth study of a particular environment (institution, organisation, association, village) rather than of a random sample of individuals drawn more widely” (Gaillard 2002; p.28). 18 In section 3.4, ‘the local setting’ the use of the terms ward and sub-ward in Dar es Salaam are explained.

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selected for upgrading in the CIUP: Keko Mwanga A&B and Keko Magurumbasi A. In these areas, the issues that are identified as general issues in informal settlements are issues of concern as well (UCLAS 2002). Conclusions that can be drawn based upon a research in one of these sub-wards can therefore also be useful to understand the situation in other informal settlements in the city of Dar es Salaam. The selected case is Keko Magurumbasi A because the CIUP upgrading plans in Keko Magurumbasi A are still in a stage of preparation, the settlement is a so-called ‘phase II settlement’.19 Therefore it is practically relevant to study the urban upgrading needs in this settlement. Additionally there is an easy access to a good network of contacts that can be helpful during the fieldwork.

2.9 Data collection methods In this section it is explained how data are collected in order to answer each sub-question. To create a complete picture, data are collected at different levels. Interviews are conducted orally at both community and household level. Secondary data and data obtained via observation are gathered at international, national (Tanzania), urban (Dar es Salaam), ward (Keko) and sub-ward (Keko Magurumbasi A) level and at the level of small selected areas within the sub-ward. The main focus will be on the sub-ward level since the urban upgrading needs of the sub-ward are explored. Observation is a useful but complex source of information. In this research the researcher has been observing during walks, interviews and family visits. She stayed overnight in a guesthouse in the settlement for two nights that did not succeed one another, in order to get a clear picture of activities and behaviour during day and night. 1. What are the livelihood strategies of the local people in an informal settlement in Dar es

Salaam? Sub-question 1 can be answered with the help of observation, key informant interviews and interviews at household level. In order to describe the livelihood strategies of the local poor an asset approach is used. More information about the used method is described in Appendix III, ‘Livelihood strategy, operationalisation’. The data obtained with key informant interviews are mainly concerned with assets that are important for the entire community, while the data obtained with household interviews are mainly concerned with the access to assets for households and the individuals in this household. 2. What are the major characteristics of the urban space of an informal settlement in Dar es

Salaam? The urban space can be described using secondary data (maps, aerial photo’s, demographic data etc.) and observation. In Appendix II, ‘The urban space, operationalisation’, it is described in detail how the urban space can be analysed. 3. What is the nature of the interaction between people's livelihood strategies and the urban

space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? If one tries to understand the complex interaction between the urban space and the livelihood strategies of the urban poor, one should start by trying to understand a small piece of the cake. Questions are asked and activities and behaviour of people are observed to learn about the nature of the interaction. This can lead to an understanding of how people use the urban space they live in and how this environment influences peoples' activities. For this purpose three small areas are selected as is further described in section 2.10 ‘sample methods’. Besides this, it is important to understand the relation of the urban space and the livelihoods at community level, which can be achieved by observing and asking the right questions during the household and key informant interviews. More details regarding the exploration of this relationship are found in Appendix IV, ‘Interaction between the livelihood strategy and the urban space, operationalisation’. 4. To which elements of the urban space do the local people attach (major) importance in an

informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? The next step is to understand to which elements of the urban space people attach major importance20. Important locations are identified with the help of key informants and are observed

19 More information regarding the phases in the CIUP is given in section 3.5. 20 The elements of the urban space are studied at level of the ward, the sub-ward and the selected areas within this sub-ward. Of course, it is possible that inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A attach importance to certain elements

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in order to judge the quality. During the household interviews questions are asked, about the importance of elements of the urban space (e.g. the availability of infrastructure, a hospital, a school or a working place), for their livelihood strategies. Supplementary, preferences-ranking exercises will be carried out. Observation of the use of spaces is another important source of information in the process of understanding the importance of elements. The interpretation of all these different inputs will finally result in a judgement of the importance of the different elements of the urban space. 5. Which urban upgrading needs can be identified based on the importance that local people

attach to the elements of the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? The urban upgrading needs are identified based upon analysis of the data gathered to answer sub-question 1,2, 3 and 4. 6. How can these urban upgrading needs be prioritised based on the importance that local

people attach to the elements of the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? The urban upgrading needs then can be prioritised based upon the relative importance that the people attach to the elements of the urban space of the informal settlement they live in. In order to check whether these needs are identified and prioritised correctly the needs are presented to some of the key informants and households who were interviewed earlier to answer the other sub-questions. The setting in which the informal settlement is embedded is described with the help of secondary data and data from key informant interviews in Chapter 3. The data collection methods are summarised in table 2.1, ‘data collection methods’. In appendix V, VI, VII and VIII the interviews, the preference ranking exercises, the method to test the needs and a selection of the results are found. Sub-question Data collection level Data collection method 1. Livelihood strategies Community level

Household level Key informants Household interview

2. Urban space Informal Settlement (Keko) Sub-ward (Keko Magurumbasi A) Selected small areas (in Keko Magurumbasi A)

Secondary Data Observation

3. Nature of interaction between Livelihood strategy and urban space.

Community level Household level in a selected small area

Key informants Household interview Observation

4. Importance of elements of urban space

Informal Settlement (Keko) Sub-ward (Keko Magurumbasi A) Selected small areas (in Keko Magurumbasi A)

Analysis of gathered data Key informant interview Household interview Preference ranking Observation

5. Urban upgrading needs in sub-ward.

Community level Household level

Analysis of gathered data.

6. Priorities of urban upgrading needs

Community level Household level

Analysis of gathered data, results are tested with the help of short interviews with households and key informants.

International, National and local setting.

International level National level Urban level

Secondary data and key informants

Table 2.1 Data collection methods

that are located outside the ward, since the ward is connected to the rest of the city and the country. For this reason it is important that the entire process of gathering data is flexible so that possible results from the interconnection with the rest of the city and country will not be excluded.

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2.10 Sample Methods In this research different data collection methods have been used. For the use of observation and secondary data no samples need to be drawn, this only applies to the key informant interviews and the household interviews. The target population of the research are the local people that live in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam. Observation is used to get information about the entire target population. Key informants are used to select general issues and to represent general points of view of the target population. In the preparatory phase of this research key informants21 have been selected with the help of secondary data and the snowball method.22 A list of Key informants is included in Appendix V, ‘Key informants’. The household interviews should be conducted with representatives of the entire target group and not merely the ones that are reached easily. It is very important that vulnerable and underprivileged people are included in the sample, since urban upgrading should especially improve their chances. The sample method that is used to draw a sample for the household interviews and that fits this aim is quota sampling, this is a non-probability sample method23. In this method relevant subgroups within the research population are defined. Characteristics that are used to define these subgroups are: – Location of house of respondent – Sex of respondent – Marital status of respondent – Age of respondent

Figure 2.3 Selection of the household sample

Actual sample

Desired sample

Target group

Population of Keko Magurumbasi A

Population of Dar es Salaam

Location of house of respondent To identify respondents based upon the location of their house several sub areas within the informal settlement were selected. These areas should show a typical livelihood of the majority of the local people in informal settlements. Observation, literature revision (Kombe and Kreibrich 2000, Kyessi 1999, Bersani and Bogoni 2001) and conversations with experts (Dr. Nnkya, M. Arch Lekule, and Ndeu) helped in the process of identifying which areas can be seen as characteristic. People that live close to the main routes of the informal settlement have more contact with the LG, CBO’s and NGO’s than people who live more inside the informal settlement. The contact with these organisations helps the people to make public the problems they face. Researchers are also inclined to follow the main routes and ask people who live along these main routes how they feel about issues related to upgrading. This implies that the people that live more

21 Key informant can be people who live in the settlement or are professionally connected to the settlement. 22 The snowball method implies that key informants are selected in unstructured interviews with earlier selected key informants. 23 Quota sampling refers to the use of several sub-populations within the entire research population. The method can be used when it is relevant when one wants to be sure that respondents with specific characteristics are included in the sample. The method that is used is a non-probability method because respondents are not selected completely randomly. The interviewer selects persons that are present in the informal settlement and fit in one of the sub-populations will be interviewed. (Baarda en de Goede 1998).

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inside the settlement are people who cannot easily make themselves heard. These inside areas consist of houses separated by very narrow streets and small public and semi-public spaces, where a lot of informal activities take place, food is prepared and sold, hairdressing is practised and people pass who sell all kinds of small things. In this research 3 small areas with approximately 15-20 houses have been selected. Given the available time and resources, the size of the sample is only n=30. This means that 30 representatives of 30 households are interviewed. Since 3 small areas are selected, +/- 10 interviews are carried out per area. The household member, who is interviewed, should be able to give a complete picture of the range of activities of the entire household. It is assumed that both the head of the household, as well as his wife, in case of a male-headed household, can do this.

Sex and marital status of respondent Based upon the Household Budget Survey (HBS) 2000/01 in Dar es Salaam some groups and characteristics of households can be distinguished, as is shown in table 2.2 ‘Demographic figures of Dar es Salaam’. Age, sex, marital status and income are important characteristics of these groups (NBS Tanzania 2002). Except for the income, these characteristics are the basis for the design of the sample. Income groups are important, but because the focus is on small areas where only poor to very poor people live, no distinction is made for income in the sample. The figures from the HBS do not reflect the target group. These figures refer to entire Dar es Salaam. Also the upper class that does not live in Keko Magurumbasi A is represented in it. In various unstructured conversations with inhabitants of Keko, the women headed households were mentioned as a big and vulnerable group in informal settlements. Therefore it is important that their needs are identified as well. This implies that this group will be a little bit over-represented in comparison to the entire population of Dar es Salaam, since it can be expected that the number of women headed households in the target population is higher than in that population. From male-headed households, slightly more men are to be interviewed; otherwise the men would be too seriously underrepresented in the sample.

Age of the respondent The life expectancy is expected to be lower in the informal settlements, while the number of young parents is assumed to be higher than in entire Dar es Salaam. For that reason, in the desired sample, these age groups are respectively over- and under-represented in comparison to the entire population of Dar es Salaam. Women headed households: 21% Age category of head of household 18-29

20,3% 30-44

45,2% 45-64

29,5% 65+ 5,1% Table 2.2 Demographic figures of Dar es Salaam Source: NBS Tanzania 2002, p.11-12

Difference between desired and actual sample The freedom of choice of households in the small areas is very minimal, for this reason the desired sample does not completely equal the actual sample. As can be seen in table 2.3 ‘sex and age characteristics of sample’, the difference in the desired and the actual sample are especially found in the age groups. The age group 45-64 is under represented, while the age groups 18-29 and 65+ are over-represented.

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Characteristic Desired sample Actual sample Sex Number of women from women headed households 10 9 Number of women from men headed households 6 7 Number of men from men headed households 14 14 Age of respondent 18-29 7 9 30-44 12 12 45-64 9 5 65+ 2 4 Total respondents 30 30 Table 2.3 Sex and age characteristics of the sample

2.11 Definition of ‘household’ The term ‘household’ should be defined in such a way that it corresponds with the households in the target group of the research. Typical of the situation in Keko Magurumbasi A is that a household consist of both family and non-family members that share (a part of) a housing unit and their resources. The definition used by Dharmawan describes the situation in Keko Magurumbasi A relatively well. “A household is an organisation of human beings living in a common residence that disposes resources and pools incomes of its members and uses it by way of productive and reproductive activities for ensuring and securing its members’ existence, in which socio-economic relations that are internal and external to the household unit, are continually formed for enabling in meeting such a need” (Dharmawan 1999: p. 6). The National Bureau of Statistics of Tanzania carried out a census in 2002. The definition they used is more practical, but nevertheless quite comparable with the definition used by Dharmawan. The NBS of Tanzania used the following definition for household: “A one-person household is a household where a person lives alone in a whole or part of a housing unit and has an independent consumption. Multi-person household is a household where a group of two or more persons occupy the whole or part of a housing unit and share their consumption. Usually, households of this type contain a husband, wife and children. Other relatives, boarders, visitors and other persons are included as members of the household if they pool their resources and share their consumption” (Maro 2003).24 Because of its practical nature and because data from the census is used in this research, it seems to be useful to use the same definition for household.

2.12 Reliability and validity Particularly in the case study method the issue of reliability25 is critical. In this type of research a lot depends upon the capacity and personality of the interviewer/ observer. In order to be sure that the interviewer/ observer will perform well a set of measures are taken in this research to reduce subjectivity. First, an orientation in the relevant literature and some unstructured interviews with key persons in the informal settlement should create a global understanding of the area. Secondly, thoughts and views are shared with more experienced interviewers/ observers. Thirdly, an experienced research assistant will be used who knows the language26 and the area. In order to ensure that the respondents will not be distracted to an unacceptable degree they are interviewed preferably in a relatively quiet area, the set-up of the interview is explained, the questions are kept as simple as possible, the interview is as short as possible and the questions are introduced and asked in a logical order. Unfortunately, in a short interview opportunities to ask more questions about one issue are minimised. Another issue that can influence the reliability is the time; in order to ensure that this factor will not influence the results, interviews and observations are carried out in the morning, afternoon and evening. Since the issues central to this research will change over time it is expected that results will differ when fieldwork is repeated after some years. 24 Ms R.H.Maro, Director General, National Bureau of Statistics, 23 September 2003. 25 Results are reliable if the factor of chance is reduced to a minimum, in other words if the same results are obtained under other circumstances, e.g. with an other interviewer or observer or at an other time (Gaillard 2002). 26 The researcher has some basic knowledge about the language as well, so she can introduce herself and can understand about which subject the assistant talks with respondents.

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The central question regarding validity is if one really measures what is intended to be measured. In this particular research some risks exist regarding the validity, especially in the interviews, partly because the target population probably never thought about things like livelihood, the urban space and upgrading. A result can be that it is difficult for them to form an opinion about the issues that are central in this research. The risk that respondents see the interviewer as an expert is high. They might try to please the interviewer and they probably will easily agree with him or her. Another issue that influences the validity is the low level of education of the target group; the risk that people will not understand questions in a written interview is high. In order to tackle the problems regarding validity the interviews with the local people were held orally (with the help of a translator/ research assistant). The structure of the interview is relatively open and no answer categories are used. The interviewer has to pay attention whether questions are assumed to be understood by the respondents or not. If necessary, the interviewer can give examples of a possible answer, but he or she should avoid examples that are likely to be copied as answers. The interview is discussed extensively with the translator/ research assistant to tackle problems regarding different interpretation due to different cultural backgrounds. After executing two interviews, the interview is adjusted slightly to improve the issues mentioned as concerning in relation to reliability and validity. The results of the household interviews have been crosschecked with other techniques; such as observation and key informant interviews. Especially observation is a very important technique to crosscheck results, since this allows the researcher to register natural behaviour. But the researcher interprets this behaviour, which reduces objectivity. One should be aware that observed behaviour can be influenced by the presence of a researcher as well; but, if a researcher goes to the site often and observes during other activities, he or she should be able to register natural behaviour of the target population. The combination of several data collection techniques enlarges the objectivity of the results. In a second round of data collection the urban upgrading needs are tested, which gives opportunities to test the reliability and the validity of the results. Due to time, budget and practical limitations the tests have been carried out only with a number of the literate respondents in a written interview. The interview is explained to the respondents orally before execution and the returned forms that were filled in were discussed shortly as well. The interview is translated by a translator and checked by a university student that is a native Swahili speaker with a good knowledge of English.

2.13 Generalising “The main problem of the case study data is that of generalising the findings of the study” (Gaillard 2002; p.31). The problem is present at two levels, generalising the outcomes of the research and generalising results regarding the applied method of research. In the section 2.10 ‘sample methods’ it is explained how it is tried to select respondents that represent the target population in such a way that generalising from respondents to target population is possible. In section 2.8 ‘Selection of the research area’ it is explained why the particular informal settlement is a typical case for informal settlements in Dar es Salaam. It thus should be possible to draw some conclusions that are also applicable to other informal settlements. The more theoretical objective of this research is to find out whether the applied method of research is suitable for other urban upgrading needs assessments. The test of the needs as described in appendix VIII, should be useful in this respect.

2.14 Readers guide In part A of this report methodological issues and an introduction in the research topic are given. The findings of the fieldwork are presented in part B ‘Empirical Findings’ of this report in a manner that is derived from the analytical framework. In figure 2.4, 6 steps that are taken in order to answer the research questions are indicated. The first step, the description of the international, the national and the local setting are set forth in Chapter 3 ‘The Context’. Step II and III, the urban space and the livelihood strategy are described in Chapter 4 respectively Chapter 5. In Chapter 6 the interaction between the urban space and the livelihood strategy (step IV) is set forth. Step VI, the selection of the most important elements, is outlined in Chapter 7. Part B is concluded with the identification and prioritisation of the urban upgrading needs in Chapter 8. In Part C ‘Conclusions and recommendations’ the most important conclusions regarding both upgrading needs and the

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used method are outlined in chapter 9. Practical and more theoretical recommendations are described in chapter 10. The set-up of Part B is summarised as follows: – Step I: Chapter 3 – Step II: Chapter 4 – Step III: Chapter 5 – Step IV: Chapter 6 – Step V: Chapter 7 – Step VI: Chapter 8

Figure 2.4 Framework readers guide

VI

V

IV

I

IIIII

Livelihood Strategy Urban space

Urban upgrading needs with highest priority

Importance of elements of urban space

LOCAL SETTING

NATIONAL SETTING

INTERNATIONAL SETTING

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References:

Literature Baarda, D.B. and de Goede, M.P.M., 1998, Basisboek Methoden en Technieken, Stenfert Kroese/ Educatieve Partners. Bersani, E. and Bogoni, B.; 2001, Living in developing countries, Dar es Salaam. Arbitare nei paesi in via di sviluppo. Tre Lune Edizioni. Caminos, H. and Goethert, R.; 1978. Urban Primer. Project assessment, site analysis, design criteria for sites and services or similar dwelling environments in developing areas, with a documentary collection of photographs on urbanization. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dix, Gerald, Series Editor; first edition 1983, second edition 2000, Urban Projects Manual, A guide to preparing upgrading and new development projects accessible to low income groups. Liverpool Planning Manual 1. Egmond- de Wilde de Ligny, van, Dr. ir. E.L.C.; 2002, International Technology Transfer (0N461) lecture notes Farm Household Livelihood Strategy, Multiple Employment, and Socio-economic Changes in Dharmawan, A.H., 1999, Rural Indonesia: Case Studies from West Java and West Kalimantan (paper was prepared for Discussion Paper Vol. 30/1999, published by the Institute of Rural Development, the University of Goettingen). Farrington, J.; Ramasut, T.; Walker, J.; 2002, Sustainable Livelihoods Approaches in Urban Areas, Overseas Development Institute (ODI) working paper 162. Gaillard, H.C.J.J.; Bouwman, C.E.; Kuijsters, A.; Vulink, M.C., 2002, Cross-cultural research methodology, A synopsis, Eindhoven University of Technology. Kombe, W.J. and Kreibrich, V., 2000, Informal Land Management in Tanzania, Spring Research Series, no 29, University of Dortmund. (Keko Mwanga page 79-81) Kyessi, Dr. A.G.; 2002, Community Participation in Urban Infrastructure Provision. Servicing informal settlements in Dar es Salaam, Spring Research Series, no 33, University of Dortmund. Lynch, K., 1960, The image of the city National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania (NBS Tanzania); 2002 Household Budget Survey 2000/01 UCLAS committee headed by Prof. W.J. Kombe, 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority communities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. Temeke Municipality Sub-wards Profile. Van der Meulen, and Erkelens; 1996, Urban Habitat: The environment of tomorrow, Bouwstenen 41, Eindhoven University of Technology. Xiadong Li; 1993, Meaning of the site, Bouwstenen 26, Eindhoven University of Technology.

Internet MIT: www.mit.edu/urbanupgrading (2003) Cities Alliance: www.citiesalliance.org (2003)

Interviews R. Ndeu several conversations in period from March 2003-July 2003. Dr. T.J. Nnkya, several conversations in period from May 2003-July 2003. M. Arch. C.T. Lekule several conversations in period from June 2003-July 2003. Ms. R.H. Maro, Director General NBS e-mail contact at 23 September 2003.

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Part B. Empirical Findings

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3. The context

3.1 Introduction The process of upgrading an informal settlement takes place in an environment that is described by important characteristics of the international, the national and the local setting. This process can be influenced directly by changes in setting. E.g., policies that are applied to informal settlements in Dar es Salaam are often inspired by international policies in the field of housing and urban upgrading, because projects are often financed with foreign capital. On the other hand, changes in the setting, such as developments in the international economy that can affect the aid flows to developing countries, have an indirect influence. Although it is hardly possible to give a complete description of the direct and especially the indirect influence of the setting, some background information concerning the setting that creates a better understanding of the situation in informal settlements in Dar es Salaam is outlined in this chapter.

3.2 International setting In a WB Gross National Product (GNP) per capita ranking Tanzania ranked 184 out of 203 countries (World Bank 2003) and in the UN Human Development Index (HDI) ranking it ranked 160 out of 175 countries (UNDP 2003).27 Although one should be careful with the interpretation of these figures, there is no doubt that Tanzania is considered to be a very poor country. In 2001, the national income per capita was estimated at 270$, and at 520$ using the PPP28 rates (World Bank 2003). Trends in the world economy as well as trends in international economic policies affect Tanzania, since it depends highly upon foreign capital. Important flows of foreign capital towards Tanzania are bilateral and multilateral forms of aid and loans. In 1997 Tanzania received 963 million $ of foreign aid (World Fact book 2002) and in 2001 the external debt was 6,7 billion $, while the gross national income (GNI) in 2001 was 9,3 billion $ (World Bank 2003a).29 In 2001 the World Bank and IMF have decided to cancel 3 billion $ of Tanzania’s debt over an undefined period of years, as a part of the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries Initiative (HIPC)30(IMF 2004). Figures about Tanzania’s current external debt in which the debt relief is taken into account are not available yet. Recent trends in world economy show world wide economic recession (UNCTAD 2001). The worldwide economic recession can have a negative impact on the size of the aid flows towards Tanzania. Trends in international macro economic policies show a dominance of neo liberal policies in the last decades. Since the mid 1980’s Tanzania’s economy is liberalising under pressure of the WB and the IMF. The process of liberalisation started with the Structural Adjustment Programmes (SAP) in 1986 and is followed up by the Enhanced Structural Adjustment Facility (ESAF) underpinned by a Policy Framework Paper (PFP) (Tanzania 2003). Recently the ESAF is replaced by the Poverty Reduction Strategy (PRS), which is underpinned by a Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) that is a part of the WB and IMF led HIPC initiative. The UN mainly tries to influence the policies regarding poverty reduction in third world countries, with the formulation of the Millennium Development goals.31 Additionally, empowerment of the local government of communities is stimulated by the UNDP as a tool to reduce poverty (Othman and Liviga 2002). Basically one can summarise the developments in Tanzania, under influence of international developments, as a transformation from a socialist state led economy in the 1960’s towards a liberalised economy, focussing at pro-poor growth, in the 2000’s. This implies that it is believed that through liberalising an economy, economic growth can be obtained. Revenues from the

27 The wealthiest countries have the highest ranking in both the GNP and the HDI rankings. 28 PPP GNI per capita is gross national income per capita converted to international dollars using purchasing power parity rates. An international dollar has the same purchasing power over GNI as a US dollar has in the USA (World Bank 2003). 29 The figures used to describe the flows of money and the GNI per capita refer to money flows and income in Tanzania Mainland only; the Zanzibar Archipel is excluded. 30 The HIPC is an initiative of the WB and the IMF that is initiated in 1996 to cancel a part of the enormous debt burden of developing countries (World Bank 2003, IMF 2003). 31 More information about the Millennium Development Goals can be found at internet page: www.un.org/MDG

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economic growth should not only benefit the wealthy part of the population but should be invested in improving the living standards of the poor population in Tanzania. Tanzanian housing policy is influenced by developments in international policies and by important international actors as well, as is already mentioned in section 1.5. An example is the important influence of the UNCHS (UN-Habitat). In 1992 the UNCHS introduced the Environmental Planning and Management (EPM) approach in Dar es Salaam in co-operation with the International Labour Organisation (ILO). This project focussed on improvement of the urban environment and community participation, following the international trends of that period (World Bank 2002). In the next section ‘National Setting’ the changes in Tanzanian urban policy, often influenced by international trends, are described in more detail. International actors do not only influence Tanzanian policies, they can also influence the services that local people have access to in Tanzania. Two international micro finance institutions, FINCA international and PRIDE Africa, are important institutions in the provision of micro finance for the poor. These institutions are active in Dar es Salaam and even provide credit to inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A (FINCA 2003, PRIDE 2003).

3.3 National setting A basic knowledge of Tanzania’s recent political history and some facts about the country will help to understand the current situation. Tanganyika became independent after seventy years of (German and later British) colonial rule in 1961. Since then, the official language is Swahili and the second language (used at secondary schools and universities) is English. The local currency is the Tanzanian Shilling (TSh). In Andreska and Gustafsson (2001) it is mentioned that Bratton and Van de Walle distinguish two types of presidential regimes in Africa after independence. In the first category one finds countries where initial party fragmentation led to legislative instability, which was followed by military interventions. Regimes under military rule developed to some form of presidentialism with a very weak legislature. The second type is a state in which strong party dominance after independence resulted in the emergence of a single hegemonic party whose leader introduced personal rule, in disguise of presidentialism. These states typically have a stable but weak legislature. Tanzania is a state that can be classified in the second category. The Tanganyika African National Union (TANU), led by Julius Nyerere, peacefully conducted the struggle for independence. In 1964 Tanganyika and the Zanzibar islands constituted a union, the Republic of Tanzania. In 1965 the country became a one-party state in which the president of the party is automatically the president of the country (Nuru 1990). In 1977 Nyerere founded the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM; Party of the Revolution), which was a fusion of the TANU and the socialist ASP from the Zanzibar islands. Nyerere was the first Tanzanian president and he ruled Tanzania until 1985. He was a socialist who stated that it is impossible to transform a country immediately from a colony into a democracy. Nevertheless he adhered to the idea of gradually transforming a one-party system into a multi-party system. Nyerere, who died in 1999, was a very popular president and he is still honoured these days. In 1985 Ali Hassan Mwinyi became the new president. In 1992 the CCM agreed to change the political system into a multiparty system. In 1995 the first multiparty elections were held and CCM’s Benjamin Mkapa became the new president (with 62% of votes on mainland). Today, he still is Tanzania’s president (Fitzpatrick 2002). One can still notice the influence of the socialist period in Tanzania, but the state is not a real strong actor in the country. People are used to take care of themselves in order to survive. Nevertheless, a lot of people seem to think that it is the government who should provide them with (better) schools, hospitals and infrastructure. In line with this thought, the government did provide the people with schools, hospitals and infrastructure, but both the quality and the quantity have not been satisfactory. Because the government failed to really solve the problems that the people face, its credibility is fairly low. The people experience that both big NGO’s and the government spent a lot of money on cars, offices and salaries, while they hardly see that money is spent on the fulfilment of the basic needs of the poor. This decreases their credibility. Concluding it can be assumed that the government is not capable to deal with the high demand to fulfil the basic needs of its inhabitants. Not only money but also skills in the field of implementing policies lack. As mentioned in the former section, Tanzania is one of the poorest countries in the world. The Tanzanian economy is heavily dependent upon agriculture. Agriculture accounts for half of GDP, it provides 85% of exports, and employs 80% of the workforce. Industry is mainly limited to

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processing agricultural products and light consumer goods (World Fact book 2002). Despite the dominance of the agricultural sector, Tanzania is urbanising fast (Kyessi 2002). In order to guide Tanzania’s rapid urbanisation process, the government has formulated urban housing policies since independence. Developments in these urban policies are summarised in table 3.1, ‘urban policy in Tanzania’. In the first column the period is given, in the second column the policy initiatives of the government are outlined and in the third column one can find the actual results of the policy initiatives. Since currently we are still in the 2000’ s it is difficult to judge the actual results already; therefore the third column shows the desired results for that period Table 3.1 Urban policy in Tanzania Source: Kyessi 2002; p23-2432. Period Governmental policy initiatives Actual results of policy initiatives Urban Policy in the 1960’s Theme: Modernisation and Political Consolidation

− Decolonisation and training of urban workforce

− Urban areas for all and Slum Clearance Scheme e.g. Buguruni, Kisutu, (1964-1968)

− Co-operative Housing − Nationalisation of major

means of production − Free-of-charge community

services e.g. water, health, education

− Arusha Declaration (Ujamaa and Self-reliance)

− De-regularisation i.e. free movement of people from rural to urban areas

− Communal ownership − Demolition of Central

Business District informal settlements

− Creation of National Housing Corporation

− Government control of major means of production- monopoly through creation of parastatal organisations with statutory powers

Urban Policy in the 1970’s Theme: Decentralisation and Socialism

− Decentralisation and creation of regional offices

− Growth Pole Policy to stimulate rural development; emphasis on rural development to the relative neglect of urban areas

− Withdrawal of workforce from local governments including urban councils

− Sites and services and squatter upgrading

− Nationalisation of housing and creation of Registrar of Buildings

− Establishment of parastatal organisations

− Sectoral planning; public sector led

− Establishment of sites and services and squatter upgrading unit based in Ministry of Lands

− Sectoral piecemeal infrastructure projects in different ministries as catalysts for development

− Abolition of local authorities − Private sector discouragement − Creation of Tanzania Housing

Bank

32 N.B. the title of the second and third column are changed from respectively ‘Policy context and process’ to ‘Governmental policy initiatives’ and from ‘Implementation strategy (formal and informal)’ to ‘Actual results of policy initiatives’. In the last cell the words ‘desired results’ are added.

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Period Governmental policy initiatives Actual results of policy initiatives Urban Policy in the 1980’s Theme: Structural Adjustment

− Urban Development and National Housing Policies

− Reintroduction of local governments

− Liberalisation − Structural Adjustment

Programme − Government withdraw in

supply of commercial activities

− Removal of subsidies and sharing costs e.g. in education and health

− Enactment of Local Government (Urban Authorities) Act

− Creation of urban and district councils

− Capacity decline; funds, trained manpower

− Collapse of parastatal companies

− Retrenchment of workforce in parastatal organisations and government departments

− Self-help projects; e.g. housing and infrastructure provision

Urban Policy in the 1990’s Theme: Privatisation and Management Efficiency (lean government)

− More decentralisation (Regional Administration Act and Local Government Reform Agenda)

− New National Land Policy − Environmental sustainability

through enactment of National Environmental Policy and Poverty Eradication Strategy

− Privatisation and economic competitiveness

− Good Governance − Community Development

− Transfer of central government staff to local (district councils authorities).

Urban Policy in the 2000’s Theme: Economic Growth and Poverty Eradication

− Community Development − Decentralisation of public

urban provision functions to settlement/ neighbourhood level

− Job creation and income generation

− Further privatisation, economic competitiveness and competitive funding

− Enabling governance and capacity building- training

− Innovation − Economic sustainability

Desired results − Partnership between public/

private/ community − Mobilisation of actors in

human settlement development − Community (stakeholders)

participation in local solutions, local projects as catalysts for development

− More urban infrastructure/ environmental improvement

− Private sector-led commercial activities and service provision

− De- regulation − Empowerment of local

institutions In the second column of table 3.1 one can identify policy initiatives that are strongly related to the general developments in housing policies in developing countries, as described in section 1.5. The early 1960’s are clearly influenced by modernist ideas (slum clearance, nationalisation of means of production. The late 1960’s and early 1970’s are characterised by the RWG and the Basic Needs approach (the Arusha Declaration and sites and services upgrading). In the 1980’s Tanzanian policies loose some of its socialist character with the implementation of the SAP’s. The 1990’s introduce the sustainability issue and the National Land policy of 1999 proves that socialism is still running through Tanzania’s veins33. Recent policy focus at poverty eradication by enabling the local people and stimulating economic development through liberalisation.

33 In this National Land policy it is stated that all the land in Tanzania belongs to the government (Tanzania 1999).

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Table 3.1 shows that the desired results of the recent policy initiatives focus at empowering the poor people by creating partner ships between commercial private investors and small scale public community organisations such as CBO’s and local NGO’s. Although this sounds promising, the desired results are difficult to achieve. The private sector is hardly developed, the central government has little experience in implementing policy successfully and public local initiatives often do not function effectively. Projects remain dependent upon foreign capital and thus need to be conformed to international rules. Nevertheless, a start is made in pro-poor development of urban areas with a focus on existing networks that do function.

3.4 Local setting

General and organisational information Although Dodoma officially is declared the capital, Dar es Salaam is the biggest and most important city in Tanzania. According to the latest census Dar es Salaam has approximately 2,5 million inhabitants, while Tanzania34 has 34,7 million inhabitants in total. Dar es Salaam thus houses 7,2% of the Tanzanian population. The current annual growth rate of Dar es Salaam is 4,3%35, this means an absolute growth of 107.500 people a year (NBS Tanzania 2002). In 2000, Dar es Salaam was divided into three municipalities; Ilala, Kinondoni and Temeke, a municipal council leads each municipality. The municipalities have been divided into smaller sections that are called wards. Each Ward has a Ward Executive Officer (WEO) who represents the ward at municipal level. Wards are divided into sub-wards. In Swahili a sub-ward is referred to as ‘mtaa’. A Local Government (LG) governs a sub-ward, the head of this LG is the ‘mtaa leader’. Mtaa leaders have regular meetings with their WEO. Each mtaa is divided into units of approximately 10 houses, these units are called ten-cell units. A ten-cell leader heads a ten-cell unit. Ten-cell leaders have regular meetings with their mtaa leaders (Kyessi, 2002). The organisational structure of Dar es Salaam is represented in table 3.2, ‘municipal leadership in Dar es Salaam’. Leadership Administrative unit City director (appointed by President) City council Municipal Council Municipality Ward Executive Officer (appointed by city council) Ward Mtaa leader (elected) Mtaa (sub-ward) Ten Cell leader (elected) Ten Cell Table 3.2 Municipal leadership in Dar es Salaam Source Kyessi: 2002, p.133

Income information The income in Dar es Salaam is slightly higher than the income in the rest of the country, nevertheless poverty is a serious problem in Dar es Salaam. Urban poverty increases fast in Sub-Saharan Africa cities and controlling the urban poverty problem in Dar es Salaam has been one of the big challenges of the Tanzanian government since the country’s independence in the 60’s (Kyessi 2002). The mean per capita household income in Dar es Salaam is estimated at 40.767 TSh in 2000/2001 per month; this equals an annual income of 489.204 TSh (NBS Tanzania 2002; p101). According to the Household Budget Survey 2000/01 (HBS 00/01) the income has been rising over the past 10 years. But, a study (carried out for the UNDP), that analysed the data from the HBS 00/01, concludes the actual poverty levels are increasing in Tanzania and in Dar es Salaam (Othman and Liviga 2002). Additionally, the income inequality in Dar es Salaam is rising as is shown in table 3.3, ‘income distribution in Dar es Salaam’.

34 Tanzania means Tanzania mainland and the Zanzibar Archipelo. 35 The growth figure of 4,3 % from the HBS contradicts with the growth rate of 5% that is named in a quote of Kyessi in the section 1.2 ‘urbanisation in the third world’. The source that Kyessi used is from 1999, this explains the difference.

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Quintile 1991/1992 2000/2001 Poorest- Q1 7,8 6,7 Q2 11,9 10,4 Q3 15,1 14,5 Q4 21,9 20,0 Richest Q5 43,3 48,8 Q5:Q1 ratio 5,6 7,2 Table 3.3 Income distribution in Dar es Salaam Source: NBS Tanzania 2002; p.83

The value of money in Dar es Salaam It is difficult to understand the value of money in other countries. The PPP currency can be helpful, but even if this measure is used, it still is difficult to truly understand the meaning of an income. An overview of the costs in 2003 of some basic and some luxury goods might give a better impression. The prices of goods in table 3.4 are average prices that are often found in several randomly selected small shops in Dar es Salaam. The average salary of somebody who does an unskilled job is 1000 TSh per day. Food basics in TSh Non food basics in TSh Luxury goods in TSh Flour: 450 per kg Rice: 400-500 per kg Dried red beans: 600 per kg Vegetable oil: 800 per litre Vegetables:200-800 per kg Fruits: 200-800 per kg Meat: 1600 per kg Fish:1400-1500 per kg Eggs: 50-100 per piece Fresh milk: 400-500 per litre

Rent:4000-6000 per month per room in informal settlement Water: 20 per 20 litre bucket Electricity: 90 per kWh Public transport:100-150 per bus-ride Charcoal or kerosene:100 per cooked meal for 6 persons Primary school (public): free Secondary school (public): 5.000 per month Doctors consult: free, registration 200

Taxi: 1000-6000 per ride Beer: (locally produced):600-700 Soda:200-300 Products like cars, radio’s, washing machines etc. are imported and thus have western or higher prices.

Table 3.4 Costs of living in Dar es Salaam Source: Fieldwork in Dar es Salaam in 2003

Problems in informal settlements in Dar es Salaam Due to sustained high population growth combined with generally weak administrative systems and lack of technical and financial capability to supply affordable surveyed plots, the majority of the population in Dar es Salaam lives in informal settlements (Kyessi 2002). It is estimated that, approximately 70% of the inhabitants of Dar es Salaam, live on land that is obtained via informal means. The situation in these settlements in characterised by poverty and a lack of basic infrastructure. The improvement of the life in informal settlements thus is an important issue in governmental policies (Kironde 1995, World Bank 2002).

Policy responses In the section ‘National setting’, urban policies in Tanzania have already been outlined. The programme that had major impact on the urban policy in Dar es Salaam in the last 10 years is the UN habitat Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project (SDP)36. The SDP is an umbrella project that has been launched in 1992 and became fully operational in 1993. “The nine environmental issues prioritised and mandated by the City Consultation comprised solid waste management; liquid waste management; air quality management and urban transportation; managing open spaces, green belts and urban agricultural potential; upgrading unplanned and unserviced settlements;

36 The SDP is a project in Dar es Salaam that is a part of the globally initiated SCP.

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managing city expansion; managing urban renewal; managing coastal resources and managing the urban economy and integrating petty trading in the urban economy” (Majani 2000; p.32). Currently, the SDP is still operational, but its focus is only on 2 environmental issues. The first issue is the upgrading of informal settlements, the second issue is the solid waste management. The upgrading of the settlements now takes place in the form of the WB financed Community Infrastructure Upgrading Project (CIUP).37

3.5 CIUP in Dar es Salaam The Community Infrastructure Upgrading Programme is a big upgrading programme, financed by the World Bank. The Community Infrastructure Programme (CIP) has preceded the CIUP and both the CIP and the CIUP are a part of the Sustainable Dar Programme. The CIP has been relatively successful, Hanna Nassif, one of the most studied informal settlements of Dar es Salaam, has been upgraded rather successfully within the CIP, based upon a participatory approach. The CIP was initiated by the City Council; they hired experts from UCLAS as consultants for the project. The World Bank prefers to finance successful projects already initiated by local stakeholders, rather than initiating new ones themselves. As a result, the World Bank has decided to finance the CIUP the successor of the CIP. Although the City Council initiated the project, the World Bank appointed a responsible consultancy agency for the CIUP, since it finances the programme. The responsible agency is the Dutch company DHV consultants. DHV provides the project team with a project manager and whenever necessary they provide a specialist, e.g. in the field of environmental engineering. The local subcontractor UCLAS is hired to take care of the rest of the work (UCLAS 2002, Sikkel 2003). The CIUP is carried out in different stages. The preparatory phase has already been completed. Different informal settlements have been studied and based upon a set of criteria 31 settlements were selected for upgrading. The upgrading itself takes place in two phases, phase I and phase II. In phase I, settlements will be upgraded that have the highest priority for upgrading and that do not need trunk infrastructure provision, since the provision of trunk infrastructure will start in phase II. Three wards including 15 settlements are phase I settlements and six wards including 16 settlements are phase II settlements. As mentioned in section 2.8, the case in this research, Keko Magurumbasi A, is selected for upgrading in phase II since it needs to be provided with trunk infrastructure (UCLAS 2002). The preparation of phase I already started, the preparation of phase II started in the beginning of 2004. The CIUP claims to use a participatory approach (Nnkya 2003) but there are some strict limitations in its focus. It focuses on the provision of: roads, footpaths, drainage, sanitation (only basic sanitation, no sewerage, only VIP latrines), solid waste management, streetlights. The objectives of the CIUP are: a) to improve the productivity and well-being of low-income urban residents in Dar es Salaam

by upgrading infrastructure and services in unplanned and unserviced settlements, b) to strengthen municipal systems for upgrading and maintaining infrastructure and services, c) to build community capacity to participate in planning and maintaining infrastructure in co-

ordination with the Municipalities. Improvement of access to health care and education are not a part of the CIUP.

37 Information about the SCP/ SDP and the CIUP is obtained in a conversation with the director of the Institute of Human Settlement Studies at UCLAS, Dr. Bituro B.K. Majani at the 28 August 2003.

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References:

Literature Andreska, P. and Gustafsson, M., 2001, The Democratisation and Decentralisation processes in Tanzania, obstacles and achievements in urban Dar es Salaam, University of Gothenburg. Fitzpatrick, Mary; 2002, Tanzania, Lonely Planet Publications Kironde, J.M.L., 1995, Access to land by the urban poor in Tanzania: some findings from Dar es Salaam, UCLAS Dar es Salaam. Kyessi, Dr. A.G.; 2002, Community Participation in Urban Infrastructure Provision. Servicing informal settlements in Dar es Salaam, Spring Research Series, no 33, University of Dortmund. Majani, Bituro B.K.; 2000, Institutionalising Environmental Planning and Management. The institutionalising economy of solid waste management in Tanzania. Spring Research Series, University of Dortmund National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania (NBS Tanzania); 2002 Household Budget Survey 2000/01 Nnkya, Dr. T.J., 2003, Informal Settlements Upgrading in Tanzania: Lessons of Experience, CIUP Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Nuru, K.; 1990, Tanzania in Mathéy, K.; 1990, Housing Policies in the socialist third world. Othman, Prof. H. and Livigia, Prof. A.; 2002, Local Governance and Poverty reduction, Tanzania Country paper for AGF V, UNDP. UCLAS committee headed by Kombe, Prof. W.J.; 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority communities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. Temeke Municipality Sub-wards Profile Tanzania, 1999, The United Republic of Tanzania Act, supplement 21st of May 1999, no.6. The Land Act 1999, printed by the government printer Dar es Salaam, by order of the government UNCTAD; 2001, Global economic trends and prospects World Bank AFTU 1&2; 2002, Upgrading low-income urban settlements, country assessment report, Tanzania. World Bank, 2003a, Global development finance, striving for stability in development finance.

Internet FINCA: www.microsave-africa.com (2003) IMF: www.imf.org (2003/ 2004) PRIDE: www.prideafrica.com/pride20%Tanzania (2003) Tanzania: www.tanzania.go.tz (2003) UN: www.un.org/MDG (2003) UNDP: www.undp.org (2003) WB: www.worldbank.org (2003) World Fact book 2002: www.odci.gov/cia/pubilcations/factbook/geos/tz.html (2003)

Interviews Dr. Bituro B.K. Majani, lecturer and director of UCLAS Institute of Human Settlements (28 August 2003). Ir. W. Sikkel, DHV consultant and project manager CIUP (10 July 2003)

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4. The urban space

4.1 Introduction The urban space of Keko Magurumbasi A in general as well as the urban space of the three selected research areas is analysed. The three sub areas are referred to as the ‘small Kariakoo area’, the ‘small river area’ and the ‘pombe area’. Small Kariakoo is the name given to the area by the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A. It is an area in the middle of the residential area, where a lot of small-scale activity takes place. Therefore it is named after the big market place in the city centre of Dar es Salaam, ‘Kariakoo’. The ‘small river area’ is a selection of the area located at the side of the small river that crosses Keko Magurumbasi A. In the ‘pombe area’ the main income generating activity is producing and selling local brews, both local beer and local liquor, which is all referred to as ‘pombe’ in Swahili. Some general physical and organisational information will create a first impression of the sub-ward.

Figure 4.1 Map of Keko Magurumbasi A (1992) Source: Small version of map documented in appendix XII.

Physical information Figure 4.1 shows the informal settlement that is surrounded by industrial buildings and other informal settlements all with a hap-hazardous distribution pattern of houses. The blue line marked in figure 4.1 represents the river and the red lines indicate changes in height. In appendix IX an impression of the appearance of Keko Magurumbasi A is given with a selection of pictures. An impression of the three sub-areas is given in appendix X. The size of Keko Magurumbasi A is 18,0 hectares and it has 7127 inhabitants. The most recent (from 2002) aerial photograph and a large copy of the most recent (from 1992) map of Keko Magurumbasi (also presented in figure 4.1) are documented in appendices XI, respectively XII . An overview of entire Dar es Salaam and its settlements that need to be upgraded is given in Appendix XIII, ‘Settlements for upgrading in

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Dar es Salaam’. In appendix XIV the settlements that are selected for upgrading in phase II in Temeke are marked.38

Organisational Information The organisation of Keko into wards and sub-wards is shown in table 4.1 ‘Wards en sub-wards in Keko, Dar es Salaam’. Keko ward and Chang’ombe ward are closely related to each other. Keko and Chang’ombe used to be one ward, but due to its’ increased number of inhabitants the sub-wards of Keko and Chang’ombe are divided into two wards.39 Mwanga (A&B) Magurumbasi (A&B) Keko B

Keko Ward

Toroli Chang’ombe (A&B) Keko A

Chang’ombe Ward

Former K

eko W

ard

Table 4.1 Wards en sub-wards in Keko, Dar es Salaam Source: Own construct based upon interview with WEO40.

4.2 Context

Location Keko Magurumbasi A is a sub-ward located in the north west of the Keko ward in Dar es Salaam in the southern Temeke district. It is an informal residential area that is surrounded by industries that operate only partly. Keko is the low-income residential area that is closest to the city centre. For this reason it is one of the most densely populated informal settlements in Dar es Salaam. Parts of the city centre that are of special importance for Keko are the Kariakoo market place41 and the fish market42 of Dar es Salaam. The settlement attracts businessmen from the city centre, therefore Keko ward, especially Keko Magurumbasi B, hosts a lot of small and cheap guesthouses, bars and small restaurants. The area is economically active in general and Keko Magurumbasi A is especially well known in entire Dar es Salaam for its small-scale furniture industry. All three sub areas are located in the compact southern part of Keko Magurumbasi A, which is mainly used as a residential area. The small Kariakoo area is located centrally in the southern part, close to the main approaches of Keko Magurumbasi A. Because of this interesting location inside the sub-ward, the area developed itself as an active small market place. The Pombe area is located at the north east of the Kariakoo area and the small river area is located north east of the pombe area, at the riverside. The pombe area is a relatively quiet area, where not a lot of people pass, because the gongo (an illegal local liquor, a type of pombe) production should take place secretly. The area is close to the small Kariakoo however, because there, a lot of customers are found and it is a basis for distribution. The small river area is located in the lower part of Keko Magurumbasi A. There the land is cheap but hazardous, due to a risk of flooding.

38 Mr. Wali, a member of the CIUP project team, gave the maps an information about the maps in June 2003. 39 Information is obtained in an interview with the Ward Executive Officer of Keko, Margaret Angetile at 20 June 2003. 40 Ibit. 41 The city centre of Dar es Salaam attracts all social classes of the inhabitants of Dar es Salaam and from the rest of the country. Although the biggest upper-class centre of the city is located in north of Dar es Salaam, big expensive hotels, shops and banks are found in the city centre as well. The market place in the city centre, the ‘Kariakoo’, attracts the middle class and the low-income groups. In and around the market place a lot of formal and informal trade of food and non-food items and services takes place. People come to the market to buy their daily groceries, but it is also a place where people buy items in large quantities to sell elsewhere. 42 The main fish market in Dar es Salaam is located at the harbour of the ferry, in the city centre, that connects different parts of Dar es Salaam. At the fish market fish is bought in big quantities and so it can be sold in other parts of the city such as Keko.

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Approaches Keko Magurumbasi A is mainly reached via the Chang’ombe road. The northern tip of the sub-ward borders with the Pugu road, an important road for the city. The Central Line Railway, which goes from Dar es Salaam to Dodoma and splits at Tabora to Mwanza and Kigoma, passes north of Keko Magurumbasi A. Passengers can get on the train in the city centre, but a station to (un)load industrial supplies and wood is located North west of Keko Magurumbasi A, just at the other side of the Chang’ombe road. Traders sell wood for the furniture industry in Keko Magurumbasi A, in the area surrounding the station. A service and unloading station of the Central Line Railway is located at the north east of Keko Magurumbasi A and serves the surrounding industries. The sea starts at 2 km east of Keko Magurumbasi A, at the shore. Here is another (un)loading and maintenance station of the central railway. This station is connected to a small harbour where materials can be shipped. The small kariakoo area is relatively well served by the main roads in Keko Magurumbasi A, but the roads that actually reach the area are all very narrow, so it cannot be reached by car. The pombe area is easily reached once you are at the small Kariakoo, via narrow roads however, but it is located further away from the main roads and routes in Keko Magurumbasi A. The small river area is difficult to reach, one has to pass a lot of narrow streets in Keko Magurumbasi A. Another approach towards the small river area is via the road north east of it. One can pass the industrial area, then go through Keko Mwanga and then cross the river.

Accesses One can enter Keko Magurumbasi via entry points at the Chang’ombe and Pugu road as is shown in appendix XV, ‘Keko Magurumbasi A, marked map'. The accesses to the three small areas are shown in the map in appendix XV, as well.

Circulation system The Chang’ombe road is the most important road of the exterior circulation system. It also strongly affects the site, because it forms the border of the sub-ward. The Chang’ombe road is connected with the Pugu road, which increases the extent to which the site is affected by it. Due to the relatively well-developed exterior circulation system a lot of traffic passes the sub-ward. The traffic distributes goods for sale, production and consumption as well as customers for offered goods and services. The interior circulation pattern is extremely complex. Routes from one place to another usually include passages that are very narrow (even less than 0,5m). Besides this, because the area is not planned, streets and open spaces are distributed in a hap hazardous pattern. Nevertheless, Lekule (2004) has identified some routes that are of importance for the inhabitants43. These routes are shown in appendix XI, ’Residents’ routes in Keko Magurumbasi A’. In appendix X, the main entrances and routes to the selected small areas are shown with dotted stripes and arrows.

Transportation The transport options towards Keko Magurumbasi A are good. It is quite close to the city centre, it is possible to move from the city centre to the settlement by foot. The area can also be reached from different parts of the city by private and public transport. Public transport consists in mini busses that are called ‘daladala’s’ that ride on different lines. A daladala trip costs 100 TSh to 150 TSh (approximately 0,10 $ to 0,15 $), this is too expensive for the poorest people. Taxis also serve Keko Magurumbasi A, but this is too expensive for the majority of the inhabitants. Within the sub-ward, car transport is hardly possible, passages are narrow and within the area no paved roads exist. Cars can only pass at the main road that creates the border with Keko Magurumbasi B. Here (just next to the CCM office, marked in appendix XIV) one can also find a parking place for the very few cars that people own. Passenger cars can reach the cement block and furniture industry and the primary school, but trucks can hardly enter and leave easily due to limited space.

43 M. arch. C.T. Lekule, lecturer at UCLAS, has identified routes, as a part of his PhD research on urban space in Keko Magurumbasi. At the period of writing of this report, the thesis concerning his PhD research had not yet been published.

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In the three small areas there is no car transport possible at all. Houses are built close together, which leaves few options to pass. Some people use a bike, but the majority walks, to carry goods a handcar is used sometimes.

Boundaries The small river forms a natural barrier between Keko Magurumbasi and Keko Mwanga and serves as a boundary. It also forms the border of the small river area. The majority of the boundaries of the settlement are man made barriers that include structures; the VETA building and the surrounding industries, and roads; the Pugu road and the railway in the north and the Chang’ombe road in the west. The border between Keko Magurumbasi A and B is a meshing boundary, it is a road that both connects and separates the two sub-wards. The borders of the small Kariakoo and the pombe area are meshing boundaries as well. Nevertheless, the sub-areas do function as small entities. The man made and natural boundaries do not allow Keko Magurumbasi A to expand in any direction, this implies that if the number of inhabitants increases, the density will increase.

Keko Magurumbasi A is a residential high-density low-income settlement situated close tothe city-centre. The internal circulation is characterised by a lack of porosity. The area isinterconnected with other parts of the city and the rest of the country in different ways: – There is a physical connection via some important roads in the city, a small harbour and

a railway. The settlement is served well by public transport. – Keko Magurumbasi A is an economically active area and has an economic connection

with the city that stems from the physical connection. Inhabitants from other parts of thecity come to buy furniture and people sell items in Keko Magurumbasi A that are boughtin the city centre.

4.3 The physical characteristics

Size and shape The shape of the 18,0 hectare that forms Keko Magurumbasi A is shown in figure 4.1. The southern part of Keko Magurumbasi A is rather compact (around 400 by 400 meters), while the northern tip has a thin stretched form (around 50-100 by 400 meters) that is bordered by the river on the east side and by roads and existing structures on the north and west side. The sub-ward is shaped by its boundaries. The small Kariakoo area has a compact shape, while the pombe and small river area both have a long stretched form as is shown in appendix XV.

Existing structures The existing structures are shown in figure 4.1 and more clearly in the map in appendix XIV, a more up to date representation of the existing structures is shown in the aerial photograph in appendix VI. Buildings that are of special importance are the Vocational Education Training Association (VETA) building west of the sub-ward and the industrial buildings in the area north east of the sub-ward. The majority of the buildings inside the sub-ward are residential buildings constructed by means of self-help techniques (except from the four National Housing Corporation apartment buildings alongside the Chang’ombe road). Most houses are constructed with what inhabitants refer to as ‘permanent materials’, cement blocks and corrugated iron sheets. The quality of the cement blocks is extremely poor, they are produced manually and the used sand and cement are of low quality and dirty. A lot of blocks are broken before they are used for construction. Another problem that inhabitants face in the self-help housing process, is a financing and planning problem. Once people have some money they immediately buy construction materials, but they do not have enough money to actually start the construction or they start the construction but cannot finish it. Actions to preserve the construction materials (such as covering them) are usually not undertaken. The lack of money and planning results in deteriorating construction materials and deteriorating parts of houses. Houses are generally constructed for the long term, some houses even last 50 years. People will carry out maintenance work to preserve their houses whenever they have the possibility.
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Besides the quality of the houses, a problem with the quantity of the houses exists. With the currently used techniques (one-storey houses with pit latrines), the quantity of houses is too high for the area. If the quality of the materials and the applied construction techniques would be better, it would be possible to construct 2-storey buildings. Most people live in a Swahili house. A Swahili house consists of a corridor (sometimes with, sometimes without a roof), with some rooms (often 3) at each side of the corridor. Each household has one or more rooms; the corridor is often used for cooking by several households. The infrastructure provision is poor compared to international western standard. The access roads to Keko Magurumbasi A (Pugu road and Chang’ombe road) are tarmac roads, but inside the sub-ward there are no tarmac roads. The streets have neither streetlights nor street names. The water situation in Keko Magurumbasi A is described by UCLAS (2002) as follows: “Water is supplied in the area through a +/- 150 mm (6 inch) main supply pipe which runs along Chang’ombe road. There is no trunk service line to the area, therefore individual households have taken their own initiatives to connect themselves to water from the main line. Supply lines to individual households vary. Most pipes are between +/- 25 mm and +/- 40 mm (1 and 1,5 inches) in diameter. Like other Keko sub-wards, Magurumbasi A area experiences shortage of water supply, primarily because of low pressure. Other problems include poor maintenance, aging pipes and leakage, particularly along the individual household supply lines. (…) Water is sold at 20 TSh per 20-litre bucket. The few households who cannot afford water supply from vendors or private individuals with on-plot taps, use water from wells.” (UCLAS 2002; p28-29). Contrary to the problems that are presented by UCLAS, inhabitants say that the water supply in Keko Magurumbasi A is relatively good. 44 Just a small minority (10-20%) of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A have a private water connection (UCLAS 2002), the use of wells is hardly seen. The electricity supply in Keko Magurumbasi A is relatively reliable. The main grid is designed for industrial use, for the surrounding industries, therefore it has a relatively high capacity. Around 50% of the inhabitants (50% is a rough estimation)45 have an electricity connection, hardly anybody seems to tap electricity illegally. 46 Small shops and bars at the main road do have a water and an electricity connection. Small shops deeper inside the sub-ward are generally connected to electricity, not to water. A drainage system to control the water in the streets during the rainy season does not exist. This can cause a lot of inconvenience and an unhygienic situation. The most important structures in the small river area are bridges that are made by means of self-help construction that connect Keko Magurumbasi A to Keko Mwanga. These bridges are especially important for people who live along the small river. The important structures in the small Kariakoo areas are the small shops and bars of which the majority is served by electricity and a minority has private water supply. In the pombe area the houses that partly function as production places but look like normal houses, seem to be the most important structures. The pombe area is served poorly, by both water and electricity.

Topography/ natural features As stated by UCLAS (2002): “Keko Magurumbasi A is located on fairly flat land” (UCLAS 2002; p28). However the slope is an essential element, some areas within the sub-ward are characterised by relatively strong declines in altitude. The primary school is built in the highest area at 19,5 meters above sea level, while the river, located at approximately 150 meters east of the primary

44 Two key-informants, the research assistant Mr. Ndeu and a member of the Local Government, Mr Sikilo, on16 September 2003, mentioned that the water supply in Keko Magurumbasi A is relatively good because the water is tapped from the main pipeline that is constructed for the industrial area surrounding Keko Magurumbasi A. This pipeline has a high capacity and has a better water pressure than a lot of pipelines elsewhere in the city. Respondents who had water did not complain about the water pressure. Some of the respondents even said that they liked to live in Keko because of the good water supply. 45 In the sample of this research 50% of the respondents has an electricity connection. In a survey with a bigger sample (300 respondents versus 30 respondents), in the neighbouring sub-ward Keko Mwanga, carried out in 2001 it was found that 45% of the households where connected to the electricity grid (ITC-UCLAS 2001). Based upon these results one can roughly estimate that around half of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A are connected to the electricity grid. 46 Information about the electricity situation was, like information on the water situation, obtained from two key-informants, the research assistant Mr. Ndeu and a member of the Local Government, Mr Sikilo on 16 September 2003.

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school is located at 10 meters above sea level. The small selected areas are located on flat land, the small river area is located in the valley. The soil type in Keko Magurumbasi A is sandy and loose. In combination with the differences in heights (the slopes) this causes a problem of erosion. The small Kariakoo and the pombe area face these problems only to a limited extent because the land is flat. In the small river area the soil is a little less sandy, because of all the water in the area. But when the river floods, sand is taken away so there is a problem of erosion. The climate in Keko Magurumbasi A is comparable with the climate of entire Dar es Salaam, see Appendix XVII, ‘Climate in Dar es Salaam’. The most typical characteristics are the high temperatures (temperatures vary from 20°C to 32°C) and the rainy season. Because of the high temperatures, a big part of the life can take place outside. However, the showers in the rainy season can force people inside their houses.

Pollution and environmental problems In Keko Magurumbasi A two major pollution problems exist, the waste problem (both solid and liquid waste) and the pollution of the small river. In Keko Magurumbasi A no sewerage, or drainage system exists, so the most commonly used toilet system is the pit latrine. Wastewater is thrown away everywhere and liquid wastes from the pit latrine trickles down into the ground and pollutes the ground water. The majority of the people collect solid waste, or pay others to bring their waste to collection points. But because trucks cannot reach the areas where the garbage is dumped a lot of garbage accumulates in the sub-ward. Garbage is also thrown in the river or buried at the plot. The small Kariakoo and the pombe area mainly face pollution problems due to waste collection problems. Air pollution is not a big problem in Keko Magurumbasi A. The small river is seriously polluted, people throw their garbage in the river, pigs walk in the river and an oil company that used to dump waste in the river is located along the side of the river. After heavy rain falls the river floods, the houses of the people living next to the river flood and self-constructed bridges are destroyed. Some people that live at the riverside do use the water from the river to give to their animals, or to clean the house with. In the rainy season, the river floods, which leads to very serious problems that affect all people who have constructed their house at the site of the river. Self-constructed bridges are destroyed, which makes the passage from Keko Magurumbasi to Keko Mwanga almost impossible. Houses flood, which leads to a lot of inconvenience, destruction and health problems. The water in the river is seriously polluted; both people and the surrounding industries throw their garbage in the river. A factory of the BP oil-company is located east of Keko Mwanga. The existence of the oil company increases the risk of explosions and fire. Additionally they have polluted the area since they used to dump oil into the small river. The small selected areas do not face other fire and explosion risks than the rest of Keko Magurumbasi A. The population density in entire Keko Magurumbasi A results in dangerous situations in case of fire or explosion; it is difficult to enter or leave the area for both men in danger and for fire trucks. The international airport of Dar es Salaam is located 8,4 kilometres away from Keko Magurumbasi A (Tanzania 1995). Based upon repetitive observations it can be concluded that it does not create a lot of disturbance for its inhabitants. The soil in Keko Magurumbasi A is sandy, therefore the area is dusty. The furniture industry at Chang’ombe road creates dust and noise, this bothers the people who pass and who live close, within a few meters. Although the area is surrounded by industry, the problem of noise, fumes and odours is mainly present along the Chang’ombe road, where a lot of traffic passes. Problems related to dust, dirt, smoke, fumes, odours and noises do not affect the three selected small areas in ways other than the rest of Keko Magurumbasi A.

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4.NuIn fem(Ninhassesthesm

LaThapof sushKaselAturbTh

InKecacoincbupoTopa 47 FProcom48 TtheestKyA. 2049 150 FProcom

Keko Magurumbasi A is a settlement of 18 hectares that is shaped by its boundaries. Themajority of the houses are constructed by means of self-help techniques, the used materialsare cement blocks and corrugated iron sheets. Approximately half of the inhabitants of thesettlement have a private electricity connection and even less people (10-20%) have a privatewater connection. There are no paved roads, drainage and sewerage in the area. It has asandy soil that causes erosion problems. The area is fairly flat but has some slopes with amaximum difference in height of 9,5 meters. One of the borders is a small river that floods inthe rainy season. The major pollution problems are: water pollution of the river and a solidand liquid waste problem.

4 The social and economic characteristics mber of inhabitants and population density pattern the ward Keko the number of inhabitants is 32249 (of which 17199 are male and 15050 are ale). The number of households is 8112, and the average household size in entire Keko is 4,0

BS Tanzania 2002). As mentioned in the introduction of this chapter, the total number of abitants of the sub-ward Keko Magurumbasi A is 7127, the average occupancy per house is umed to be 12,5.47 The average household size in Keko Magurumbasi A is not known, but it is imated at 4,0.48 The population density is 396 persons per hectare49 living in 31 houses per ctare.50 The density in Keko Magurumbasi A is fairly evenly distributed. The density in the all selected areas is comparable with the density in the rest of the sub-ward.

nd utilisation pattern e land in Keko Magurumbasi is mainly used for residential purposes. South of the NHC artments alongside the Chang’ombe, road the Keko Furniture industry is located. The street side this road serves as a showroom, the production area is behind the showroom, more inwards the b-ward. North of the NHC apartments is a small cement block industry. The majority of the ops are located at the side of the main road that passes through the sub-ward and in the small riakoo-area. People also produce and store goods, drinks and food in their houses, which they l while they walk around, or from their houses or the streets in front of their house. the side of the river, small-scale urban agricultural activities take place, while the main area for an agriculture is in the lower area south west of Keko Magurumbasi, where the river is wider. e pombe area serves as a production and trade area for local brews.

come groups pattern ko Magurumbasi A is a low-income area, but with a relatively high variation in incomes. One

nnot find a typical geographical distribution of income groups, the different income-groups live mpletely mixed in the entire sub-ward. In the small selected areas you cannot find typical ome distributions either. But the bigger shops along the main roads are relatively expensive to y or rent, so people who work here often have a slightly higher income. People who work in the mbe business can also have a relatively high income. illustrate the random distribution of income groups one can look at the situation in the lower rt of Keko Magurumbasi A. Here one finds very poor households, but relatively rich ones as igures withdrawn from an unpublished update from 07 of February 2003 of the UCLAS committee headed by f. W.J. Kombe, 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority munities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. (File: selected sub-wards). his estimation is made with the help of Dr. A.G. Kyessi, attached to UCLAS and consultant in the CIUP and

CPP committee. He is an expert in carrying out fieldwork in the informal settlements in Dar es Salaam. The imation of the household size is based upon the average household size found in recent fieldwork by Dr. A.G. essi. The fieldwork is conducted in several informal settlements that are comparable with Keko Magurumbasi The other source were outcomes of the census 2002, published at the website of the Tanzanian government in 03. Conversations have taken place face to face (at 6 June 2003) and via e-mail (27 November 2003). hectare is 100m x 100m. igures withdrawn from an unpublished update from 07 of February 2003 of the UCLAS committee headed by f. W.J. Kombe, 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority munities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. (File: selected sub-wards).

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well. The plots in the low areas are cheap, which is attractive to very poor households. However, more wealthy households buy plots here as well, since they can afford to construct houses with resistance to flooding.

Land costs Although you formally cannot buy land, if you want to construct a house in Keko, you will have to pay for a plot. In the higher parts of Keko Magurumbasi A you have to pay 300.000-400.000 TSh (300-400$) to the person who claims ownership of the ground. This price is applicable to the small Kariakoo and the pombe area. Of course the price varies, depending on the size of the plot; but for a plot big enough to construct the most common 6 room Swahili house one pays this price. At the lower parts of Keko Magurumbasi A, (at the riverside) access to plots is cheaper, because it is hazardous area. Officially it is prohibited to construct your house at the riverside, but people do it, regardless of warnings of the local government. The price near the river is 100.000-200.000 TSh (100-200$), for a plot with a common size (big enough for a 6 room Swahili house). The rent of a room varies from 4.000-6.000 TSh per month.

Tenure Four big apartment buildings mark the beginning of Keko at the site of the Chang’ombe road. The National Housing Corporation (NHC) owns these apartments buildings and the apartments are rented to its residents. Besides these four apartment buildings all the houses are constructed informally. The majority of the houses in Keko are constructed on ground that is either squatted or bought without obtaining property rights that are acknowledged by the government.51 Officially nobody owns land in Tanzania, all the land belongs to the government (Tanzania 1999). But people do claim ownership of the land they live upon. In the late 1940’s people have started to squat land in the Keko ward. Families that squatted areas, left the land to their children. In the informal areas of Keko, all inhabitants that claim ownership of land do this based upon heritage. If a newcomer wants to construct a house he or she has to pay a fee to the person who claims ownership of the area. So inhabitants do not have formal property rights, but informally they do claim ownership. Although hardly anybody has property rights, nobody mentioned this as a problem during the interviews with both households and key informants. The fact that Tanzania does not have a culture of expropriation without compensation could explain this (Nnkya 2003). The informal procedure of claiming ownership in Tanzania creates a situation that seems to function without big problems in practice. A practical problem that does result from the lack of legal control in the situation regarding land tenure, is the problem in areas that are declared hazardous. Formally it is illegal to construct a house on hazardous area, since it is very dangerous (Tanzania 1999). Since informal procedures seem to be stronger than formal ones, it is impossible for the LG members to stop people to construct their houses at hazardous areas such as the river. The majority of the houses are owner-occupied (UCLAS 2002). Sometimes the house is family owned and only family members live in it. Other houses are owned by a house owner, who lives in the house as well and who rents some of the rooms to tenants.

51

S

Keko Magurumbasi A is a low-income area, but with a relatively big variety in income levels.Different income groups are distributed randomly across the settlement. With its 7127inhabitants living at 18 hectares, the area is densely populated and the density is stillincreasing. The main use of the land is residential, but people work in the area as well. Closeto the borders of the settlement one can find small-scale industry in the west and urbanagriculture in the east. The majority of the houses are owner-occupied, but owners do nothave formal property rights.

36

Information from key informant, Mr. Sikilo, member of the Local Government in Keko Magurumbasi A at 16 eptember 2003.

References:

Literature ITC-UCLAS, 2001, project team headed by Richard Sliuzas. Urban Planning and Land Administration And Geographic Information Management 2000/2001, Project Report Professional Masters, Module 11-12, Analysis of problems in Keko Mwanga, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania Lekule, M.Arch. C.T., 2004, unpublished PhD research conducted at the Royal Danish Academy in Copenhagen on the meaning of informal settlements from a resident’s point of view. The fieldwork has been executed in Keko Magurumbasi in Dar es Salaam from 2000-2003. National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania (NBS Tanzania); 2002 Household Budget Survey 2000/01 Tanzania 1995, Dar es Salaam City Map and Guide, published by Surveys & Mapping Division, Government of the United Republic of Tanzania Tanzania, 1999, The United Republic of Tanzania Act, supplement 21st of May 1999, no.6. The Land Act 1999, printed by the government printer Dar es Salaam, by order of the government. UCLAS 2003, unpublished update from 07 of February 2003 of the UCLAS committee headed by Prof. W.J. Kombe, 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority communities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. (File: selected sub-wards). UCLAS committee headed by Kombe, Prof. W.J.; 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority communities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. Temeke Municipality Sub-wards Profile

Interviews Dr. A.G. Kyessi, conversation at 6 June 2003 and e-mail contact at 27 November 2003. Dr. Nnkya, several conversations from May 2003 until October 2003. Margaret Angetile, WEO Keko Ward, conversation at 20 June 2003 Mr. Wali, CIUP project member, several conversations in June 2003 Other data source: Fieldwork April 2003- October 2003

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5. The Livelihood strategy of local people in Keko Magurumbasi A

5.1 Introduction The livelihood strategy of the local inhabitants of the informal settlement can be analysed using an asset approach, in which the access that people have to different forms of capital is explored, as is described in further detail in appendix III, ‘livelihood strategy, operationalisation’. The data that have been used for this are gathered with the help of secondary data, observation, a household interview and with key informant interviews. The household interview provided the bulk of information and was concluded with two preference ranking exercises, as outlined in appendix VI, respectively VII. If the term ’respondent’ is used in this chapter it refers to respondents of the household interview, if not the type of respondent has been specified. The community of Keko Magurumbasi has organised itself into several organisations that mediate to access to capital at community level. Organisations that are formed at a higher level and are active in the settlement can also influence the access to capital of the inhabitants. The activities that the organisations carry out that have an influence on the access of the community to Financial Capital (FC), Human Capital (HC), Physical Capital (PC), Natural Capital (NC) and Social Capital (SC) are outlined in table 5.1 ‘Organisations and access to capital’. A more detailed description of their activities is set forth in section 5.2 until 5.6. Organisation FC HC PC NC SC Local Government Development Committee X X Education Committee X Health & Sanitation Committee X Security Committee X NGO’s Tasodefa X X Tanasso Care X CBO’s Tyofo X Market Canteen X Formal Organisations FINCA X PRIDE X CIUP X Informal Organisations Informal Credit Groups X Furniture Industry X Cement Block Production X Gongo Production X Table 5.1 Organisations and access to capital Source: Own construct based upon fieldwork

5.2 Financial capital The majority of the people in Keko Magurumbasi A is very poor and lives in harsh conditions, although the income distribution is rather unequal. Within the sample, the average household income is just more than 80.000 TSh, while the average household size is 6,23. The income per capita in the sample thus is 13.027 TSh per month, this 427 TSh equals per day (this is more or less 40 US Dollar cents per day per capita, which is less than 80 US Dollar cents using PPP rates). The income is clearly below the poverty line set by the UN.52 The poor inhabitants of Keko do not have easy access to credit, but some facilities are quite helpful for them. Two national credit institutions, FINCA and PRIDE provide credit for low-income earners that do not have stocks or public employment as a grant to cover the loan. They can apply for the loan as a group, a so-called credit group. If you apply for a loan with a credit group, the entire group is responsible to repay the loan. If an individual fails to bring in his or her share, the group will cover for it, but this individual has to leave the credit group. In some cases Tasodefa in co-operation with the Development Committee of the LG help people to apply for a

52 The poverty line is set at 1$ per capita per day, for more information see internet page: www.undp.org.

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loan. The loans can be used to invest in improvement of income generating opportunities. Besides this formal credit system, people also have informal credit systems. Groups of 20-30 persons are formed and people pay for example 1000 TSh (1$) a week and each week one of the group members receives the 20.000-30.000 TSh (20-30 $). If you fail to pay, you also have to leave the group. People use the money that is obtained via an informal credit group for different purposes; to invest in the improvement of income generating opportunities, to finance hospital visits or even a party. The respondents tend to estimate their incomes lower than their expenditures. The average income is 81.164, while the average total expenditure is 85.808 TSh per month. In earlier research carried out in the neighbouring Keko Mwanga the same discrepancy was found. (ITC-UCLAS 2002). For the majority of the respondents it is difficult to estimate both incomes and expenditures since in one household several members usually earn and spend the income. Nevertheless, the results give a good indication of the level of income poverty and of the diversity in incomes in the low-income groups as is graphically shown in figure 5.1.

Income in TSh

020000400006000080000

100000120000140000160000180000

average HH incomep/m

average HH incomep/m p/c

averagemaxminrangest. dev

Figure 5.1 Income in Keko Magurumbasi A Source: own construct based upon fieldwork The highest expenditure for all the respondents is the expenditure on food, 71.593 TSh on average. The standard deviation of this expenditure is rather high, this is explained by the fact that people spend more money on food as soon as they have it. Figure 5.2 shows that the average costs for school are more or less as high as costs for water, electricity and housing, which partly explains why some of the poorest people fail to send their children to school.

Expenditure of HH

0100002000030000400005000060000700008000090000

100000

water

electr

icity

food &

c. fu

el

housi

ng

schoo

l oth

er tot

al

averagest. dev

Figure 5.2 Expenditures in Keko Magurumbasi A Source: Own construct based upon fieldwork

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Despite the fact that Keko Magurumbasi A is a low-income area, the area is known as a good business area. 32% (9 out of 28) of the respondents answered to an open-ended question that one of the positive aspects of life in Keko Magurumbasi is that the area is good for business. An additional 18% (5 out of 28) of the respondents answered that the positive aspect is the proximity to the city centre, so it is cheap to go to the city centre and it creates business opportunities. A lot of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A seem to support family or friends outside their household, most of them support family or friends that do not live in Keko. 50% of the respondents said they provide support to family or friends. Relatively few respondents said they receive support from family or friends, only 20%, while 93% of them said that family and friends can always rely upon one another for financial assistance. Although Keko is an urban area, the inhabitants still do not seem to rely completely upon money for their basic needs. 47% (14 out of 30) of the respondents do not need money for all their basic needs. The basic needs they get without money are mostly agricultural food products (in 79% of the cases, 11 out of 14 cases). The local people highly depend upon small-scale business in the informal sector, such as tailoring/ sewing, hairdressing and the selling of goods and food. Another important source of income is the production of and trade in local brew, which is called ‘pombe’. Production of local liquor is illegal, while production of local beer is legal. Key informants53 mentioned that the production of local liquor (which is called ‘gongo’) is an important source of income for the most vulnerable and underprivileged inhabitants of low-income areas. Single women who need to earn money all by themselves to feed their children often earn money in this business. Old people that cannot work anymore provide a space at their homes for the production of gongo, with the risk of being caught.54 The majority of the people are self-employed. Only 13% of the respondents’ households have a member with public employment, a formal job in which people earn a constant monthly salary, while all of them have members that are self-employed. Self-employment implies that people earn what they sell, for this reason their income fluctuates. Some self-employed people have organised themselves into groups in order to function more efficiently, these are workers at the market, furniture industry, the cement block production and the gongo production. At the market place food is sold by a group of mainly women that is formed formally. They operate in a relative high quality building donated to them by a Swedish company as a part of the central government-run National Income Generating Program (NIGP). The workers from the market made plans for reconstruction of the market place, but did not succeed to finance their plans. The furniture and cement block industries and gongo producers are organised in several smaller groups (in each separate working place one group, a production team, works). These groups put money together to invest in equipment for production. Members of the gongo production teams also put money together to pay bribes when the police fines one of them. A lot of inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A live in a (family) owned house. Only 1/3 of the respondents pay rent (the average amount of rent that is paid is 6667 TSh per month, 8% of the average income), the others live in a (family) owned house. Almost half of the respondents that live in a (family) owned house receive income from rooms they rent, on average this equals 16662 TSh per month (20% of the average income per month). Four of the six respondents who have a water connection earn money with it, on average 10625 TSh per month. It is clear that access to physical capital determines the access to financial capital, because of the possibility to rent rooms and sell water. Besides this, both physical and natural capital keep down the costs for rent, water or food. The sample is drawn based upon different age categories and based upon difference in sex and marital status of the head of the households within different geographical areas in the sub-ward. Because the sample is very small (30 respondents) it is impossible to make valid statements about sub groups within the sample. If the data is filtered one finds that the difference of income in subgroups (such as women headed households or people that live in the small river area) is not very high. Therefore the question is reversed: “What are characteristics of households with very 53 The key informants are R. Ndeu and several anonymous women that are in the business for years. They showed me a production site at the evening and explained the way they produce, buy, sell and deal with the police. I visited the site at 4 July 2003 around 19.00. 54 If police men catch gongo producers, they will ask for a bribe, which varies from 30.000-90.000 TSh.

40

low or relatively high incomes?”. The level of income seems to be mostly determined by the size of the household and by the dependency ratio55. The bigger the household and the lower the dependency ratio; the lower the household income.

5.3Thasp

HeThheaurbdisthesay17(hecomuppeoNehyAihoto andIn somexptheusequtrethever

EdKethe 55 Tsiz56 Ttheopeme

Keko Magurumbasi A is a low-income area where the access to financial capital is poor. The majority of its inhabitants live under the poverty line. But, in comparison with other low-income areas in Tanzania, the possibilities to earn money are considered to be rather high,since the area is known as a good business area. The main source of income in the area aresmall scale activities undertaken as forms of self-employment, this results in a variable income, sensitive to shocks. Due to the low level of income, the highest expenditure of the inhabitants of the sub-ward is on food. Other regular expenses are water for all and for someelectricity, rent and school costs. The economy in the area does not depend completely uponmoney, especially urban agriculture is very important.

Human capital e ability to work is determined by the access that people have to Human Capital. Two important ects related to this are health and education.

alth e general health and sanitation situation is problematic in Keko Magurumbasi A. The area is vily polluted and there are no good sanitation facilities as is explained in the analysis of the an space. The most pressing health problem is the tropical disease malaria, other important eases are often related to hygiene, such as cholera and dysentery. All respondents mentioned y have malaria in their households regularly, although 97% (29 out of 30) of the respondents they do use mosquito nets to prevent it. Another problem some respondents mention are (for

%) stomach problems (such as dysentery) or (for 20%) various kinds of other health problems art problems, mobility problems, etc.). Despite the efforts of the health and sanitation mittee56 still 1/3 of the respondents do not purify water to prevent health problems. But, based

on observation, it must be noticed that people do have a culture of good hygiene. For example, ple keep their plots clean and always wash their hands before and after cooking and eating.

vertheless, the majority of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A considers the general giene situation poor. ds is still a taboo, respondents do not mention HIV/ AIDS as a health problem in their usehold. It is very difficult to estimate how much the sub-ward is affected by it. Tasodefa tries educate people in the field of general hygiene, as well as in HIV/Aids prevention. The Health Sanitation Committee does not deal with the HIV/ Aids issue at all.

Keko Magurumbasi A there are some small pharmacies (‘duka la dawa’) where one can buy e medicines without prescription and one private dispensary. The private dispensary is too ensive (prices are 3-5 times higher than in public hospitals) for the majority of the people so y go to the closest public hospital, the Temeke Hospital. 93% (28 out of 30) of the respondents the services of the Temeke public hospital. During a visit to this hospital it got obvious that

ality and capacity are very low, sick people need to wait hours and sometimes even days for atment. Some respondents also use other public hospitals (17%, 5 out of 30) and only 10% of respondents use the private dispensary in Keko. People see the poor access to health care as a y serious problem.

ucation ko Magurumbasi A has one primary school. A secondary school does not exist in the sub-ward, closest secondary school is located in the sub-ward Chang’ombe. The VETA school that is he dependency ratio is defined as the number of household members that earn an income, divided by the total

e of the household. he Health and Sanitation Committee educates people about general hygiene and encourages them to purify

ir water before drinking. They feel that they do not have enough means to do their job in a good way; since they rate under the responsibility of the central government, they blame the government that they don’t get more ans.

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situated at the border of the sub-ward provides secondary and tertiary vocational education. There are three nursery schools, but they are privately run and thus only accessible if parents can afford to pay the fees. The majority of the people in Keko Magurumbasi A is literate. More than 90% of the household members of the sample that are over 7 years old has taken at least 4 years of primary education, or is still taking it, and thus is considered to be literate. Nevertheless, (good) primary education is still not accessible for everybody. In Keko Magurumbasi A, one primary school exists, but it has serious capacity problems, the school has over 2000 pupils and only 18 classrooms. The school is public, therefore parents do not need to pay a fee to send their children to school, but they do need to buy uniforms and contribute for programs such as the construction of new classrooms. Some parents cannot afford this and fail to send their children to primary school. The quality of the school and the teachers are considered to be relatively good. The organisation of the primary school is run by the Education Committee, which is formed by members of the Local Government, parents and pupils. It seems to be the most active LG committee in Keko Magurumbasi A. Since the capacity of the primary school is far below acceptable standards, the committee initiated a project for the construction of new classrooms. The money for this project comes from contributions of mainly parents. It is very difficult for a lot of parents to contribute, but since it is very important to them they put a lot of effort into it. The NGO Tasodefa co-operates with the education committee and they have managed to get extra donations via contacts in Italy and the Netherlands. Tasodefa also formulated plans to construct a public nursery school. The construction of the nursery school should also be financed by donations. Despite the relatively high enrolment in primary education, the enrolment in secondary education is low. Only 15,5% of all the household members of the sample (that have finished primary school and are 14 years or older) is enrolled in secondary education. They either still are in secondary education, or have taken secondary education for at least 4 years. Given the low rate of secondary education enrolment, the number of households that have members, who have taken university or vocational education is relatively high, both forms of education are taken in 10% of the interviewed households (in three households in the sample). But in general one can assume that the level of education in Keko Magurumbasi A is low. Besides formal education, informal education is important in Keko Magurumbasi A, this type of education is referred to as training on the job. Training on the job is any kind of informal training that a person received from somebody else with the purpose to be trained for the job that he or she is carrying out. In 47% (14 out of 30) of the households in the sample, members have taken education in the form of training at the job. 33% (10 out of 30) of the households say that they do not have or do not know if they have, any other form of education besides primary and secondary education. The majority of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A seems to think that education is very important. Almost all respondents agree that education is very important (out of 30, 29 say it is important, 1 is neutral), mainly because it increases job opportunities.

5Hhimlohfop

The access to human capital (to both education and health care) seems to be very importantfor the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A. But the actual access that they have is very poor.The primary school does not have enough capacity, the same goes for the public hospital thatis also too far away and has very low quality standards. At household level lack of money isthe main reason why people fail to send their children to school. Health problems are mainlycaused by lack of money for healthy food and medication and the bad situation regardinggeneral hygiene.

.4 Physical capital ousing, tools and equipment that people own, rent or use and public infrastructure that people ave access to, are all a part of their physical capital. The access to physical capital is very

portant for the people in Keko Magurumbasi A. People without (formal) employment spend a t of their time at the streets, in their house and in public or semi-public spaces in front of their

ouse. A house is a valuable possession for people in Keko Magurumbasi A and access to this rm of physical capital is strongly related to access to financial capital. Especially women often

repare handicraft products, food or drinks at home and sell it in the streets.

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Inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A spend a lot of time at home, often outside. The majority (77%, 23 out of 30) of the respondents spends most of their time at home. About half of the respondents are satisfied with the quality of their house and half is not. The majority (20 out of 30) is satisfied with the size of the house, although a significant proportion (8 out of 30) is not. According to the results of a preference ranking exercise it is very important to have a good quality house (on average it ranked third out of 8 issues), while a big house does not have a high priority (this issue ranked last out of 8 issues). All the respondents that live close to the river (10 respondents) are not satisfied with the location of their house. In the other areas almost half of the respondents, 45%, are satisfied with the location of their house (9 out of 20), while a 20% minority is not (4 out of 20) and the other share (35%) does not know or is neutral about the issue (7 out of 20). Although hardly anybody in Keko Magurumbasi A owns a car, public transport is not used extensively either because it is too expensive. Respondents that can afford it use the daladala (9 out 30) or a taxi (2 out of 30), while others always walk (6 out of 30). A lot of the respondents (13 out of 30) say they do not move a lot from Keko, so they don’t use any form of transport to move out of Keko. Within Keko everybody moves on foot, because cars are expensive and can only pass in the major streets. The respondents see the bad internal accessibility of Keko as a very big problem, in the preference ranking they said that good roads and transport options have the highest priority. In an open question 12 out of 28 respondents suggested the construction of roads in Keko as one of the most important improvements. While, in open-ended question as well, lack of infrastructure and planning is mentioned as a negative aspect of life in Keko by 5 out of 28 respondents and bad accessibility is mentioned by 2 out of 28. Tools and equipment that help people to create income vary from hairdressers’ equipment to cooking material, to sewing machines and ironing gear. The equipment is mostly non-electric; the main source of energy is charcoal. The reason for this is that electricity is not reliable and most important, it is very expensive. At the Furniture Industry and the Cement Block Production areas people also use mainly local equipment, imported equipment is often of a better quality but it is too expensive. The respondents do not have very good access to producer goods that create good job opportunities (10 out of 30 respondents do not have producer goods at all), while in every household people are employed by means of self-employment for which they often need producer goods. The majority of the respondents that have access to producer goods have farming (9 out of 20) or cooking (7 out of 20) equipment, and some have goods to produce small-scale industrial items (5 out of 20) or something else (4 out of 20). Although the development committee mentions that the construction of roads for example, has a very high priority; no initiative within the community exists to improve the access to any kind of physical capital. But at municipal level, the World Bank financed Community Infrastructure Upgrading Project (CIUP) is operating. The CIUP is active in Keko Magurumbasi A and co-operates with several representatives from Keko Magurumbasi A. These representatives are inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A and are elected by the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A.

Access to physical capital determines the access to financial capital to a major extent for a lotof the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A, since the main form of employment is self-employment. People work at home and/ or use their own producer goods for their job. It isimportant for people to have their own house, preferably with an electricity- and a waterconnection. For the majority the investment in a house and/ or in a water or electricityconnection is too high. People that cannot afford their own house rent one or more room(s).

5.5 Natural capital Access to natural capital is determined by the access people have to natural resources such as areas that can be cultivated, water from a river or well and grazing fields for livestock. Access to NC can be heavily disturbed by pollution or by characteristics of the environment that increase the chance of hazards. These issues were already discussed in section 4.3 ‘physical characteristics’. In this section the point of view of the interviewed households is discussed. Almost all respondents (28 out of 30) agreed that the problem of waste disposal (both solid waste and liquid waste, from pit latrines and household use) is very serious. But in the preference ranking the score for a better waste collection system was not very high (it ranked 6th out of 8 issues). The older respondents

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mentioned that the waste problem has increased a lot the last 15 years, since the area is getting more congested. Air pollution does not bother the respondents too much, (18 out of 30 feel neutral about the problem or don’t know whether it is a serious problem, 7 think the problem is not serious, while only 5 think the problem is serious). For a lot of inhabitants in the urban sub-ward Keko Magurumbasi A, access to natural capital is very important. The city life in Tanzania seems to be heavily influenced by the rural life. Revenues created with the help of natural capital are mostly not the main source of income for urban Tanzanians, but it does help them significantly in their daily struggles. In Keko Magurumbasi A small-scale urban agricultural activities are everywhere. A lot of chickens walk around in the whole area as well as some goats, while small numbers of pigs and cows are kept at the plots of people. Bananas are grown on very small scale as well as mchicha (a vegetable comparable with spinach). The majority of the urban agricultural activities are found along the riverside. Especially at the lower areas south of Keko Magurumbasi A there are big plots for agricultural use, even rice is grown. Although the river is a source of trouble, a lot of people do construct or rent a house in this hazardous area, because they see no other alternative, there is still some land available for a good price. Apart from its use as urban agriculture area, it is mainly used as a garbage-dumping place. 10 of the respondents live close to the small river, 7 of them say they throw their garbage in the river. Despite the fact that people pollute the river themselves, they are bothered by the pollution problem. Almost all respondents (27 out of 30) agreed that water pollution is a very serious problem in Keko Magurumbasi A. All the respondents that live close to the river and also three other respondents agreed that a better drainage system is necessary to improve the situation along the river. In the preference ranking these 13 people added the option improvement of the river to 4 other items, in average it scored 2nd out of 5 items, but only 13 respondents wanted to add the issue. Two NGO’s sometimes run projects in Keko Magurumbasi A that are concerned with access to NC. The NGO Tanzania natural sources and oasis care, Tanasso care, is active in Temeke district. They focus on environmental problems especially those related to hygiene. Currently they do not run any project in Keko Magurumbasi A. The Temeke Youth Foundation, Teyofo, is a CBO that also works in Temeke district. The CBO does not seem to be very active; at this moment its main activity is to mediate to access to plots for agricultural activities for youth in entire Temeke. The project is designed, but not yet financed.

Access to Natural Capital is very important for the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A. A lotof people keep (small) animals or grow (small amounts of) food. Pollution is a factor thatobstructs these activities and that negatively influences the quality of life in the sub-ward in general. The major pollution issues in the area are waste problems and water pollution of thesmall river.

5.6 Social capital Social capital, social networks that people can rely upon, is very important for Tanzanian people; as so for the inhabitants of Keko. Both formal and informal networks help people to survive in the informal settlement in Dar es Salaam. Formal networks are numerous, examples are the Local Government (LG) with its ten-cell organisation structure, and several CBO's and NGO's. These organisations are concerned with development related issues, all of them have very few resources and do not have a lot of power. Since the ruling party, the CCM, is slowly losing some of its power, the LG and the ten cell leader also loose their power, because the majority of local leaders are CCM members. Nevertheless, still a lot of people think the LG and the socialist ten-cell organisation structure is very important. 16 out of 20 respondent agreed that the ten-cell leader is especially important to solve social issues (family affairs). But the respondents also mentioned that ten-cell leaders cannot facilitate real development. They do not create access to other forms of capital, such as helping to find solutions for the problem of the river and waste (NC) or creating more opportunities for income (FC) creating activities. Other important semi-formal organisation structures concerning social capital are various religious groups. Almost all of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A are religious, they either are Christian (around 50% of the inhabitants), or Muslim (also around 50% of the inhabitants).

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Especially the Christian church has a lot of factions, the Catholic, the Lutheran, but also the Assemblies of God for whom music plays a central role. The vast majority of the respondents goes to the church or the mosque, mostly inside Keko, regularly (28 out of 30). For them, the main reason to visit the church or mosque is a religious reason (answered by 26 out of 30), but the social aspect is important for some as well (13 out of 30). Although the formal organisation structures seem to be important for the people, informal networks might be even more important. The majority of the respondents (24 out of 30) say that they have a big social network of friends and family in Keko, they also say that it is important to have a strong social network (28 say it is important, 2 are neutral/ don’t know). 9 out of 28 respondents answered to an open-ended question that the positive aspect about life in their settlement is that they are used to the life in Keko and that they have a lot friends and/or family there. The help people receive from their social network mainly consists out of financial assistance, also in the form of formal and informal credit groups (28 respondents mentioned this), and social support (24 respondents mentioned this). Social support is broadly defined concept; people help each other by teaching skills to one another, family always provides rooms for relatives and close friends, people provide working places to each other, etc. A quotation from a study in Keko Magurumbasi and other informal settlements carried out by Leslie in 1963 seems to be still applicable to the current situation. “Almost every African who decides to come to Dar es Salaam comes to a known address, where lives a known relation; this relation will meet him, take him and feed him and show him the ropes, help him to seek a job, for months if necessary, until he considers himself able to launch out for himself and take a room of his own. Even then, if he falls on evil days he can count on a meal and a loan, given not grudgingly but as a normal obligation, in the same category as the obligation of a man to feed his children” (Leslie 1963; p.32). Tanzania is a country where 120 tribes live together (Andreska & Gustafsson, 2001). A consequence of this ethnical diversity is that in informal settlements in Dar es Salaam people with different ethnical backgrounds live together. It is surprisingly how peaceful all these people live together. Tanzanians often mention to foreigners that they are proud that Tanzania is a peaceful country with hardly any tribal conflict. They often claim that the first president Nyerere has been very important in the process of creating a country with people that originate from different tribes, but are all Tanzanians. Despite the social acceptance, people usually only come to live in an informal settlement on ‘invitation’, as explained by Leslie. A determinant in being accepted and thus in being a part of a social network is the social status that somebody has. Elements that influence the status are level of education, being a member of an organisation, the possession of Western goods such as a mobile phone, refrigerators, watches or radio’s and age in general and for women weight.57 Actions that people undertake in this respect are forming groups such as a CBO, join LG committees, save money they hardly have for Western goods or repair cheap second hand goods. Theft is socially unaccepted58 and probably nobody would admit that he or she had stolen something. People spend most of their time in the streets and in the public and semi-public places in front of their houses, especially women. Men meet in bars (formal bars and informal bars in the streets), women sometimes accompany them but only rarely. In the streets, men play draughts and, if they can afford it, drink (local) beers. While women are mostly sitting outside together; cooking, washing, doing the dishes or producing handicrafts and in the meanwhile they are talking with each other. The streets thus serve as a general meeting place as well. A funeral is a special event in this context, because it takes place in the streets. The LG usually collects money in the settlement for a funeral. Because the social coherence is very strong, security is not a major issue in the settlement. But some people do mention it as an increasing problem. The LG formed the security committee, a committee that assists the police. They report crimes, but also advise people regarding safety issues. They for example, tell people that constructing houses too close to one another can be dangerous. The committee does not seem to be very active and the majority of the people does not listen to their advice.

57 An example that illustrates the factors age and weight is that in a bus everybody stands up for a heavy lady that is over 45 years old. Old men are considered to be wise, everybody takes their advice serious. 58 Theft is considered to be a serious crime. Tanzanians think the police do not work effectively in this respect and therefore they deal with thieves themselves. If a thief is caught in the act, surrounding people will gather and usually beat the thief to death.

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5TowleevfuthPtobind

59

For the majority, access to social capital is necessary to survive in Keko Magurumbasi A. Ifyou belong to a social network people will help in your daily struggle in many ways. Formalorganisations try to mediate to access to social capital, but access is mainly obtained viainformal networks and procedures.

.7 Livelihood strategies and outcomes he livelihood of the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A depends upon access to various kinds f capital. Their (mainly informal) economy is not comparable with a Western capitalist economy here people can buy everything they need. FC is important for the inhabitants but SC is not of ss importance. If one belongs to a social network it is possible to trade goods and services and en to share FC. NC and PC enlarge the possibilities of creating access to FC, but they can also lfil needs (housing, food) that save FC. People have to fit themselves with the circumstances ey live in. There is not a strong state that organises access to HC or PC to a desired extent. eople have to create their own solutions with the help of the things they do have, such as the time take care of children of somebody with a job, a small piece of land where one can keep one cow

rought from the village they originate from. In doing so they use all kinds of strategies such as come enhancing/ investment, expenditure reducing/ sacrifice, collective support and

iversification59 that should help to reduce risks when some of the circumstances change.

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For more information about these strategies see Appendix III, ‘Livelihood strategy, operationalisation’.

References:

Literature Andreska, P. and Gustafsson, M., 2001, The Democratisation and Decentralisation processes in Tanzania, obstacles and achievements in urban Dar es Salaam, University of Gothenburg. Leslie, J.A.K.; 1963, A survey of Dar es Salaam

Internet UNDP: www.undp.org (2003) Other data source: Fieldwork April 2003- October 2003

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6. Interaction between urban space and the livelihood strategy

6.1 Introduction The importance of PC and NC already makes clear that elements of the urban space play an important role in the livelihood strategy of the local people in an informal settlement. In this respect a distinction between functional characteristics and elements (such as access to education and health) and physical ones (such as the accesses and topography) can be made. The technique used to analyse the way the access to different forms of capital interacts with the urban space and vice versa is explained in appendix IV. If upgrading needs are identified with the help of a checklist, comparable explorations of interactions are not included. Identification of needs then would focus on the lack of access to a set of functional services and problems regarding the quality of the physical environment. But it is the interaction that unravels the complex nature of surviving in an informal settlement. The complexity of the interaction is caused by the fact that it is not straightforward; one element is linked to several others both directly and indirectly. Elements of urban space influence access to capital and access to capital determines the character of elements of urban space. An example; the river floods (urban space/ NC) and self-constructed bridges (urban space/ PC) break down. The bridge is of poor quality because good materials and skills lack (PC and HC) and because money to buy good materials and get education lacks (FC). Because there is no bridge anymore (urban space/ PC) some people offer to bring goods and even people to the other side of the river by walking through the dirty water, they ask money (FC) for this and thus have an extra income for a day. To describe all interactions is interesting, but a major task that is not within the scope of this research. The focus thus will be on describing and analysing interactions that can be the basis in judging the importance of specific elements of urban space for the local people in the selected informal settlement. To create some overviews in the complex web of interactions a table is made that is presented in appendix XVIII. Based upon the exploration outlined in this table, special themes that describe the interaction and the character of the settlement are identified. Each theme is related to typical characteristics of the urban space and implies both advantages and disadvantages for the livelihood strategy of the local people. In the description of the themes it becomes clear that every medal has its reverse.

6.2 Centrality versus periphery The analysed informal settlement is a centrally located residential settlement connected to important supply lines. Although the settlement is interconnected with the rest of the city, the interior is more or less isolated due to the few accesses and the poor internal circulation network. It can be described as a centrally located interior settlement with a more or less peripheral character. Centrality and periphery form the character of the area and imply both advantages and disadvantages. Advantages that stem from centrality are the active economic character in general and more specifically the presence of small-scale industries, the relatively close hospitals, schools and the short distance to the city centre. A disadvantage is the high population density that results from the (economic) attractiveness of the area and that leads to physical problems. An advantage that stems from the more peripheral character is the quiet and peaceful safe haven that is created within the busy city centre, where even possibilities for urban agriculture exist. A disadvantage is the fact that the settlement is not easily entered as described in more detail in the theme accessibility versus inaccessibility. Limitations also create advantages, e.g. a shortage of housing created by the high population density leads to employment opportunities in the informal construction industry.

6.3 Accessibility versus inaccessibility Keko Magurumbasi A is characterised by a good accessibility from other parts of the city, as described in relation to its centrality, but the interior is considered to be rather inaccessible. The inaccessibility of the interior of the settlement results in a car free area where women can sell prepared food in the streets, where children can play and friends can meet. But a disadvantage is that cars (and thus also trucks to deliver goods, fire engines and ambulances) cannot enter the area.

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This implies that pit latrines cannot be emptied, garbage cannot be collected and help can hardly arrive in case of emergency. Again, the disadvantages lead to new opportunities and to redistribution of resources; for example, poor people can collect garbage for the richer ones to earn some money.

6.4 Availability versus unavailability of infrastructure The availability of infrastructure (that in this case refers to services such as water and electricity) in the settlement is good in comparison to its availability in the rest of the country and in other areas in the city. The good availability creates business opportunities and can improve the general hygiene in the area. But, compared to international standards the availability is still very poor. Nevertheless this limitation results in life styles in which water is sparsely used (which is positive for the environment) and in the use of technologies that are more labour intensive instead of machine (and capital) oriented. The only affordable types of cooking fuel are firewood, kerosene and charcoal, this has the disadvantage that cooking is very time consuming, but people that have no job can cook for people that do have a job but no time to cook. The unavailability of a time efficient cooking fuel again creates a redistribution of resources.

6.5 Resourcefulness versus low potential of existing buildings The important existing buildings such as houses, the primary school, the market place and a hospital represent a certain resourcefulness. The structures are functional elements of the urban space that are important but that will also be identified when a checklist is used to analyse the upgrading needs in a settlement. Within this research it is in focus to analyse the actual resourcefulness of the elements. The school is located very attractively, it can be reached easily and it is located on the top of a small hill that implies that it is less sensitive to natural hazards (except from erosion). The playground of the school is attractive and relatively cool, because of a nice breeze. The market place has a functional location, it is situated at one of the most important entry points where a lot of people pass and where cars can reach the area. Compared to other services the hospital is far away, but it can be reached easily with public transport while the expensive private dispensary is located inside the settlement and thus can be reached very easily. The structures thus do have a certain resourcefulness, but due to low quality and capacity the potential cannot be exploited fully. The advantage of the resourcefulness is that people do see that there are opportunities and with some stimulation they can organise themselves to improve their situation as happens in the case of the school. But even in this case every medal clearly has its reverse, if for example the quality of all houses would be improved the rent of a room would probably increase to an undesirable extent.

6.6 Natural resourcefulness versus hazardous potential The natural features in the settlement involve both a natural resourcefulness and a hazardous potential. The natural resourcefulness of the river is its urban agricultural potential (although this can be disturbed by pollution), which creates the advantage that e.g. food can be obtained at low costs. But the river is a potential hazard (because of the risk of flooding) as well. Additionally the risk of erosion can lead to destruction of several types of capital. The other side of the medal is that the ground in the river area is cheap and when capital, such as structures, are destroyed some people see opportunities to earn money since the functions of the structures need to be fulfilled again. A same reasoning works for the climate. The resourcefulness of this feature is found in the possibility to live and work outside, which is cheap and healthy. But a disadvantage of this can be that planning for e.g. the winter that is coming is not necessary and therefore more structural and long term planning is not reinforced. On the other hand, the heavy rains and the droughts can create hazards. The possibility of hazards could reinforce long term planning, but in practice this does not seem to occur.

6.7 Conclusions interaction The complex interaction that is demonstrated by the description of the themes can be seen as an argument that within urban upgrading one should be careful not to overrule the existing situation. The people have adapted themselves to the circumstances they live in. If the circumstances change they will adapt themselves to new ones, which can be stimulating but it can also be damaging.

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Especially when the circumstances change drastically it can be very difficult for local people to adapt themselves, while more graduate changes offer time to respond. Exploration of the interaction can be helpful in understanding, which interventions can be stimulating and which ones can be damaging, although the results of interventions can never be predicted completely. It unravels linkages that are difficult to identify when checklists are used. It helps to understand which elements of the urban space are important for the local people in an informal settlement as is described in the next section. The presence and nature of linkages can be a good reason to give a certain intervention in the environment a higher or lower priority. More concretely, it shows that some interventions can have a positive influence to access to capital while others have a negative influence or they can have both positive and negative consequences.

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7. Most important elements of the urban space

7.1 Introduction In order to identify and prioritise urban upgrading needs the relative importance of the elements of the urban space is analysed. It is important to realise that the objective of the research is to find out what the needs of the local people of Keko Magurumbasi A are. Their remarks and answers will thus be very important and should not be overshadowed by the ideas of the researcher. However, a researcher has an overview of the situation and background knowledge. The local people cannot oversee and identify all elements themselves, partly because they are so used to their situation. Sometimes the point of view of the researcher thus is important in the process of judging the (relative) importance of elements. Therefore this process is executed in two phases. The first phase deals with the results of three open-ended questions in the household interview regarding important issues and two preference-ranking exercises. The second phase is mainly concerned with an interpretation of the interaction as described in the former chapter combined with insights of the researcher60 in relation to the relative importance of the elements of urban space.

7.2 Selection of elements: first phase The results of three open-ended questions create a first impression of the relative importance that the interviewed households attach to elements. In the preference ranking exercises the households prioritised elements that were selected based upon literature review, observation and key-informant interviews in the preparation phase. The ranking exercises are deliberately split up into two exercises, the first with 8 items and the second with five items. Large exercises are considered to be too difficult to make for the respondents, because they are absolutely not used to do certain exercises. The first exercise deals with physical aspects in the environment: 1. Good sanitation facilities, 2. Good quality house, 3. Big house, 4. Water connection, 5. Electricity connection, 6. Other cooking fuel, 7. Roads + transportation, 8. Waste collection system. The second deals with public and functional aspects: 1. Improvement of access to health care, 2. Improvement of access to education, 3. Improvement of the market place, 4. Construction of general meeting place for LG. Drainage of the river was added by a lot of respondents as 5th issue. Some background, methodological remarks and results regarding the ranking exercises are outlined in appendix VII, ‘preference ranking’. The elements filtered in the first phase are listed below, the results from the questions and ranking exercises are given for each element, since those are criteria for selection. Not all elements have the same level of importance, nevertheless, they are all considered to be very important and they form a basis for the formulation of urban upgrading needs. The order of the elements is random and not of any significance. The location: close to city centre (5)61 and therefore good business area (9) is noticed in the open-ended questions as a positively important element of the urban space. Infrastructure, roads, accessibility and transport options inside the sub-ward are noticed as a problem. Lack of accessibility (2) and lack of infrastructure and planning (5) are noticed as issues in open-ended questions, while the improvement of accessibility and construction of roads are suggested improvements (12). In preference ranking exercise I, good roads and transport options ranked 1st out of 8 items. It thus can be concluded that this element is very important. Infrastructure, services in the sub-ward: In the open-ended questions the good availability of water (5) is mentioned as a positive aspect. While the preference ranking exercise makes clear that improvement is still desired; a private water or electricity connection ranked 4th respectively 5th in preference ranking exercise I. Good quality sanitation facilities (that could imply infrastructure changes) ranked 2nd. People mentioned during the interview that using charcoal, firewood or kerosene as cooking fuel is unpleasant, but switching to another fuel has relatively low priority, it ranked 7th in exercise I. 60 The insight of the researcher that is obtained via literature review, key informant interviews, observation and data form the household interview. The literature that is used for this research are especially manuals (Dix 1983 & 2000, Caminos, Turner and Steffian, 1969, Caminos and Goethert 1978) and practical internet sites (MIT 2003, Cities Alliances 2003) in the field of upgrading. 61 The number between brackets refer to the number of respondents that gave the answer that is written prior to the (number) to one of the three open-ended questions. This notation is used in this entire chapter.

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Existing structures, public buildings: that are (indirectly) mentioned to be very important are hospitals and schools. In the open-ended questions people mention that access to the hospital and health care should be improved (5) and that access to education should be improved (2). In preference ranking exercise II better access to health care ranked 1st out of 5 issues and better access to education 3rd. The importance of the market place ranked 4th in exercise II and the construction of a general meeting place for the LG and CBO’s and NGO’s ranked 5th. Existing structures, self-constructed houses: In preference ranking exercise I the elements ‘good quality sanitation facilities’ and ‘a good quality house’ ranked 2nd and 3rd out of 8 elements. ‘A big house’ ranked 8th and thus is not considered to be of an importance as great as the quality. Pollution and the state of the environment: In the open-ended questions people mention to be bothered by the bad general hygiene (7) due to garbage and dirty pit latrines. In preference ranking exercise I the improvement of waste collection ranked 6th, not extremely high. Pollution and environmental problems, flooding of the river: In the open-ended question people mentioned the problems concerning the river as the biggest problem in Keko (6) and a good drainage system was often suggested as an improvement in the sub-ward (8). In preference ranking exercise II a good drainage system ranked 2nd. It must be mentioned however that it was the only item that was added by people themselves in this exercise and almost everyone that added the item lived next to or very close to the river.

7.3 Selection of elements: second phase The themes described in the former chapter form a starting point for the selection of elements. The theme discussed in 6.2, centrality versus periphery shows the importance of the location. The population density is interconnected to the location and also is a very important element that influences the livelihood strategy to a high degree. Accessibility versus inaccessibility, described in 6.3, shows the importance of roads and access (circulation). The importance of the existing infrastructure gets clear in 6.4, availability versus unavailability of infrastructure. The resourcefulness versus the low potential outlined in 6.5 sets forth that the existing buildings are elements of urban space with very important interactions with the livelihood strategy as well. The climate, the river and the pollution are strongly related to the theme ‘natural resourcefulness versus hazardous potential’ as described in 6.6.

7.4 Elements with relatively low importance The interaction table in appendix XVIII shows a lot of interesting interactions that create the awareness that a lot of elements of the urban space are very important for the livelihood strategy of the inhabitants. But despite the interesting interactions some elements that have a lot of interaction are not so important that they need to be considered as starting points for the formulation of urban upgrading needs. Although the climate influences almost every aspect of daily life, it determines what kind of economic activities take place, which health problems occur, where people meet and how ceremonies are celebrated, it is not included in the process of formulating upgrading needs. Influencing climate is neither desirable nor possible and not within the scope of urban upgrading. Additionally a lot of the problems in the area have its origin in the high population density such as the waste problem, the problems that cars cannot enter the area and the fact that no space is available for new pit latrines; but these issues are also taken into consideration based upon other elements. The element is thus not distinguishing, and influencing population density via the number of inhabitants is not desirable in the scope of upgrading. Other elements that have a lot of interaction with the livelihood strategy are erosion and soil problems, the pollution of the river and the tenure situation. Erosion and soil problems are serious issues, but do not seem to bother people to a high degree. It is very well possible that this will change over time and when problems increase it might become an issue, although it is not considered to be one yet. Experts could be useful to judge this situation. The pollution problems of the river will be linked to the problem of flooding of the river. Of special interest is the tenure situation. Although tenure has some interesting relations with access to several forms of capital, the tenure situation is not a problem in practice and therefore will not be selected as an important element. This contradicts with the theory that de Soto (2000) promotes in his book ‘The mystery of capital’. He argues that access to formal property rights increases the access to credit and therefore will finally lead to economic development. Another

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possible relationship is the relation between legal property rights and the quality of the house (Hofman 2002). But in Keko Magurumbasi A formal property rights hardly have a meaning. Reasons are that for the local people it is important to generate income by subletting without any interference. Besides this, the loans that they could get from the banks have interest rates that are far too high. Another reason is cultural, people have their own way of regulating ownership and this method is more useful. Several households often share the ownership of a house and they all invest in the house. This results in a situation where a formal property right cannot be given to one household. Sharing physical capital as a grant for several loans would be unrealistic because it is difficult to determine who owns what and the majority of the houses does not have enough value for more than one loan. Conclusive it can be said that formalising the tenure situation might only bring solutions when some circumstances change.

7.5 Conclusion: selection of most important elements Based upon the former sections the following elements are selected as the most important elements of the urban space of Keko Magurumbasi A. – Location – Roads and access (circulation) – Existing buildings – Existing infrastructure – River – State of environment Appendix XIX gives an overview of the process of judging the relative importance of elements, which is based upon the information outlined in section 7.2 until 7.4. The selected elements are related to one or more issues, e.g., the location is related to income opportunities and existing buildings are related to access to health care and education, quality of a house, etc. These related issues determine the relative importance of the elements of urban space. An overview of the relative importance is given in table 7.1. Element of urban space Related issues and relative importance Location Income opportunities62 +++ Roads and access (circulation) Roads inside Keko Magurumbasi A +++

Car free areas ++ Existing buildings Access to health care +++

Access to education +++ Market place + Quality of house ++ Sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at plot ++ Money and power of the LG63 +

Existing infrastructure A private water connection ++ A private electricity connection ++ Sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities ++

River Situation concerning the river ++ State of environment Waste collection + Table 7.1 Relative importance of elements + important, ++ very important, +++ extremely important

62 The area attracts people because of the relatively good access to income opportunities. Still, the opportunities are too low, therefore income opportunities are considered to be an issue. 63 The fact that a good meeting place (a building) for the LG is lacking revealed that money and power of the LG are the resources that are actually lacking.

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References:

Literature Caminos, H. ,Turner, J.F.C., Steffian, A., 1969. Urban Dwelling Environments. An elementary survey of settlements for the study of design determinants. M.I.T. report no.16, the M.I.T. press. Caminos, H. and Goethert, R.; 1978. Urban Primer. Project assessment, site analysis, design criteria for sites and services or similar dwelling environments in developing areas, with a documentary collection of photographs on urbanization. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. De Soto, H., 2000, The mystery of capital, why capitalism triumphs in the West and fails everywhere else. Dix, G., Series Editor; first edition 1983 and second edition 2000, Urban Projects Manual, A guide to preparing upgrading and new development projects accessible to low income groups. Liverpool Planning Manual 1. Hofman, Petra; 2002, The effects of Urban Informal Property on the Quality of Low-Income Housing in Lima, Peru, Problems and Solutions, MSc thesis Technology and Development Studies, Eindhoven

Internet MIT: www.mit.edu/urbanupgrading (2003) Cities Alliance: www.citiesalliance.org (2003) Other data source: Fieldwork April 2003- October 2003

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8. Urban upgrading needs

8.1 Introduction To answer the main research question; the urban upgrading needs of the local inhabitants of the informal settlement Keko Magurumbasi A are identified and prioritised as is described in this chapter. The prioritisation process is carried out in two phases. In the first phase the researcher first identifies and then prioritises needs based upon the relative importance of the elements described in the former chapter. In the second phase some respondents of the household interview and key informants judge and prioritise the needs that are identified in phase I. The prioritisation process is very difficult; both for researchers and policy makers as well as for individual inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A. But a prioritisation is useful since the budget that can be spent on upgrading is limited. A researcher will probably be guided by his/ her knowledge and the results of the research, while local people will be guided by their personal ideas. The main difficulty for the local people is that they hardly thought about urban upgrading before and that they are not used to do ranking exercises in general. To make the exercise easier the respondents were introduced to the needs; the prioritisation was preceded by several questions regarding the needs as is outlined in appendix VIII, ‘testing of needs’. The chapter is concluded with a final prioritisation of the needs, based upon the two phases.

8.2 Phase I: Identification and prioritisation of needs

Identification of needs In chapter 2, urban upgrading needs are defined as: The needs felt by the local people regarding economical, social, environmental (both natural and man-made) and organisational (both political and institutional) improvements in the informal settlement they live in (Cities Alliance 2003, MIT 2003). When each type of need is related to the important elements of the urban space, one can identify the actual needs of the local people. This process is outlined in table 8.1. Type of need Element or characteristic Need Economical Location Improvement of income

opportunities Buildings:

– Economic centre, market place

Improvement of market place

Social Buildings: – Hospital/ dispensary – School

Improvement of access to health care Improvement of access to education

Man-made and natural environment

Roads and access (circulation)/ infrastructure

Construction of roads inside Keko Magurumbasi A Maintenance of car free areas

Buildings: – Quality of house – Sanitation facilities at plot

Improvement of quality of house Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at plot

Infrastructure (services): – Water – Electricity – Sewerage & drainage

A private water connection A private electricity connection Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities

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Type of need Element or characteristic Need State of environment:

– Waste Improvement of waste collection

River Improvement of situation concerning the river

Political and institutional Buildings: -Lack of general meeting place

More money and power for LG64

Table 8.1 Elements and needs

The first phase prioritisation of needs Besides the relative importance of elements, the character of linkages to the livelihood strategy, whether certain side effects are expected, form the basis for the first phase prioritisation. The results of the first phase prioritisation are outlined in table 8.2. Type of need Need + priority Economic 1. Improvement of income opportunities Social 2. Improvement of access to health care 3. Improvement of access to education Environmental, man-made 4. Construction of roads inside Keko Magurumbasi A 5. Maintenance of car free areas 6. Improvement of quality of house 7. Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at

plot 8. Improvement of situation concerning the river 9. Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation

facilities 10. A private water connection 11. A private electricity connection Economic 12. Improvement of market place Environmental, natural 13. Improvement waste collection Political and institutional 14. More money and power for LG65 Table 8.2 First phase prioritisation The income opportunities are given the highest priority because more income (financial capital) can facilitate more access to all other forms of capital. If one is sick, the quality of life is very low and one cannot work; therefore the improvement of access to health care ranks2nd

. Education influences the ability to work and the quality of life a little less direct, but still to a large extent and is thus ranked 3rd. Improvement of these three items has probably hardly any negative side effects. The construction of roads can solve a lot of problems for all inhabitants and thus is ranked 4th.. If it is possible for cars to enter the area extra business opportunities can be created, the waste collection can be improved, pit latrines can be emptied, etc. Nevertheless, if car free areas disappear the impacts will also be negative because people use the streets in creating income and to meet people, therefore maintenance of car free areas ranks 5th. People spend a lot of time at home, it often serves as working place. If the quality of a house improves this can have positive impacts on possibilities to work there, on the health situation and on the social status of a household. The health and hygienic situation and the quality of the house are directly linked to the sanitation facilities at the plot. These elements are thus ranked 6th, respectively 7th. A negative side effect from fulfilling these needs can be that the rent of rooms will rise. The construction of sewerage and drainage to serve the sanitation facilities contributes to the general hygiene, what is considered to be very important, because it will lead to less health problems and ranks 8th. The situation concerning the river is problematic, the current situation leads to capital destruction and creates very unhealthy situations. But, because only a few people 64 The fact that a good meeting place (a building) for the LG is lacking revealed that money and power of the LG are the resources that are actually lacking. 65 The fact that a good meeting place (a building) for the LG is lacking revealed that money and power of the LG are the resources that are actually lacking.

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are really bothered by it the priority is not extremely high, it ranks 9th. People have access to water and often hardly use electricity, but a private connection can improve the quality of life, the social status and income opportunities, while on the other hand water sellers lose income. Nevertheless, since it is heavy and time consuming to carry buckets of water to your house each day, a water connection ranks 10th. Because the lack of electricity causes less disadvantages, an electricity connection ranks 11th,. Negative consequences of the latter four items are that people might need to move (temporarily) from their houses for the construction of systems. Since the market place is related to creating income (which is considered to be the most important item) improvement of it is considered to be an important need. But not everybody is helped with improvement of the market place, because the main advantages will be for people that work there and visit it; this group does not represent the entire population of the sub-ward, although negative side effects cannot be expected. Therefore the item ranked not too high, it ranked 12th. Both waste collection and strength of the LG have connections with the livelihood strategy; an effective LG could improve the complete livelihood of the inhabitants and a good waste collection system improves the health situation and the quality of natural capital. But not all people seem to trust that the LG has enough capabilities to fulfil their tasks well. Therefore the improvement of waste collection is considered to be slightly more important than more money and power for the LG, so these items rank 13th respectively 14th.

8.3 Phase II: Prioritisation and judgement of needs

The second phase prioritisation of needs The second phase prioritisation is made with the use of the test that is outlined in appendix VII, ‘testing of needs’. The test has been executed by 7 key informants and by 17 respondents of the household interviews. The test was not only used to learn about the prioritisation, but also whether important needs have not been excluded in the identification process, how people think about financing the needs, if people are willing to leave their house for improvements and if people have ideas for improvements. The priorities of the respondents and the key informants differ from the first phase prioritisation. The prioritisation made by the respondents is not very explicit it is merely an indication of their priorities (or fairly high, neutral or fairly low); if one of the respondents is removed from the sample the order changes slightly. The results of the second phase prioritisation are shown in figure 8.1.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12

1

electr connmarket M+P for LGsolid wastecar free areasqual. of houseincome oppwater connsewerage + drainimpr sanitationroadsimpr rivereducationhealth care

Figure 8.1 The second phase prioritisation

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The need with the highest priority is clearly the improvement of access to health care. The need with the second highest priority is the access to education. If a respondent is removed from the data set, this does not change. In the first prioritisation, these elements ranked 2nd and 3rd. The order of the needs with the 3rd, 4th, 5th and 6th priority will differ slightly when one respondent is removed. If the average of priorities that is given is calculated one can see that the average of these needs is relatively low and does not differ a lot. Based upon this it can be concluded that this group of needs has a relatively high priority. These needs are the improvement of the river, the construction of roads, the improvement of sanitation and the construction of a sewerage and drainage system. Before the testing these items were also ranked fairly high, but it must be noted that the testing showed a clearly higher priority for the improvement of the situation concerning the river. Improvement of income generation opportunities, a private water connection, improved quality of the house, improved solid waste collection, the maintenance of car free areas, more money and power for the local government, improvement of the market place and a private electricity connection are elements that were clearly given a lower priority in the prioritisation in phase II. The results of the two prioritisations are set forth in table 8.3, the remarkable differences have a grey background. Need 1st phase

prioritisation 2nd phase prioritisation

Improvement of income opportunities 1 7 Improvement of access to health care 2 1 Improvement of access to education 3 2 Construction of roads inside Keko Magurumbasi A 4 4 Maintenance of car free areas 5 10 Improvement of quality of house 6 8 Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at plot

7 5

Improvement of situation concerning the river 8 6 Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities

9 3

A private water connection 10 7 A private electricity connection 11 13 Improvement of market place 12 12 Improvement waste collection 13 9 More money and power for LG 14 11 Table 8.3 First and second phase prioritisation

8.4 Combining phase I and phase II: Final prioritisation of needs

Importance of needs Based upon the tests in phase II it is concluded that all urban upgrading needs identified in phase I seem to reflect the majority of the needs of the local people. The majority of the needs were found important by 90 to 100% of the respondents in phase II, only two items (money and power for LG and market place) were considered to be important by at least 75% of the respondents. Some respondents added needs that they thought were missing. Needs that were added vary from a playground for children, to extra education opportunities (secondary education and special education for disabled), to the improvement of the security situation66. Some respondents also added that the inhabitants needed the construction of a public dispensary, which can be seen as a

66 Based upon the orientation in the preparation phase security a children’s playground and other education possibilities have not been identified as a major issue and therefore it has not been included as such in the household interview, nor in the ranking exercise. In the household interview nobody brought it up either, although respondents had the opportunity to do so, so the actual importance of these issues are questionable.

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way to improve the access to health care. One respondent mentioned that people should get more possibilities to develop themselves.

Financing the needs In phase II, people were asked whether they thought that the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A would need to pay for the fulfilment of the need themselves, or that the government or NGO’s should do it, or that it should be paid by a combination of these two groups. As could be expected, the majority of the respondents agreed that the improvement of their house and the improvement of sanitation facilities at their plot, should be financed by themselves. But surprisingly, only a minority of the people thinks they should pay for a water or electricity connection by themselves. A little less than 40% thinks that the government and NGO’s should pay for the water and electricity connection and 45% thinks that a water connection should be paid by a combination of public and private money, while for electricity this is 35%. For the other needs one can see that always a minority of the respondents (between 5% and 25%) thinks that the inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A should pay for the fulfilment all by themselves. For the fulfilment of each need, besides the improvement of the house and the sanitation facilities, the majority thinks that it should be financed by a combination of the inhabitants and the government and NGO’s. This varies from 35% to 60% per need. The number of people that thinks that the fulfilment of the needs should be financed completely by the government and NGO’s varies from 20% to 40% per need.

Final prioritisation of needs The needs all have a high priority, since they are formulated in a process that dealt with issues that were all considered to be important. But, in order to find out what needs really have the highest priority the results of phase I and phase II are combined in this section. In phase I the improvement of income generating opportunities was given the highest priority. In phase II, only one respondent gave this element the highest priority, while it was given a very low priority quite often. Reasons for this can be numerous, but it leads to the assumption that people feel that the improvement of a lot of services need to be financed by the government or donor agencies. Analysis of the data confirms this more or less, since the majority of the respondents agrees that the government and donors should finance almost all improvements, although often in combination with money from the people themselves. It is a valuable result that the local people do not rank improving opportunities to generate income as the most important need. But if a project is started that should lead to cost recovery, it probably is one of the most important needs to be fulfilled. On the other hand, it can be argued as well that improvement of access to health; education and infrastructure will lead to better opportunities that in their turn will lead to more possibilities for income generation. Nevertheless, the improvement of income generation of the local people of the sub-ward directly improves their standard of living and it will make it easier for a project team to get contributions from the local people themselves for the improvement of the community. The maintenance of car free areas was also given a rather high priority in the phase I prioritisation. It is not surprising that a lot of inhabitants do not see the importance of it. A reason can be that, for a lot of the inhabitants it is difficult to imagine a situation where cars can pass everywhere. Another reason can be that people associate a high quality road network for cars with the Western world and to live in an area with luxurious Western characteristics is a status symbol. In line with this reasoning people might also think it is desirable to say to Western people (in this case the researcher) that they prefer to have roads in their area. These arguments make it difficult to judge the real meaning of the relatively low ranking of the importance of the maintenance of car free areas and the high ranking of the construction of a road network within the sub-ward. Even more because people do not have a car themselves because they cannot afford it. The reasons they give for the need of a better road network vary from the improvement of safety (so fire engines and ambulances can enter) to the improvement of the waste collection system. Both the improvement of income and the maintenance of car free areas might be integrated in an upgrading plan. A private electricity connection has been prioritised very low in phase II and is considered not to be very important for the local people. A probable reason for this is the fact that life is absolutely not adapted to the use of electricity since it is very expensive.

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The improvement of the river and the improvement of the solid waste collection are clearly given a higher priority in the stage of testing by the respondents. It might be possible that people gave desirable answers because a foreign project team already stated the problem of the river and in an earlier project it was attempted to improve the waste collection system. Nevertheless people do complain about the waste problem and the problem of the river, they really seem to be bothered by it. Based upon the results of phase I and phase II the final prioritisation is as outlined in table 8.4. The needs are needs that should be fulfilled with public action. The list of needs is concluded with needs that can be easily and efficiently fulfilled with private action. The needs with priority 8,9 and 10 hardly differ in priority and therefore their priorities are not further specified. Priority 1. Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of opportunities to

generate income. Priority 2. Needs regarding social improvements: Improvement of access to health care Priority 3. Needs regarding social improvements: Improvement of access to (primary)

education Priority 4. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment:

Improvement of situation concerning the river Priority 5. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment:

Construction of roads in Keko Magurumbasi A; integral to this need is the Maintenance of car free areas

Priority 6. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities

Priority 7. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: A private water connection Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of waste collection. Needs regarding improvement of political and institutional organisation: More money and power for LG

Priority 8; Priority 9.; Priority 10.

Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of market place Priority 11. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment:

A private electricity connection Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of quality of house

Private action

Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at the plot

Table 8.4 Prioritised urban upgrading needs

8.5 Fulfilment of the needs

Needs regarding economical improvements The respondents in phase II agreed that income generation opportunities should be improved by the provision of loans. The loans should be used to improve self-employment possibilities by investment in small-scale business in the informal sector, since the formal sector does not have enough capacity to employ people. The loans provided by FINCA and PRIDE are not as accessible as desired. People have to apply for loans in groups, while individual loans are preferred and the interest is too high. Other ideas to improve income opportunities are education related to (small-scale) business and to job and education opportunities within an upgrading project such as giving local people the opportunity to construct roads.

Needs regarding social improvements The first step in improving primary education is the expansion of the capacity. The fact that the LG Education Committee is engaged in expansion projects that are partly financed by inhabitants of Keko Magurumbasi A shows that people believe in this solution. The access to health care can be improved in several ways. People now rely upon the public hospital that is far away (an expensive bus fee needs to be paid) and has a low capacity. A solution could be to increase the

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capacity of the public hospital and to arrange cheap transport possibilities. Another suggested solution is the construction of a public dispensary in the sub-ward, since the private one is far too expensive for the majority.

Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment In the man-made environment the local people strongly feel the need to improve the accessibility inside the sub-ward, by constructing roads, the interaction shows that this should be done in a dosed manner only. An idea would be, to create some narrow passages from where a relatively high number of structures and people can be served. The passages could be closed and only allow cars if strictly necessary. In the natural environment the problem of the river is considered to be the most striking issue. Both for constructing roads and improving the situation concerning the river, it might be necessary that houses are demolished and that people move. In phase II it got evident that all respondents were willing to move for the construction of a road or a drainage system. The conditions that they set were the provision of a new piece of land, somewhere, or a small amount of capital to find a new place to live, or both.67 It is expected that the improvement of the quality of a house and sanitation facilities at the plot will be fulfilled by means of private action. Nevertheless, an upgrading project can stimulate this fulfilment, e.g. by creating extra income opportunities.

Needs regarding improvement of political and institutional organisation Although the majority of the local people has faith in the LG, some respondents question its capacity. Nevertheless, the majority of the respondents feel the need to increase the power and possibilities of the LG. Complementary, the high population density requires a good and effective organisation structure. It will be very difficult to accomplish a more effective LG. The WEO, the city council and maybe even the central government need to be included in the upgrading plans in order to realise an increase in power and budget for the LG. As mentioned in section 5.6 people feel they need access to social capital especially to informal forms of social capital. But, this does not seem to result in a need based upon which concrete action can be undertaken. However, when plans for upgrading the area are made, planners have to judge whether their proposed solutions can influence the access people have to social capital.

67 About half of the respondents was satisfied with compensation of one form only, while the other half would demand two forms of compensation, land and money.

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References: Internet MIT: www.mit.edu/urbanupgrading (2003) Cities Alliance: www.citiesalliance.org (2003) Other data source: Fieldwork April 2003- October 2003

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Part C. Conclusions and recommendations

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9. Conclusions

9.1 Introduction In this chapter the overall research question as well as the sub-questions will be repeated and answered shortly. This is followed by a review of the usefulness of the applied method for the formulation of demand driven strategies. Additionally a review of the importance of both bottom-up and top-down elements in upgrading policies are discussed. The chapter is concluded with a discussion of the value of the obtained results. Issues of importance in this respect are the validity, the reliability and the extent to which the findings can be generalised.

9.2 The research questions answered A short answer to the sub-questions introduces the answer to the overall research question. 1) What are the major characteristics of the urban space of an informal settlement in Dar es

Salaam? Keko Magurumbasi A is a residential high-density (7127 inhabitants live on 18 hectares) low-income settlement situated in an industrial area close to the city-centre. The internal circulation is characterised by a lack of porosity, while the external circulation is very good. The area is economically active and has an economic connection with the city that stems from good physical connections. The majority of the houses are constructed by means of self-help techniques. There are no paved roads, drainage and sewerage in the area. One of the borders is a small river that floods in the rainy season. The major pollution problems are: water pollution of the river and solid and liquid waste.

2) What are the livelihood strategies of the local people in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? 2a. What are the livelihood strategies of the local households in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? The livelihood strategies of local households in an informal settlement are determined by the access they have not only to income but also to the complete range of financial, human, physical, natural and social capital. In the selected area, Keko Magurumbasi A, people need all forms of capital to survive and all forms of capital are interconnected to one and another. The people have a low income and therefore they are forced to adapt themselves to the circumstances they live, they make a puzzle with the different capitals that leads to survival each day. 2b. What local organisations and initiatives influence the livelihood strategies of the local households in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? Several Local Government (LG) committees, NGO’s and CBO’s mediate to access to capital. The majority of the organisations deal with access to Financial Capital (FC). Because all organisations have few resources their influence on the actual livelihood strategies of the households is limited.

3) What is the nature of the interaction between people's livelihood strategies and the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? The nature of interaction between livelihood and urban space is summarised by several themes that each represent the most important interactions: – centrality versus periphery the livelihood strategy is influenced by the location of the

settlement in relation to the rest of city and to services – accessibility versus inaccessibility both the internal and external circulation determine

access to capital – availability versus unavailability of infrastructure availability of infrastructure

determine how resources are used – resourcefulness versus low potential of existing buildings the potential of buildings

determines extent to which people have access to e.g. services – natural resourcefulness versus hazardous potential access to natural resources affects

livelihood strategy. 4) To which elements of the urban space do the local people attach (major) importance in an

informal settlement in Dar es Salaam?

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– Location – Roads and access (circulation) – Existing buildings – Existing infrastructure – River – State of environment

5) Which urban upgrading needs can be identified based on the importance that local people attach to the elements of the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? – Location Improvement of income opportunities – Roads and access (circulation) Construction of roads inside Keko Magurumbasi A;

Maintenance of car free areas – Existing buildings Improvement of access to health care; Improvement of access to

education; Improvement of market place; Improvement of quality of house; Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at plot; More money and power for LG68

– Existing infrastructure : A private water connection; A private electricity connection; Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities;

– River Improvement of situation concerning the river – State of environment Improvement of waste collection

6) How can these urban upgrading needs be prioritised based on the importance that local people attach to the elements of the urban space in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam? + important; ++ very important; +++ extremely important – Location Improvement of income opportunities +++ – Roads and access (circulation) Construction of roads inside Keko Magurumbasi A

+++; Maintenance of car free areas ++ – Existing buildings Improvement of access to health care +++; Improvement of access

to education +++; Improvement of market place +; Improvement of quality of house ++; Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at plot ++; More money and power for LG +

– Existing infrastructure : A private water connection ++; A private electricity connection ++; Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities ++

– River Improvement of situation concerning the river ++ – State of environment Improvement of waste collection +

Overall research question: What are the urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam Tanzania, with the highest priority based on the livelihood strategy of the local inhabitants in relation to the urban space? Table 9.1 gives an overview of the actual needs with highest priority that should be fulfilled by means of public action. The needs are identified and prioritised based upon an analysis of the answers of all sub-questions. The table also gives an overview of the needs that should be fulfilled by means of private action; these needs are not prioritised because people decide themselves whenever they fulfil these needs. Table 9.1 Overview of identified and prioritised urban upgrading needs Priority and need Clarification Priority 1. Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of opportunities to generate income.

This need can be fulfilled as an integral part of a project, but some extra stimulation via improving access to credit can be necessary as well. It is considered to be the need with the highest priority since it directly improves the standard of living of the people and it directly influences the cots-recovery of an upgrading project

68 The fact that a good meeting place (a building) for the LG is lacking revealed that money and power of the LG are the resources that are actually lacking.

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Priority and need Clarification Priority 2. Needs regarding social improvements: Improvement of access to health care

Good access to health care increases the quality of life and the productivity.69

Priority 3. Needs regarding social improvements: Improvement of access to (primary) education

Education increases the quality of life and job opportunities to a very high degree.

Priority 4. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of situation concerning the river

The situation of the river leads to inconvenience, unhygienic situations and capital destruction70. Improvement of this situation is very important for the inhabitants.

Priority 5. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Construction of roads in Keko Magurumbasi A. Integral to this need is the Maintenance of car free areas

Construction of roads71 can improve the accessibility and therefore can be a forward linkage for other forms of development. It can also improve the general health and safety situation. In order to continue valuable activities the construction should be dosed carefully, areas should be kept car free and accessibility should only be possible in specific cases.

Priority 6. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities

In order to improve the health and hygiene situation the construction of sewerage and drainage is important. Although it is not as important as the improvement of the higher ranked elements, it is clearly ranked higher than other elements by the people and it serves a public goal.

Priority 7. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: A private water connection

It is very expensive to get connected to the water system,72 but buying water from others is costly as well and time consuming. However, since people come from rural areas where water supply is a lot worse, a private water connection is not given a very high priority.

Priority 8; priority 9.; priority 10. – Needs regarding the improvement of

the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of waste collection.

– Needs regarding improvement of political and institutional organisation: More money and powerfor LG

– Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of market place

For the people the improvement of waste collection, giving more money and power to the LG and the improvement of the market place do not seem to be very important items, relative to the other elements. A distinction between the several needs is hardly present.

69 One sick household member can decrease the productivity of a household drastically. The sick person cannot work, somebody else has to stop working (or work less) to take care of the sick person and income that is needed for good food has to be spend on medication. 70 Improvement of the situation around the river is probably not possible without destroying some of the houses that are constructed close to it. This implies that some form of capital destruction is inevitable. 71 Construction of roads is only possible if some houses are destroyed and thus leads to a form of capital destruction. 72 The connection costs are more or less 300 US Dollars, this is a lot higher than the average year salary per capita in the sample.

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Priority and need Clarification Priority 11. Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: A private electricity connection

Electricity increases opportunities and the quality of life, but since it is so expensive the way of life is not adapted to the use of it and the local people do not give it a high priority. Therefore the electricity connection is the least important upgrading need.

Private action Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of quality of house Needs regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment: Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, place to wash) at the plot

Both the quality of sanitation facilities and the quality of the house are very important to the people, but it is believed that people can improve it as a private action. Therefore it is not included as a need that should be fulfilled by public action; however the private fulfilment could be stimulated within an upgrading project

9.3 Usefulness of applied needs assessment method for demand driven urban upgrading strategies

The identification and prioritisation process of urban upgrading needs that has been the central theme in this research forms a sound basis for a demand driven urban upgrading strategy. The applied method has unravelled what elements in an informal settlement are of importance in the daily lives of the local people in an informal settlement. It is remarkable that the data source observation revealed a lot of interesting interactions that are of a major importance in peoples daily struggle as the discussed themes in chapter 7 clarify. The needs regarding economical, organisational and social improvements would also have been identified with the use of a checklist. It is especially the complexity of the needs regarding improvements of the man-made and natural environment that gets clear with the use of this particular method. Additionally it is interesting to learn from this that interventions in the environment can have major desired and undesired influences on other elements. It is the combination of several sources and types of data that leads to a better understanding of the reality. This combination is an important characteristic of the applied method that is usually not found in conventional assessment methods. A needs assessment that is centred around the way people live and the assets they use forms an appropriate foundation for strategies that focus on sustainable improvement of the quality of live.

9.4 Bottom-up versus top-down approaches As mentioned in chapter 1, it is agreed that there is a need for demand driven strategies in the field of urban upgrading. A demand driven strategy can exist out of both bottom-up and top-down elements. Bottom-up elements centre around the livelihood strategies of the poor and collective action in ensuring livelihood by the local people, while top-down elements focus on central provision of services by public and private organisations (Baud 2000). This research makes clear that both elements are of importance. Bottom-up elements are of importance partly because: – The underprivileged deserve to be heard (empowerment of the weaker groups). This seems to

be really difficult for them and thus it is important to include them explicitly in a needs assessment.

– It is valuable to know the needs of the local people because it is unsustainable to invest in items that are not valuable for them. Additionally, local people will be more willing to implement needs that are valuable to them. The implementation is thus likely to be more effective, assuming that local people participate in the realisation of an upgrading project.

– Local people are probably more willing to maintain work that is based upon their needs and that are fulfilled with the help of their efforts.

Necessity of top-down elements in projects and policy: – It is difficult for local people to have a helicopter view of the problems in their area. People

only see direct problems and it is often very difficult for them to identify and formulate causes for their problems and effects of their proposed solutions.

– Every individual has its own needs and will try to fulfil its own needs. In cases of public action it is likely that the privileged people have the most opportunities to fulfil their needs

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which enlarges the differentiation, a practice that can probably only be changed if top-down elements are present.

– Provision of large-scale services such as infrastructure can be achieved more efficiently if plans are formulated from the top down.

As Baud (2000) mentioned a lot of research needs to be done in order to get a good idea of how bottom-up and top-down elements can be combined in the process of formulating policies that lead to sustainable development in urban areas. Based upon this research it can be concluded that experts that do not have a personal interest in the upgrading of an urban area can be useful to create an overview of the situation. They can consult in different fields: – How to combine different needs and wishes of different groups and individuals and how to

formulate the actual problems? – In setting forth how local initiatives, private companies and public organisations can co-

operate in the formulation and implementation of solutions. – They can give a neutral overview of the settlement with a certain distance and thus they can

see new issues and important relations that inhabitants will not see.

9.5 Discussion of the results The used techniques to ensure the validity that are discussed in section 2.12 have been rather successful. One of the applied techniques has been the testing of the urban upgrading needs as described in appendix VIII, ‘testing of needs’. Based upon the results of the tests it can be suspected that some respondents did not give very reliable answers as is described in appendix VIII. Unfortunately, the method that is used to test the needs is not a watertight test for reliability. The needs were identified based upon a process, the combination of all kinds of data from different sources, while in the testing phase only the outcomes are checked. Another issue is the qualitative nature of a lot of the data particularly about the urban space that makes it difficult to judge the reliability of the data. The number of questions about one element was small as well as the sample, therefore the reliability of the data with a quantitative nature cannot be (statistically) quantified either. The reliability of the descriptive data such as size of the research area, number of inhabitants with a water connection, etc. is not considered to be very problematic. While data concerning income is not very reliable, given the big differences in income and expenditure figures. Nevertheless, the testing of needs, together with the other crosschecking methods discussed in section 2.12 are considered to be complete enough to treat the data as reliable data.

Reliability The reliability of the data can be improved in several ways, that all imply extra costs and or time. The most obvious method probably is to ask more questions regarding one subject, but this implies longer interviews. In this research the average time of interviewing was +/- 30 minutes. The translator and interviewer both agreed that an interview should not be longer. The interview might be executed in two phases. If the number of respondents is higher the results can be compared better, which means that the reliability can be analysed better. In a bigger sample respondents can also be selected on a more random basis, which reduces the importance of a proper sample framework. In this research there is a bias that is created by the way the sample is drawn. It has been very complex to filter which people should be included in a sample to give a true representation of the target population. The brief revision of secondary data and the semi-structured interviews in the preparation phase, might not have led to a basis for the formulation of a quota framework that is solid enough.

Validity The tests and the crosschecking techniques showed that the validity of the research is not without problems. It becomes clear in different forms: observed behaviour sometimes contradicts with statements of respondents, answers of respondents are expected to be influenced by a tendency to give desirable answers and different cultural and linguistic backgrounds of the researcher and the target population lead to a different interpretation of the same item. Problems regarding validity are unavoidable and can only be minimised as is explained in section 2.12. The applied methods seemed to be quite successful in relation to its costs. Other ideas to maximise the validity are working with an interviewer and or researcher with the same cultural and linguistic background as

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the target population, or to work with focus groups that are educated in the field of upgrading. But these solutions also create new problems. Some issues that are extremely logical for, in this case, Tanzanians can be left out (although they can be useful for the formulation of sustainable policy) and too much education can lead to a situation in which respondents copy ideas from the experts.

Generalisation Keko Magurumbasi A has been studied within this research. It would be useful if the findings can be generalised to some extent. Some findings can be applied to other informal settlements in Dar es Salaam or even in other cities with comparable problems, while others cannot. – Testing of the needs shows that each individual has different needs with different priorities.

Different researchers will also come with different priorities. It is believed that this is true for other settlements in Dar es Salaam and even in other comparable cities.

– The specific urban upgrading needs are different for each settlement and the identified and prioritised needs are thus not directly applicable for other settlement. But, because the settlement is comparable with other settlements in Dar es Salaam, the results can be used as a guideline or a starting point for other settlements. In this way it can be possible to draw comparable conclusions in less time and with less efforts.

– The conclusions described in 8.3, 8.4 and the discussion of the results as outlined in this section have created knowledge that is useful for actors that are active in the field of urban upgrading in general.

– The used method is applicable and valuable for the needs assessment in other informal settlements but the method is very intensive. In section 10.4 the development of a more practical method is discussed.

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References:

Literature Baud, I.S.A. Dr., 2000 Collective action enablement, and partnerships: Issues in urban development. Inaugural lecture at the Free University 27 October 2000 Amsterdam for Urban Studies in Developing Countries.

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10. Recommendations

10.1 Introduction Recommendations are made on two levels. At practical level recommendations are made for the CIUP project that will be executed soon in Keko Magurumbasi A. On more theoretical level recommendations for further research will be outlined as is demonstrated in the overview of the research objectives in figure 10.1.

Overall research objective: The formulation of the implications of the urban upgrading needs for

policies in the field of urban upgrading in Dar es Salaam.

Instrumental objective: The identification and prioritisation of the urban upgrading needs of the

local people in an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam.

Figure 10.1 Research objectives

10.2 Local initiatives In the process of formulating policy to upgrade an urban area it is important to get a clear picture of the present local initiatives since these initiatives can form a starting point for the implementation of a project in which the local community participates. An example outlined in this section is the set of informal initiatives to improve the environment. In Keko Magurumbasi A only informal initiatives regarding the improvement of the man-made and natural environment exist at community level, such as the private initiative to improve ones house, whenever he or she has the financial means. Some public actions create opportunities in the field of improvement of the environment as well. The garbage collection method mentioned in section 6.3, both creates income and deals with the accessibility problem. People agreed that the river should be cleaned and everybody that lives at the riverside was made responsible to clean the part of the river that passes their house. In practice, almost everybody keeps on throwing his or her garbage in the river, because “as long as the neighbour does not keep his part clean, why should I?”. Although not all initiatives are successful, people show their willingness to improve the environment. There are no initiatives for the construction of infrastructure, but in the neighbouring Keko Mwanga the people initiated a water supply project. They managed to get funding from an Irish aid organisation. Although the water supply in Keko Magurumbasi A seems to be good enough to serve the most houses, the education committee is interested in learning from the project, since the primary school is located at a high point with pressure problems. The fact that people organise themselves in a LG, in CBO’s and in NGO’s, without getting paid for it, shows peoples’ willingness to improve the area they live in via political and institutional improvements. Because of a lack of all kinds of resources, the organisations do not function very effective though. Some organisations, for example the organisation of the market canteen, do succeed in getting funding. But the majority of the organisations does not seem to know how to apply for funds and how to improve their access to resources. The Local Government tries to fulfil political and institutional needs by mediating to access to social capital and by trying to regulate land tenure issues, especially in the small river area. An overview of all the initiatives undertaken to fulfil the several needs is outlined in table 10.1. This table is a guideline for which organisations should be approached when needs are to be fulfilled as a part of e.g. the CIUP project.

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Need Organisation Activity Economic needs Income opportunities Improvement of market place

Market canteen Working together in teams and sharing risks and responsibilities Improvement of working place in co-operation with external organisations

Income opportunities Improvement of market place

Market place Working together in teams and sharing risks and responsibilities and making plans to improve the situation

Income opportunities Small scale industry organisations

Working together in teams and sharing risks and responsibilities Informal training of each other

Income opportunities Small scale catering organisations

Working together in teams and sharing risks and responsibilities for example in gongo production or in running a restaurant

Income opportunities Informal credit groups

Providing credit to group members by putting money together on a regular basis

Social needs Access to education

Tasodefa Providing education for health care Running of a project to improve and enlarge the capacity of the primary school

Access to education Education committee (LG)

Running of a project to improve and enlarge the capacity of the primary school

Access to health care Health and Sanitation committee (LG)

Providing education for health care

Environmental needs Improvement of river Income opportunities + waste collection Improvement of house and sanitation facilities at the plot

Informal community initiatives

Plans to clean the river Garbage collection system Private initiatives to improve housing and sanitation

Organisational and institutional needs More money and power for LG when achieved they can help in fulfilling all needs

Local Government Regulate land tenure situation in the small river area Improve the access to social capital

Table 10.1 Needs and local initiatives

10.3 Recommendations for the CIUP The main recommendation for the CIUP is to focus on fulfilment of the needs as they are set out in the former chapter in table 9.1. The needs should be fulfilled in order of their priority. In section 8.5 it is described what type of activities could be carried out in order to fulfil needs, this is summarised in table 10.2. Table 10.2 Fulfilment of needs, possible actions Type of need Possible actions to fulfil needs Economical − Provision of low-interest loans

− Education related to (small-scale) business − Creating opportunities to work for the CIUP (e.g. assist in construction of

roads) Social − Expansion of capacity of primary school

− Increase capacity of public hospital and arrange cheap transport − Construction of public dispensary within the sub-ward

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Type of need Possible actions to fulfil needs Man-made and natural environment

− Dosed construction of roads, that allows car free areas − Improve drainage of river − Demolishing of houses might be necessary: relocation of people with a

compensation (land, money) − Stimulation of improvement of house and sanitation facilities by extra

income opportunities Political and institutional organisation

− Co-operation with city council and/ or central government to increase money and power of Local Government

− Judgement of upgrading plans: good access to informal forms of social capital should be maintained

To simplify and facilitate fulfilment of needs in co-operation with the community, local initiatives and their relation to the needs are outlined in table 10.1. Participation is important in the process of the implementation of needs, but it is extremely complex. Some guidelines are formulated that can be a starting point for a successful participative implementation process. The CIUP should realise discussion with people that are active in the fulfilment of needs and with some more underprivileged local people as well. In the first phase it is important to get an agreement on the needs, if the actors do not agree that the needs should be fulfilled, it will never work. This can be done in several ways, but in either way the CIUP should create a form of communication between the local people and the project team. A committee that is formed by both members of the CIUP and local people is a possible solution. One of the problems in the process of improving a settlement is the different interest that groups of people and individuals have. In order to minimise the risk that personal interest will guide decisions, the committee should be headed by a person that is as neutral as possible, preferably somebody from outside the settlement and not a CIUP member. Discussions can be held with focus groups and during the process different committees can be formed. The committee that is responsible for the upgrading should have discussions and formulate plans together with both the formal and informal local organisations outlined in table 10.1. An example is the implementation of an idea that local people brought up, provide loans at low interest rates to improve income opportunities. The idea can be discussed with the informal credit groups and an implementation plan can be formulated together with them. With the other organisations alternative ways of improving income opportunities might be formulated in group discussions. In order to enlarge the possibilities, it is advised to search for external funding in some cases, since the CIUP budget is limited. Existing constructions of financing, such as the construction used for the project of the school, can be further exploited and people can be educated on how to search for more funding themselves. The improvement of the market place might be realised outside the budget of the CIUP by informing and educating the market organisation on how to search for funding for their plans. The next step is to formulate plans of actions based upon the obtained knowledge. Committees can be formed and people should be made responsible for execution of the plans. In table 10.3 an overview of the plan of action is given, together with an estimated time span that is merely an indication. Action Estimated time spanDiscuss upgrading needs with local organisations and focus groups of local people.

1 month

Educate local organisations and search for alternative financing. 1-2 months Decide what is financed by CIUP and what is not. Formulate plans of action, make people responsible for execution.

1-2 months

Execute plans of action and discuss progress with responsible people. Every 2-3 weeks Table 10.3 Recommended actions for the CIUP

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10.4 Recommendations for further research The method central in this research has been useful to answer the research questions, however the prioritisation remains difficult. An idea to improve the prioritisation is to replace the preference ranking exercises by budget exercises. Respondents could divide a budget on several needs; which can create more insight in the priorities but is probably too difficult for a lot of people. The usefulness and complexity of methods of this type should be tested empirically. A more alarming issue concerning the applied method is that it is rather complex and time consuming. When policy is implemented, the needs should be ‘owned’ by the people that participate in the implementation. This can imply that a lot of work regarding the formulation of the needs has to be redone. A recommendation for further research is the reformulation of the applied methodology into one that is easier to use in practice. An idea is to redefine a livelihood strategy analysis into an analysis in which the interaction between physical and natural capital with the other forms of capital plays a central role. When more is known about the interactions between urban space and livelihood strategies this could be translated into checklists that explicitly study the role of PC and NC within these strategies. A checklist reduces the chance to come to new insights, but it can be very useful to facilitate policy makers and public servants that are not educated to carry out research but that work in the field of urban upgrading. To create ownership of the needs, the results of the checklist can be discussed in focus groups formed of people that will participate in the implementation process. More research regarding the implementation of upgrading needs is very interesting and useful. Questions that remain unanswered are numerous. How can participation really be achieved? How can one be sure that the underprivileged are involved as well? How can set goals be obtained efficiently and effectively? How can actual needs be fulfilled once they are known? How can people be motivated to carry out maintenance works? A precise evaluation and documentation of actual projects, such as the CIUP can be a helpful first step in the creation of more knowledge on how to achieve participation and how to implement demand-driven policy successfully.

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References

Literature Baud, I.S.A. Dr., 2000 Collective action enablement, and partnerships: Issues in urban development. Inaugural lecture at the Free University 27 October 2000 Amsterdam for Urban Studies in Developing Countries. Bersani, E. and Bogoni, B., 2001, Living in developing countries, Dar es Salaam. Arbitare nei paesi in via di sviluppo. Tre Lune Edizioni. Brock, K., 1999, Implementing a sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Policy-directed research. Reflections form practice in Mali. IDS Working Paper 90. Caminos, H. ,Turner, J.F.C., Steffian, A., 1969. Urban Dwelling Environments. An elementary survey of settlements for the study of design determinants. M.I.T. report no.16, the M.I.T. press. Caminos, H. and Goethert, R.; 1978. Urban Primer. Project assessment, site analysis, design criteria for sites and services or similar dwelling environments in developing areas, with a documentary collection of photographs on urbanization. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. De Certeau, M., 1984, The practice of everyday life De Soto, H., 2000, The mystery of capital, why capitalism triumphs in the West and fails everywhere else. Dharmawan, A.H.; 1999, Farm Household Livelihood Strategy, Multiple Employment, and Socio-economic Changes in Rural Indonesia: Case Studies from West Java and West Kalimantan. The paper was prepared for Discussion Paper Vol. 30/1999, published by the Institute of Rural Development, the University of Goettingen. Dix, G., Series Editor; first edition 1983 and second edition 2000, Urban Projects Manual, A guide to preparing upgrading and new development projects accessible to low income groups. Liverpool Planning Manual 1. Egmond- de Wilde de Ligny, van, Dr. ir. E.L.C.; 2002, International Technology Transfer (0N461) lecture notes Erkelens, P. A.; 1991, Self-help building Productivity, Bouwstenen 20, Eindhoven University of Technology. Farrington, J.; Ramasut, T.; Walker, J.; 2002, Sustainable Livelihoods Approaches in Urban Areas, Overseas Development Institute (ODI) working paper 162 Gaillard, H.C.J.J.; Bouwman, C.E.; Kuijsters, A.; Vulink, M.C., 2002, Cross-cultural research methodology, A synopsis, Eindhoven University of Technology. Goodman, P. and Goodman, P., 1960 Communitas, means of livelihood and ways of life. Graham H., 1992, Sociology in Focus, The Sociology of Development. Haan, A., de; Drinkwater, M.; Rakodi, C. and Westley, K.; 2002, Methods for understanding urban poverty and livelihoods, report is a part of a larger project commission by the UK Department for International Development’s Infrastructure and Urban Development Department. Hardoy, J.E. and Satterthwaite, D.; 1989, Squatter Citizen, life in the urban third world, earthscan publications LTD, London Hentschel, J. and Seshigir, R., 2002 (?)73, The City Poverty Assessment, World Bank Hettne; B. 1995, Development Theory and the three worlds, Longmand development studies. Hofman, Petra; 2002, The effects of Urban Informal Property on the Quality of Low-Income Housing in Lima, Peru, Problems and Solutions, MSc thesis Technology and Development Studies, Eindhoven Hunt; 1998, Economic Theories of development ITC-UCLAS, 2001, project team headed by Richard Sliuzas. Urban Planning and Land Administration And Geographic Information Management 2000/2001, Project Report Professional Masters, Module 11-12, Analysis of problems in Keko Mwanga, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania

73 N.B. This paper has been withdrawn from the internet, a date of publication could not be found. Therefore the year of the most recent references has been used as year of publication, followed by a question mark (?).

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Kombe, W.J. and Kreibich, V., 2000, Informal Land Management in Tanzania, Spring Research Series, no 29, University of Dortmund. Kyessi, Dr. A.G., 2002, Community Participation in Urban Infrastructure Provision. Servicing informal settlements in Dar es Salaam, Spring Research Series, no 33, University of Dortmund. Le Febvre, H. 1991, The Production of Space Lekule, M.Arch. C.T., 2004, unpublished PhD research conducted at the Royal Danish Academy in Copenhagen on the meaning of informal settlements from a residents point of view. The fieldwork has been executed in Keko Magurumbasi in Dar es Salaam from 2000-2003. Leslie, J.A.K.; 1963, A survey of Dar es Salaam Lynch, K.; 1960, The image of the city Majani, B.B.K.; 2000, Institutionalising Environmental Planning and Management. The institutionalising economy of solid waste management in Tanzania. Spring Research Series, University of Dortmund National Bureau of Statistics Tanzania (NBS Tanzania); 2002 Household Budget Survey 2000/01 Nuru, K., 1990, Tanzania in Mathéy, K.; 1990, Housing Policies in the socialist third world. Othman, Prof. H. and Liviga, Prof. A., 2002, Local Governance and Poverty Reduction, Tanzania Country paper for AGF V, UNDP. Romijn, H., 2001, Reader for course Multidisciplinary Development Theories ON411, Technology Management, Eindhoven University of Technology. Singh, N. and Gilman, J; 1999(?)74, Employment and Natural Resources Management: A livelihoods approach to Poverty Reduction, SEPED Conference paper series, nr 5, The Conference Paper Series is a UNDP/SEPED contribution to the five year review of the Fourth World. Szirmai, A., 2000, Economic and Social Development Tanzania 1995, Dar es Salaam City Map and Guide, published by Surveys & Mapping Division, Government of the United Republic of Tanzania Tanzania, 1999, The United Republic of Tanzania Act, supplement 21st of May 1999, no.6. The Land Act 1999, printed by the government printer Dar es Salaam, by order of the government UCLAS committee headed by Prof. W.J. Kombe, 2002. Application of Community Prioritisation Process (CPP) and identification of 20 priority communities for upgrading in Dar es Salaam City. Temeke Municipality Sub-wards Profile. UNCTAD; 2001, Global economic trends and prospects UNDP 2001, UN Human Development Report 2001 Van der Meulen and Erkelens; 1996, Urban Habitat: The environment of tomorrow, Bouwstenen 41, Eindhoven University of Technology. World Bank AFTU 1&2; 2002, Upgrading low-income urban settlements, country assessment report, Tanzania Xiadong Li; 1993, Meaning of the site, bouwstenen 26, Eindhoven University of Technology.

Internet Cities Alliance: www.citiesalliance.org/citiesalliancehomepage.nsf. (2003) FINCA: www.microsave-africa.com (2003) IMF: www.imf.org (2003/2004) MIT: www.mit.edu/urbanupgrading (2003) Oneworld: www.oneworld.org/odi (2003) PRIDE: www.prideafrica.com/pride20%Tanzania (2003) Tanzania: www.tanzania.go.tz (2003) UN: www.un.org/MDG (2003) UNCHS: www.unchs.org (2003) UNDP: www.undp.org (2003) WB: www.worldbank.org (2003) We The People: www.wtp.org (2004) World Fact book 2002: www.odci.gov/cia/pubilcations/factbook/geos/tz.html (2003) www.free-wheater.com/Dar-es-Salaam-Tanzania.php 74 N.B. This paper has been withdrawn from the internet, a date of publication could not be found. Therefore the year of the most recent references has been used as year of publication, followed by a question mark (?).

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www.livelihoods.org (2003) GDRC: www.gdrc.org/uem (2003)

Interviews R. Ndeu several conversations in period from March 2003-July 2003. Dr. Bituro B.K. Majani, lecturer and director of UCLAS Institute of Human Settlements (28 August 2003). Dr. T.J. Nnkya, several conversations in period from May 2003-July 2003. Mr. Wali, CIUP project member, several conversations in June 2003 Dr. A.G. Kyessi, conversation at 6 June 2003 and e-mail contact at 27 November 2003. Margaret Angetile, WEO Keko Ward, conversation at 20 June 2003 Dr. Nnkya, several conversations from May 2003 until October 2003. M. Arch. C.T. Lekule several conversations in period from June 2003-July 2003. Ms. R.H. Maro, Director General NBS e-mail contact at 23 September 2003. Ir. W. Sikkel, DHV consultant and project manager CIUP (10 July 2003)

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Appendices

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Appendix I Urban Upgrading and Development

Urban Upgrading Urban Upgrading or Slum Upgrading does not have one definition that is agreed upon unanimously. As stated by the MIT and World Bank: “Upgrading- or slum improvement as it is also called- in low income urban communities is many things, but at its simplest it has come to mean a package of basic services: clean water supply and adequate sewage disposal to improve the well-being of the community. But fundamental is legalising and upgrading customarily provides a package of improvements in streets, footpaths and drainage as well. Solid waste collection is frequently included with its positive impact on health, along with streetlights for security and night activity (…) But this physical improvement is only the beginning: health issues need to be addressed by providing clinics and health education programs, school facilities and teacher training are needed to attack the lack of basic education, and lastly programs are offered to improve income earning opportunities.” 75 It seems to be clear that urban upgrading deals with the improvement of the life of people that live in bad conditions in urban areas. It can be seen as a part of the development process of a (low-income) country. Keeping this in mind, it seems to be useful to understand the concept of development first, in order to understand the concept of urban upgrading.

Development Development of a country, or the human development of the inhabitants of countries, is described by huge numbers of researchers, e.g. sociologists, economists and anthropologists. Policy makers have contributed to the formation of visions about the subject of development as well. Today it is widely accepted that human development is a complex issue that is about much more than the rise or fall of national incomes (UNDP 2001). Since 1990 the UN publishes a Human Development Report in which countries are ranked according to their Human Development Index, based on an income-, life expectancy-, and education index (Szirmai 2000). This ranking of countries according to their HDI index is supplementary to the ranking according to GNP. But, with the HDI and GNP ranking, it is still not possible to give a complete impression of the development of a country (UNDP 2003). Development seems to be a complex issue that consists out of several dimensions. Myrdall (1968), with the concept of modernisation principles, referred to a lot of issues that could be formulated as dimensions of development. He argues that the development process of a country involves a change of the entire society in the direction of several modernisation ideals; some of these ideals are widely accepted by policy makers of developing countries. These ideals are: – “Rationality (in policy, in the application of technological knowledge, in structuring social

relations, in thinking about objectives and means); – Planning for development; searching for a coherent system of policy measures in order to

change situations that are considered undesirable; – An increase in capita per production and production per worker, primarily by industrialisation

and increasing capital intensity in production; – An increase in the standard of living; – An increase in social and economic equality. Development ought to be for the benefit of the

people, the masses; – More efficient institutions and attitudes that are conductive to an increase in productivity and

to development in general (for example, institutions that are characterised by mobility, leeway for initiative and entrepreneurship, effective competition, equal opportunities; attitudes like efficiency, diligence, orderliness, punctuality, economy, honesty, rationality, openness to change, solidarity and future oriented ness;

– Consolidation of the national state and national integration; – National independence;

75The quotation is derived from internetpage: web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/whatis/what-is.html

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– Political democratisation. The concept of democratisation can be interpreted in various ways of which parliamentary democracy is but one. Democratisation always implies some notion of involvement of the population in political decision-making;

– Social discipline” (Szirmai 2000; p.51-52). Other theories also point out that different dimensions are of importance if one tries to explain the concept of development. In the classical theories such as the development theories of Smith [1723-1790], Ricardo [1792-1823], Malthus [1766-1834] and Mill [1806-1873], the view of development as economic development through the free market principle is dominant. Although Malthus notices that the depletion of the natural environment can stop development. He does not see the development of the environment as a dimension of development, but he does refer to the importance of the natural environment in relation to development (Szirmai 2000). Auguste Comte [1798-1857] is the first to use the term 'sociology' in relation to development; he argues that people have a fear of death and thus are spurred to improve their control of nature. He argues that three stages are passed during development; these stages are described by social characteristics, rather than economic ones (Harris 1992). Friedrich List [1789-1864] was a German economist, who believed that the state plays (or should play) an important role in the economy. Political aspects thus were very important to him in the context of development. Karl Marx [1818-1883] sees class contradictions as the engine to development. He talks about national development as the development of economic, political and social dimensions in a society. Weber [1864-1920] and Schumpeter [1833-1950] both see economic development in relation with social development. Besides this, Weber sees rationalisation as an important step in the process of development. Schumpeter sees technological change and innovation as important conditions for development. Weber and Schumpeter both argue that the institutionalisation of knowledge by e.g. a legal system, laws, administrative procedures and research institutes is a step forward in the development process. Weber also argues that shared values and norms, a cultural dimension of development, have it's impacts on society, with his famous hypothesis that protestant ethic favoured economic development (Szirmai 2000). Emile Durkheim [1858-1917] is often called the father of functionalism. In functionalism the society is seen as a social system, made up of a series of interconnected parts, these parts are institutions that are made up of individuals. The rules and laws that interconnect the institutions control individuals. The system can only function if a value consensus exists, in other words if a common culture exists. Thus the cultural dimension of development is important to his point of view. Durkheim states that the development of a society is a process of increasing complexity of the social system, as a process of evolution. After the Second World War, the idea arose that a country does not develop itself through a continuous evolutionary process. Partly based on the success of the Marshall plan (the USA financed a huge development program in order to create a catch up for the destroyed Europe) the modernist paradigm arose. A country could develop itself by passing several stages with each an increased level of modernity. The five stages form Rostow (1969) are very famous (1. traditional society, 2. preconditions for take off, 3. take-off into economic growth, 4. drive into maturity, 5. stage of mass consumption). These stages could be passed if the government develops itself (thus if there is so called political development) into a strong apparatus that strongly intervenes in the economy. Development is mainly defined as economic development, but there is attention for social and institutional aspects, as well as political aspects (the state was a very important actor in creating economic wealth) in relation to development (Harris 1992). Theories and paradigms such as structuralism, neo-Marxism and the dependency theory have been of great importance in explaining the engine for development. But it is the development of the Basic Needs theory that really focussed on other dimensions of development. In the Basic Needs Approach attention is paid to the environment in which people live in relation to development. Development starts with meeting people’s basic needs. The environmental dimension of development consists of the development of meeting the basic needs for the entire population; such as the need for shelter, water and sanitation, the possibility to grow food, etc. (Hunt 1998). Boserup (1965,1981,1990) sees the natural environment as an important factor in the development process as well, but more as an input for development. She also points out that people need to take care of the environment in order to preserve it. The natural environment provides food and shelter

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to us, but can be damaged by men as well, which will have negative impacts on human development (Szirmai 2000). As stated in the UN Human development report, development has to deal with “expanding the choices people have to lead the lives that they value” (UNDP 2001; p.9). In line with this idea, the development of a country can be seen as the human development of its individuals. Based upon the literature revision, the following dimensions of development can be distinguished: – Economic development – Social development – Environmental development – Political development – Institutional development – Cultural development. An overview of the dimensions of development is shown in figure I.a. In order to clarify the dimensions a brief description, that is neither complete nor exhaustive, is given. Economic development In order to expand people’s choices, welfare has to be created to simply pay the costs. Economic development can be subdivided into a lot of sub dimensions, such as the development of employment, the development of profitable businesses and the development of market linkages. If the income of a country rises it is important that the money is distributed in such a way that one can speak of real economic development, it should affect the freedom of choice of all the inhabitants of a country. Social development Development means that the possibility to enter education and to acquire knowledge and better healthcare increases. Economic development usually is a condition for this, but social development does not happen automatically. Environmental development If development takes place this means that the possibility to get proper shelter, to travel by a well developed road system and to live in a healthy place without pollution increases for the entire population of a country. Political development If the freedom of choices of people is to be enlarged, this implies that the freedom to chose that governs the country and how the country is governed should enlarge. The process of the formation of a democratic political system can be seen as political development. Political development can also be seen as the process of the development of a more efficient and reliable state apparatus. Institutional development In development theories rationalisation is often referred to as an important aspect of the development process. Rationalisation is part of the process of the formation of institutions. If development takes place, institutions arise or become more advanced and or efficient. The term Institution is a very broad definition. An institution varies from a court of law, to a banking institute that can lend money. If a country develops, this includes the formation of proper working institutions that serve all its inhabitants. Cultural development A country in which people have more influence on their own lives becomes more complex. In order to keep peace in a country it is needed that a set of common values and norms exists, without affecting the personal freedom of people with a different ethnical background. The ability to create a shared set of norms and values can be referred to as the cultural dimension of development.

Figure I.a Dimensions of development

Cultural Institutional Political Environmental Social Economic

Dimensions of Development

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Dimensions of Urban Upgrading Like the concept development, urban upgrading is a concept with different dimensions as well. The dimensions of urban upgrading, are not literally the same dimensions as those of human development, though. The cultural and the environmental dimension of development need to be revised in the context of urban upgrading. To focus on cultural improvements within the context of urban upgrading seems to be too complex. While the dimension of environmental improvements should be further specified. The definition that is used for urban upgrading by the cities alliance recognises different dimensions of urban upgrading and offers a good starting point. They state: “Urban Upgrading consists of physical, social, economic, organisational and environmental improvements undertaken co-operatively and locally among citizens, community groups, businesses and local authorities.”76 In line with this definition, instead of cultural improvements, organisational improvements might be a more suitable term to use in the context of urban upgrading. One can think of both political improvements (e.g. a more effective (local) government in the urban area) and of institutional improvements (e.g. an improved tenure registration) as being part of organisational improvements. In the context of urban upgrading the environmental dimension seems to be very important and should be further specified. The (physical) environment can be subdivided into the man-made environment and the natural environment (Van der Meulen and Erkelens 1996). This subdivision draws attention to man-made elements such as infrastructure and dwellings and to natural elements such as soil type, keeping in mind their ecological value and pollution characteristics. With these considerations taken into account, the definition of urban upgrading that will be used in this research is: Urban Upgrading consists of economic, social, environmental (both natural and man-made), and organisational (both political and institutional) improvements undertaken co-operatively and locally among citizens, community groups, businesses and local authorities. An overview of the dimensions of urban upgrading is shown in figure I.b, ‘dimensions of urban upgrading’.

Figure I.b Dimensions of urban upgrading

natural Man-made

Organisational

Institutional Political

Environmental Social Economic

Dimensions of urban upgrading

Urban upgrading needs Urban upgrading starts with identifying the needs from the urban poor, which should benefit from urban upgrading activities (MIT and WB 2003, Hardoy and Satterthwaite 1989). These needs are, like housing needs, determined by a number of circumstances that vary among different locations. 1. Climatological and geographical circumstances 2. Socio-economic circumstances 3. Cultural circumstances Besides this, Turner mentioned that there is a difference between felt needs, the actual needs of individuals, and ascertained needs, needs based on a standard established by third parties such as governments (Erkelens 1991). Identifying the felt needs of the inhabitants of the local people in the research area, regarding urban upgrading, is central in this research. Thus ‘urban upgrading needs’ can be referred to as:

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76http://www.citiesalliance.org/citiesalliancehomepage.nsf

The needs felt by the local people regarding economical, social, environmental (both natural and man-made) and organisational (both political and institutional) improvements in the informal settlement they live in. Examples of the felt needs for each dimension should clarify the definition.77 − Needs regarding economical improvements: Improvement of income-earning opportunities

and access to credit − Needs regarding social improvements: improved access to education and health care,

increasing security − Needs regarding improvement of man-made and natural environment: improvement of basic

infrastructure, home improvement, removal or mitigation of environmental hazards − Needs regarding improvement of political and institutional organisation: improving access to

social capital, improving the land tenure situation, improving community management

References: Literature Erkelens, P. A.; 1991, Self-help building Productivity, Bouwstenen 20, Eindhoven University of Technology. Graham; H., 1992, Sociology in Focus, The Sociology of Development. Hardoy, J.E. and Satterthwaite, D.; 1989, Squatter Citizen, life in the urban third world, earthscan publications LTD, London Hettne; B. 1995, Development Theory and the three worlds, Longmand development studies. Hunt; 1998, Economic Theories of development Szirmai; A., 2000, Economic and Social Development UNDP 2001, UN Human Development Report 2001 Van der Meulen and Erkelens; 1996, Urban Habitat: The environment of tomorrow, Bouwstenen 41, Eindhoven University of Technology. Internet web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading (2003) www.citiesalliance.org (2003) www.undp.org (2003)

77 Examples are derived from internetpage web.mit.edu/urbanupgrading/upgrading/whatis/what-is.html and www.citiesalliance.org/citiesalliancehomepage.nsf.

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Appendix II The urban space, operationalisation The definition of the concept urban space used in this research is based upon definitions of comparable concepts used by Van der Meulen and Erkelens (1996) and Lynch (1960). The urban space is defined as: The natural and the built environment in a (part of the) city that exist of the total stock of stationary physical elements such as houses, squares and infrastructure (built environment) and natural elements such as the ground, the rivers and the fields (Van der Meulen and Erkelens 1996, Lynch 1960). In order to make a complete analysis of the urban space it should be taken into account that: These elements are influenced by characteristics of the context of this environment, such as the location; by physical characteristics, such as the topography; and by socio-economic characteristics, such as population density (Caminos and Goethert 1978, Dix 1983; 2000, Xiadong Li, 1993). The concept urban space has to be operationalised in order to make a proper analysis of the urban space of an informal settlement in Dar es Salaam. It is important to make a representation of the urban space of an informal settlement that can be used: - To understand the urban space of a site in the informal settlement - To describe the relation between the concept ‘urban space’ and ‘livelihood strategy’ - As a source of information in the process of the determination of ‘urban upgrading needs’ The ‘Urban space’ of a specific site is a part of a bigger environment. Xiadong li (1993) makes this clear by pointing out that a site belongs to a larger family in the sense of hierarchical order of land system (macro) and is itself composed of a variety of other elements (micro) (Xiadong Li, 1993). This is schematically represented in figure III.a., ‘the site in relation to the globe’.

Micro

Macro

Neighbourhood

City

Region

Site

Globe

Context: Location Climate Neighbourhood

Human codition: Value-culture Users Designers

Physical setting: man-made natural

Figure III.a The site in relation to the globe Source: Xiadong Li, 1993, p.21. Several methods are developed to analyse the urban space of a site (e.g. H. Caminos, J.F.C. Turner and J.A. Steffian, 1969, Caminos and Goethert 1978, Dix 1983; 2000, Xiadong Li, 1993)78. Reviewing these methods leads to the conclusion that for analysis purposes it is not enough to 78 In this research the method that is described to analyse the urban space is mainly based upon the method developed by Caminos and Goethert (1978) but it is supplemented with the methods of Caminos, Turner and Steffian (1969) and of Dix (1983, 2000)).

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focus merely on the built and the natural environment. The methods of analysis all cover aspects regarding: – The context or the situation of the site in its’ environment; e.g. relation with it’s environment,

how is site connected, what are important areas, what are important boundaries, how is the circulation in the site.

– The physical characteristics; both natural and man-made physical characteristics such as the size, shape, existing structures such as building and infrastructure.

– The social and economic characteristics, or the human codition; e.g. nr. of people and land tenure.

The context One of the aspects concerned with the context of the urban space is the location of the site. An evaluation of the location of the site requires the examination of a site’s position relative to the urban area of which it is a part, and it’s relation to growth trends and development plans (Dix, 1983; 2000). The approaches to a site are the major and secondary routes from other parts of the city to the site. Accesses are links from which a site can be entered; linear links, such as streets paths, highways and point links, such as subway and bus stations. The existence, price and quality of public transport, as well as the access of the inhabitants of the site to private transport are other important elements that have to be studied in the process of analysing the urban space of the site (Caminos and Goethert, 1978). The system of circulation is one of the most important components of the urban layout: it not only channels the movement of pedestrians and vehicles, but, since it is on public land, it also determines the patterns of land utilisation; land subdivision and the layout of utilities: water supply, sewage disposal, street paving, storm drainage, electricity and street lighting. In relation to a side, circulation exists in two form, exterior circulation, outside the site but affecting the site via accesses an interior circulation, the network inside the site (Caminos and Goethert, 1978). Boundaries are lines or areas that fix or indicate a limit or extent of the site. Natural barriers are changes in topography such as mountains, lakes or rivers. Man-made barriers create sharp change in land use or access such as big streets, highways or railways. Meshing boundaries are characterised by continuous, homogeneous land uses; examples are parks, schools, minor streets and administrative or political demarcations (Caminos and Goethert, 1978).

The physical characteristics The size of the area as well as the size of the usable area and its’ shape (compact shape or irregular dispersed shape) are important physical characteristics of a site (Caminos and Goethert, 1978). As well as the existing structures, buildings and infrastructure, made by man. Important components of the topography and natural features that characterise the site are slope, soil type and the climate. Both man-made and natural features can contribute to pollution and environmental problems that characterise the urban space. Problems that can occur are for example fire and explosion hazards, airport disturbance, flooding, earthquakes, dust, dirt, smoke, fumes, odours and noises.

The social and economic characteristics The analysis of the urban space is not complete without an analysis of some important social and economic components, since these determine the context and the physical characteristics of a site. These components include the land tenure and costs. The number of inhabitants and a population density pattern provide useful information as well. Besides, it is important to know how the land is used, e.g. as residential or as industrial area. In order to create an idea of the possibilities and the life of the inhabitants of a site an income groups pattern can be used. John Turner proposed the subsistence income method, which is applied in a study for Mexico City. Five income groups are distinguished:

1. Very high, 10x subsistence 2. High, 5x subsistence 3. Moderate, 3x subsistence 4. Low, 1x subsistence 5. Very low, less than subsistence

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In many cases the subsistence income is considered to be equivalent to the official minimum wage for an area (Caminos and Goethert, 1978). In table III.a, ‘analysis of urban space’, it is represented schematically how the urban space can be analysed. Dimension Indicator How to collect data? Context Location Secondary data:

Use map and data from earlier studies Key informant interview: Ask local authority about the relation of the site, with the rest of the city.

Approaches Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies Observation: Observe which major and secondary routes approach the site.

Accesses Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies Observation: Observe where people enter the site and by which means of transport.

Transportation Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies

Circulation system Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies Observation: Observe circulation patterns; where people walk, where cars go, etc.

Boundaries: – Natural barriers – Man-made

barriers – Meshing

boundaries

Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies Observation: Observe boundaries that are identified with help of map.

Physical characteristics

Size Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies

Shape Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies

Existing structures: – Buildings – Infrastructure

Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies Observation: Identify important existing structures with observation and make a judgement of the quality.

Topography/ Natural Features: – Slope – Soil – Climate

Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies Observation: Observe the type of the soil and how areas around slopes are used.

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Dimension Indicator How to collect data? Pollution and

environmental problems: – Fire, explosion

hazards – Airport

disturbance – Flooding,

earthquakes Dust, dirt, smoke, fumes, odours, noises

Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies Observation: Observe if any pollution and /or environmental problems at the site exist and match it with the map of the area. Key informant: Ask local authorities/ organisations concerned with environment for issues.

Social and economic characteristics

Land tenure Key informant: Ask local authority what issues are important regarding land tenure.

Land costs Key informant: Ask local authority what the average land costs are.

Number of inhabitants

Secondary data: Use data from earlier studies

Population density pattern

Secondary data: Use map and data from earlier studies

Land utilisation pattern

Secondary data: Use map and earlier studies Observation: Observe how land is used and match it with the map of the area.

Income groups pattern

Key informant: Ask local authority if any income groups pattern can be identified. If so, which pattern?

Table III.a Analysis of urban space

References: Literature Caminos, H. ,Turner, J.F.C., Steffian, A., 1969. Urban Dwelling Environments. An elementary survey of settlements for the study of design determinants. M.I.T. report no.16, the M.I.T. press. Caminos, H. and Goethert, R.; 1978. Urban Primer. Project assessment, site analysis, design criteria for sites and services or similar dwelling environments in developing areas, with a documentary collection of photographs on urbanization. The Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Dix, G., Series Editor; 1983, Urban Projects Manual, A guide to preparing upgrading and new development projects accessible to low income groups. Liverpool Planning Manual 1. Lynch, K.; 1960, The image of the city Van der Meulen and Erkelens; 1996, Bouwstenen 41, Urban Habitat: The environment of tomorrow Xiadong Li; 1993, Meaning of the site, bouwstenen 26, Technische Universiteit Eindhoven, Faculteit Bouwkunde.

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Appendix III Livelihood strategy, operationalisation Definitions of the concept livelihood strategy are generally concerned with describing people’s access to different forms of capital (e.g. Scoones 1998; Brock 1999; Farrington, Ramasut and Walker 2002; Singh and Gilman 1999 (?), Dharmawan 1999). In this research the livelihood strategy of people that live in urban areas will be described. In order to understand the livelihood strategy of people in a certain area, one should try to understand how people try to secure and stabilise their livelihood (Dharmawan 1999). In order to stabilise and secure their livelihood people usually try to build an asset base and create access to goods and services for consumption (Farrington, Ramsut and Walker 2002). The concept livelihood strategy thus can be defined as: Livelihood strategies are the efforts of men and women in securing and stabilising their livelihoods. They usually include a range of activities designed to build asset bases and access to goods and services for consumption. Assets: “These are the resources on which people draw in order to carry out their livelihood strategies” (Farrington, Ramsut and Walker 2002; p. 2). These resources include a broad range of: Financial capital: income (usually obtained by the sale of labour) in the form of money. Human capital: skills, knowledge and ability to work. Physical capital: assets such as housing, tools and equipment that people own, rent or use and public infrastructure that people have access to. Natural capital: environmental assets such as land, common property resources or free (open access) natural resources such as water, forest or grazing lands. Social capital: networks of mutual support that exist within and between households, extended family, and communities, which people can mobilise to access, for example, loans, childcare, food, accommodation and information about employment opportunities (Farrington, Ramsut and Walker 2002). Several methods and frameworks are developed in order to analyse the livelihood strategy of people. The majority of these methods and frameworks concentrate on the analysis of livelihoods in rural areas (Scoones 1998; Brock 1999; Dharmawan 1999). However, these methods seem to be useful to analyse livelihood strategies in urban areas as well (Farrington, Ramsut and Walker 2002; de Haan, Drinkwater, Rakodi and Westley 2002). The most common entity of research in livelihood strategy analysis is the household (Farrington, Ramsut and Walker 2002). In this research household strategies will also be central, because a lot of people develop strategies in this particular entity to survive, e.g. they share a house, costs and income. Nevertheless some issues at community-level are very important for the local people as well, for this reason data is collected at this level as well. Brock (1999) identified several issues that should be explored in policy directed research related to the analysis of people’s livelihood. These issues are: – Context, conditions and trends: which contextual features are important to livelihoods?

Why? How have they changed? – Livelihood resources: which capitals are available? To whom? In what combination? – Institutions and organisations: what institutions exist, how do they mediate to the access to

capital? To whom? – Livelihood strategies: Which combinations of livelihood strategies are being pursued? By

whom? – Sustainable Livelihood outcomes: Which livelihood strategies are sustainable? What are the

trade-offs between strategies? In this research the local, national and international setting will be described in order to understand how the context, conditions and trends influence people’s livelihood strategies. The access people have to livelihood resources will be explored using an asset approach, the access that a household has to a specific asset (or a specific form of capital) is the starting point of the analysis79. The efforts people put in securing and stabilising their access to these assets can vary from income enhancing, to expenditure reducing to collective support or to diversification strategies. These strategies can be explained by giving some examples: 79 This method is used e.g. by Brock (1999) and at the internetpage http://www.livelihoods.org.

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Income enhancing/ investment: Strategies that create income such as renting out rooms or selling labour. Expenditure reducing/ sacrifice: Strategies that reduce the expenditure such a s not going to a doctor in case of illness, withdraw children from school. Collective support: Strategies to share costs and efforts such as sharing sanitation facilities or childcare. Diversification: Strategies to reduce the dependency on one form of capital such as taking different jobs, investing in urban agriculture besides other job or taking education to improve chances. The extent to which households have access to assets and the strategies that they use in relation to this, will lead to more or less sustainable livelihood outcomes (Farrington, Ramasut and Walker 2002). In order to understand the livelihood of a household one can start by gathering data about their access to different forms of capital. Important questions in the phase of analysis of the data are related to the livelihood strategies and the sustainable livelihood outcomes. In table II. Table II.a 80, ‘Household access to capital’, it is outlined how data about households’ access to capital can be gathered. Community-level strategies can be understood by exploring how (local) institutions and organisations mediate to the access to capital. This can be done by identifying which (local) institutions and organisations are active in the research area. These institutions and organisations can be identified with the help of secondary data and (unstructured) interviews with key-informants. Members of the institutions organisations should be interviewed in order to understand what their role is in the community. These interviews should be semi-structured and focus on what activities they undertake and what successes and constraints they experience. In this way information concerning the initiatives of people regarding the improvement of access to capital will be gathered. Asset Indicator How to collect data? Financial capital Savings/ Stocks HHI:

Do you have stocks? Do you have savings?

Salary/ Income HHI: Do you have a job? What kind of job do you have? Who earns money in the HH? How many people earn money in the HH? How much money is earned? Does the income fluctuate? Do you receive support? [SC] Do you give support? [SC]

Access to credit HHI: Do you have loans? Do you get credit in informal credit groups? [SC]

Expenditure HHI: How much money do you spent on: Housing Water and/ or electricity Food School Clothing Medication Other

80 This table is contructed based upon operationalisations published at http://www.oneworld.org/odi/keysheets and sustainable livelihood guidance sheets at the internetpage hhtp://www.livelihoods.org/info/guidance_sheets_pdfss/section2.pdf

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Human capital Skills and education

HHI: Does anybody in your household have a skilled job, of what kind? [FC] Where did he/she learn these skills? [FC] How many HH members have taken primary education? How many HH members have taken secondary education? Is education important for job opportunities? [FC]

Health HHI: Which health problems do you have in your HH? How do you try to prevent the problems? What do you do when somebody is sick? Observation: Judge situation regarding hygiene

Physical capital Housing situation HHI: Do you own or rent your house? Do you get income from rent? [FC] Do you have water/ electricity? Do you get income from water? [FC] How do you cook? Where do you leave your garbage? [NC] Do you have a toilet/ washing place? Are you satisfied with your house, why (not)? Secondary data & observation: Judge general quality of housing situation

Transport HHI: Do you travel a lot? Is transport affordable? Secondary data & observation: Analyse availability of transport options with help of map and observation at the site.

Producer goods HHI: Do you own/rent goods that help to create income? [FC] What kind of goods?

Land HHI: Do you own land? Where, for what use? [NC]

Natural capital Free water HHI: Do you use water free of charge? From what source? Are you satisfied with the quality? Observation: Observe water use and make judgement of quality of water sources.

Pollution HHI: Do you think there exist problems regarding: Water pollution

Waste pollution? Observation: Make judgement regarding pollution situation based upon observation.

Urban agriculture HHI: Do you grow food yourself? [FC] Do you have access to a farm outside the site? Observation: Observe which urban agricultural activities take place and where they take place.

Air pollution

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Social capital Informal social networks

HHI: Do you have a big social network? Is a social network important, for financial assistance as well? [FC]

Religion/(semi-) formal social networks

HHI: Do you go to a church/ mosque? Is the church/ mosque an important meeting place? Are you a member of an organisation? Is the organisation an important meeting place? What organisations are important for you in your community?

Table II.a Household access to capital

References: Literature Brock, K., 1999, Implementing a sustainable Livelihoods Framework for Policy-directed research. Reflections from practice in Mali. IDS Working Paper 90. Dharmawan, A.H.; 1999, Farm Household Livelihood Strategy, Multiple Employment, and Socio-economic Changes in Rural Indonesia: Case Studies from West Java and West Kalimantan, page 6. The paper was prepared for Discussion Paper Vol. 30/1999, published by the Institute of Rural Development, the University of Goettingen. Farrington, J. ; Ramasut, T. ; Walker, J.; 2002, Sustainable Livelihoods Approaches in Urban Areas, Overseas Development Institute (ODI) working paper 162 Haan, A., de; Drinkwater, M.; Rakodi, C. and Westley, K.; 2002, Methods for understanding urban poverty and livelihoods, report is a part of a larger project commission by the UK Department for International Development’s Infrastructure and Urban Development Department. Singh, N. and Gilman, J; 1999 (?), Employment and Natural Resources Management: A livelihoods approach to Poverty Reduction, SEPED Conference paper series, nr 5, The Conference Paper Series is a UNDP/SEPED contribution to the five year review of the Fourth World. Internet sites www.livelihoods.org (2003) www.oneworld.org/odi (2003)

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Appendix IV Interaction between urban space and livelihood strategy, operationalisation The nature of the interaction between livelihood strategy and urban space starts with the analysis of the two concepts themselves. In Appendix II, ‘Livelihood strategy, operationalisation’ and in Appendix III, ‘The urban space, operationalisation’, it is described how these two concepts can be analysed. The basis of the used methods of analysis are the following definitions: Livelihood strategies are the efforts of men and women in securing and stabilising their livelihoods. They usually include a range of activities designed to build asset bases and access to goods and services for consumption. Assets: “These are the resources on which people draw in order to carry out their livelihood strategies” (Farrington, Ramsut and Walker 2002; p. 2). These resources include a broad range of: Financial capital: income (usually obtained by the sale of labour) in the form of money. Human capital: skills, knowledge and ability to work. Physical capital: assets such as housing, tools and equipment that people own, rent or use and public infrastructure that people have access to. Natural capital: environmental assets such as land, common property resources or free (open access) natural resources such as water, forest or grazing lands. Social capital: networks of mutual support that exist within and between households, extended family, and communities, which people can mobilise to access, for example, loans, childcare, food, accommodation and information about employment opportunities (Farrington, Ramsut and Walker 2002). The urban space is defined as: The natural and the built environment in a (part of the) city that exist of the total stock of stationary physical elements such as houses, squares and infrastructure (built environment) and natural elements such as the ground, the rivers and the fields (Van der Meulen and Erkelens 1996, Lynch 1960). In order to make a complete analysis of the urban space it should be taken into account that: These elements are influenced by characteristics of the context of this environment, such as the location; by physical characteristics, such as the topography; and by socio-economic characteristics, such as population density (Caminos and Goethert 1978, Gerald Dix 1983; 2000, Xiadong Li, 1993). The nature of the interaction between the livelihood strategy of people and the urban space they live in, can be explored by analysing in which way the different dimensions of the concepts influence each other. How this can be done is summarised in table IV.a, ‘analysis of relationship between livelihood and urban space’. Asset Dimension of

urban space How to analyse the relationship?

Financial capital Context Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both context of urban space and access to FC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to financial capital is created one can learn more about the relationship with FC and context of urban space. Household level HHI: Where do you work?

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Asset Dimension of How to analyse the relationship? urban space

Community level KI: What are the most important locations for the inhabitants of the research area to create income?

Physical Characteristics

Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both PC’s of urban space and access to FC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to financial capital is created one can learn more about the relationship with FC and PC of urban space. HHI: Do you get income from rent/ selling water?


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both S&E C’s of urban space and access to FC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to financial capital is created one can learn more about the relationship with FC and S&E C’s of urban space.

Human capital Context Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both context of urban space and access to HC and explore the relationship. Secondary data and observation: By walking around and observing, focussing on how access to HC is created or threatened by the separate dimensions of the context of the urban space. Household level HHI: Where do you go to when somebody in your HH is sick? Is it (too) far? Community level KI: Where are hospitals/ dispensaries located? Where are schools located?


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both PC’s of urban space and access to HC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to HC is created or threatened by PC’s of the urban space. Community level:

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KI: What PC’s of the urban space are the biggest treat to health?


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both S&E C’s of urban space and access to HC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to HC is created or threatened by S&E C’s of the urban space. Community level: KI: What S&E C’s of the urban space are the biggest treat to health?

Physical capital81 Context Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both context of urban space and access to PC and explore the relationship. E.g., what is the influence of the location of the urban space on the access to PC? Secondary data and observation: By walking around and observing, focussing on how access to PC is created or threatened by the separate dimensions of the context of the urban space. Match this with data found in the map of the research area.


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both PC’s of urban space and access to PC and explore the relationship. Secondary data and observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to PC is created or threatened by PC’s of the urban space. Match this with data found in the map of the research area.


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both S&E C’s of urban space and access to PC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to HC is created or threatened by S&E C’s of the urban space

Natural capital82 Context Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data:

81 The urban space and forms of physical capital both overlap and influence one and another. In order to describe the interaction the focus will be on their mutual influence. 82 The urban space and forms of natural capital both overlap and influence one and another. In order to describe the interaction the focus will be on their mutual influence

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Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both context of urban space and access to NC and explore the relationship. Secondary data and observation: By walking around and observing, focussing on how access to NC is created or threatened by the separate dimensions of the context of the urban space. Match this with data found in the map of the research area.


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both PC’s of urban space and access to HC and explore the relationship. Secondary data and observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to NC is created or threatened by PC’s of the urban space. Match this with data found in the map of the research area.


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both S&E C’s of urban space and access to NC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to NC is created or threatened by S&E C’s of the urban space.

Social capital Context Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both context of urban space and access to SC and explore the relationship. Secondary data and observation: By walking around and observing, focussing on how access to SC is created or threatened by the separate dimensions of the context of the urban space. Identify location of churches and important meeting places. Household level HHI: Where do you meet your friends? Where do you spent the most of your time? Where is the church or mosque that you go to located? Community level KI: Where are general meeting places located? What are the most important churches and mosques for the area? Where are these building located?


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both PC’s of urban space and access to SC and explore the relationship. Observation:

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By walking around and observing focussing on how access to SC is created or threatened by PC’s of the urban space.


Community level and household level Analysis of gathered data: Analyse the gathered data on indicators for both S&E C’s of urban space and access to SC and explore the relationship. Observation: By walking around and observing focussing on how access to SC is created or threatened by S&E C’s of the urban space.

Table IV.a Analysis of relationship between livelihood and urban space.

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Appendix V Key informants The Key informants during the preparation phase are: − Mr. Mwaigamole, replacing co-ordinator of Sustainable Dar es Salaam Project in Temeke

district. − Margaret Angetile, Ward executive officer of Keko. − Mr. Ndeu, translator and research assistant. He has his BSc degree in land evaluation and

management and lives in Keko Magurumbasi A. − Ombretta Tempra, BSc student from Milano Polytecnico, that conducted the fieldwork of her

graduation project in Keko Magurumbasi A from January 2003 to April 2003. Special advisors during the project were: Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands – Dr. Romijn (first supervisor) – Prof. Dr. ir. De Meulder (second supervisor) – Dr.ir. van Egmond de Wilde de Ligny (third supervisor) – MSc. Besteliu – Mrs. Repelaer van Driel – Mrs. Jonker Verhoeven Catholic University of Leuven (Katholieke Universiteit Leuven), Belgium – MSc. Eijkelenburg – Prof. Verschure University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania – Prof. Mwamila University College of Land and Architectural Studies, Tanzania – Dr. Lerise – Dr. Kyessi – Dr. Nnkya (local supervisor) – Arch. Lekule – Arch. Mosha Table V.a, ‘livelihood key informants’, gives an overview of the key informants that were interviewed in relation to the analysis of the livelihood strategy of the local people in Keko Magurumbasi A. Member of: – Sub-ward (Mtaa) Development Committee (Local

Government) – Health Committee – Security Committee – Education Committee People that work in and/or are a member of a committee of: – The market – The furniture industry – The production of cement blocks – The gongo production – Market canteen NGO’s: – Member of Tanasso care – Member of Tasadefo – Member of Tyofo – Member of Tasaf Table V.a Livelihood key informants

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In order to create an idea of the interviews, the questions that have been asked, the name of the respondents and the date of the livelihood key informant interviews are outlined.

The Local Government General questions for all Committees: S.C.: What is the main task of your organisation? S.C.: What activities do you undertake? S.C: What is the organisation structure of your organisation? F.C.: Do you have a budget, what are the sources of money? F.C. If so, how much money is involved and what are the conditions to receive money? F.C.: Who is responsible for the money and who controls the budget? P.U.E.&S.C.: Where are your offices located? P.U.E.&S.C: Do you have other meeting places, where? P.U.E.&S.C.: Are you satisfied with these locations? Development Committee Date: 09-06-03, Monday early afternoon (LG member Keko Magurumbasi B) and late afternoon (LG member Keko Magurumbasi A). Key Informant: LG member Keko Magurumbasi B (Chairman) and LG member Keko Magurumbasi A Name: Mr. Kubila Atanas (B) and Mr. Sikilo (A) Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: Because it was difficult to catch a LG member of Keko Magurumbasi A some questions that are applicable for both Magurumbasi B&A were asked to a LG member from Magurumbasi B. Household access to credit F.C.: Does Keko Magurumbasi A receive money from the government for urban upgrading activities or other activities related to the field of development? F.C.: Do formal banks exist in Keko Magurumbasi A, what is the location? F.C.: If not, where are the closest formal banks? F.C.: Do different banks exists? F.C.: For who are these banks accessible? (Do people need a certain income or stock?) F&S.C.: Do people have access to credit via informal banks/ institutions in Keko Magurumbasi A? F&S.C.: If so, how is it organised? F&S.C.: For who are these banks/institutions accessible? Income generating activities F.C.: What are the main income generating activities in Keko Magurumbasi A? F.C.: Do organisations exist to promote income generation or to support workers? Infrastructure P.C.: How do you value the quality of the infrastructure (roads, electricity, etc.) P.C.: Are the transport options affordable and adequate for the majority? Social capital S.C.: Do you think it is important for people in Keko Magurumbasi A to have a social network? Is a social network important for development opportunities? S.C.: Is the 10-cell unit organisation structure still important for the people? P.U.E.&S.C: Do you know important informal meeting places, like bars or public spaces? P.U.E.&S.C: Where are these located ? P.U.E.&S.C: Do you know if problems of their quality exist? S.C&G(ender): Is the access for everybody, rich/ poor, men/ women? Security Committee Date: 18-06-03, morning, 10.00-10.30 Key Informants: Two members of the security committee Names: Mr. Kazi Seleman, Mr. Sikilo Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu

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P.C.: Do problems exist regarding safety due to physical problems (e.g. traffic/ entrance of ambulance/firemen)? Health and Sanitation Committee Date: 18-06-03, morning, 11.00-12.00 Key Informants: Chairman, secretary and two members of the health and sanitation committee Names: Mr. Kazi Seleman (chairman), Mrs. Mwanahamisi Ali (secretary), Mrs Annia Gama, Mrs. Ester Nyondo. Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu P.C.: Do problems exist related to waste disposal/ waste collection? Ask also to CBO’s: P.U.E.&H.C.: What is the location of: • shops with medication • doctors • hospitals H.C.: What are the major threats to health in Keko? H.C.: Do water-, waste- and sanitation- problems cause a lot of health problems? H.C.: What are the activities undertaken to tackle these threats? H.C.: What are the problems that you meet in these activities? H.C.: What other activities are undertaken regarding health? Education Committee Date: 06-06-03, afternoon (15.00-15.30) Key Informant: Vice Chairman Education Committee Name: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: No translator, because respondent is my translator Education- VETA First it is asked if VETA has a special function for the development of Keko. It has no special importance. People from Keko do not go more easily to VETA than other inhabitants of Dare es Salaam, because it is very close. For this reason it is chosen not to include VETA in this research, but to keep a focus on locations with a special importance for Keko Magurumbasi. P.U.E.&H.C.: Where are the schools located? H.C.: Where do the pupils come from? P.U.E.&H.C.: How do you judge the quality and the capacity of the school?

Workers Organisations/ CBO’s General question for all organisations F.C.: Is this a formal or informal working place? P.U.E.&F.C.: How do you judge the quality of the working place? Key-informant: visitor of market place P.U.E.&F.C.: How do you judge the quality of this location? P&F.C: Who owns the producer goods? Who maintains them? Who owns the working place? F&H&S.C.: How do you get a job here (do you apply for it, with the help of connections, is education/skills necessary? Market place Date: 17-06-03, Tuesday, early afternoon Key Informant: Chairman of Market Organisation Name: Mr. Abdalla Mbonde Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: Because the list of questions was not satisfactory some extra questions are asked, they are referred to as E.Q. (Extra Question). E.Q.: What kind of problems do you see regarding the quality?

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E.Q.: Do you have plans for reconstruction? E.Q.: Are you satisfied with the location of the market place? E.Q.: Do you think a more pleasant market place would attract extra buyers? E.Q.: Do sellers at the market rent a place at the market? E.Q.: Does this ownership structure cause complications for the reconstruction of the market? E.Q.: How is the market organised? E.Q.: Do women work in the market place as well, or only men? Key-informant: visitor of market place P.U.E.&F.C.: How do you judge the quality of this location? Market Canteen Working place mainly for women. Date: 20 June 2003, Friday morning 15.30-16.00 Key Informant: Chairman of association of canteen for Market place in Keko Magurumbasi Name: Mrs. Monica Gervas Mrosso Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: -- S.C.: What is the main task of your organisation? S.C.: What is the organisation structure? P.U.E.&S.C.: Are you satisfied with the canteen? Cement Block Production Industry Date: 18-06-03, Wednesday, 9.30-10.00 Key Informant: Worker and management assistant in cement block production industry Name: Mr. Joni Masitu Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: Because the list of questions was not satisfactory some extra questions are asked, they are referred to as E.Q. (Extra Question). E.Q.: How is it organised, does an organisation exist? E.Q.: Are all the customers from Keko? E.Q.: Do the people that work in the cement block production live in Keko? E.Q.: And the location, is it good? E.Q.: Where do people learn skills to work in the cement block production? E.Q.: The quality of the blocks does not seem to be very good, e.g. the sand is not washed, al tough this would improve the quality, why is that? Furniture Industry Date: 17-06-03, Tuesday, afternoon 14.00-14.30 Key Informant: Manager of furniture organisation (he started as a working man in the Keko furniture organisation). Name: Mr. Shaban Kassim Kiana Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: Because the list of questions was not satisfactory some extra questions are asked, they are referred to as E.Q. (Extra Question). E.Q.: How is it organised, does an organisation exist? E.Q.: Where do people learn skills to work in the furniture industry? E.Q.: Do the people that work in the Keko furniture industry live in Keko? E.Q.: Is the furniture industry important to create employment for Keko? E.Q.: And the location, is it good? E.Q.: The “showroom” is at the side of the road, than there are some buildings and the production place is behind these buildings, why? E.Q.: Are the producer goods imported from abroad? Why not? Also because the foreign goods need electricity? Pombe (gongo) production Date: 04-07-03, Friday, evening 18.45-19.15

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Key Informant: Two gongo brewers (women) Name: The two women preferred to stay anonymous Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: Because the gongo production is illegal, the women preferred to stay anonymous. The interview was unstructured, the women started to talk about their business and the researcher asked questions whenever she wanted some specific information.

Organisations: NGO’s General questions S.C.: What is the main task of your organisation? S.C.: What is the organisation structure? S.C.: What activities do you undertake? E.Q.: What do they do in Keko Magurumbasi? E.Q.: Is it the most important issue in Keko Magurumbasi A? F.C.: What is the budget of this NGO? F.C.: What are the sources of money? F.C.: How do you spend the budget, are their rules/ regulations restrictions for spending our budget? P.U.E.&S.C.: Where are your offices located? P.U.E.&S.C: Do you have other meeting places, where? P.U.E.&S.C.: Are you satisfied with these locations? NGO: Tanasso Care Tanzania natural streams and oasis sources care Date: 20 June 2003, Friday morning 10.00-10.30 Key Informant: Member of Tanasso Care, treasurer and Keko Ward co-ordinator Name: Mr. Bakari Hassan Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks:-- N.C.: What are the most striking environmental problems in Keko Magurumbasi A to your opinion? NGO: Tanzania Society of desperated families (Tasodefa) Date: 09-06-03, Monday late morning Key Informant: Member of Tasadefo, head of Training and Research Wing Name: Mr. Mohamed Shaban Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: A copy of the constitution has been given to me, this is a data source as well. Temeke Youth Foundation Date: 19-06-03, morning, 11.00-11.05 Key informant: Member of Teyofo Name: Mr Martins Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: -- NGO: TASAF Date: 19-06-03, morning, 11.00-11.05 Key informant: Worker for TASAF in Temeke municipality. (TASAF has a Temeke district office at the Temeke municipality) Name: unknown Translator: Mr. Rayner Ndeu Remarks: Tasaf is not active in urban areas and is thus not important for Keko Magurumbasi A.

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Table V.b gives an overview of key informants that were interviewed for more general information. World Bank:/ CIUP Co-ordinator of WB project (CIUP) in Keko: BSc R.Ndeu Consultant of WB project (CIUP) in Dar es Salaam: Ir. W.Sikkel UCLAS staff: Dr. Alphone G. Kyessi Dr. Bituro B.K. Majani M. Arch. C.T. Lekule Dr. T.J. Nnkya Table V.b Key informants

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Appendix VI Household interview framework

The interview framework The following questions have been asked to 30 respondents by the researcher with the help of a translator. The questions are a guideline, whenever necessary extra questions have been asked. The conversations were recorded with a tape recorder, after the respondents had given permission for this. Based upon the tapes minutes were made. Based upon the minutes answer sheets have been made with answer categories for each question. The minutes and the data sheets with the answers listed in categories are not included in this report, but can be found on the included CD-rom. The interview ended with 2 preference ranking exercises that can be found in the next appendix. I(ntroduction): What is your name, age, and marital status? I&S.C.: What is your place of origin? I.&S.C.: Do you want to move back to your place of origin? I&H.C.: What is the composition of your household? (nr of men, women, children, age groups people under 15 and over 65 ) I: What is your task in the household? (head of the household, housewife) F.C.: Who earns money in order to support your household? F.C.: How many people earn money in the household and how many people are supported by it? F.&S.C.: Do you also support people outside Keko Magurumbasi A, who? F.&S.C.: Do you receive support form other family or friends, regularly? F&P&N.C.: Do you need money for all your basic needs, or do you grow some food or make some clothing, or something else, yourself? E.g., d o you have land for agricultural use, such as growing crops or keeping chickens? F.C.: Do you have a job? What is your job? How do you earn money? P.U.E.&F.C.: Where do you work (location)? F.C: How much money did you earn last month? F.C.: Is your income the same each month? If not, what is the reason for it? P.C.: Do you own your house? Or do you rent it, from whom? P.C.: Do you have your own electricity connection? If not, why not, is it not available or too expensive? Do you use electricity from somebody else? P.C.: How do you cook, with charcoal? P.C.: Do you think that using other forms of energy (elctr./ gas) would have advantages, e.g. save time/other? P.C.: Do you have your own water connection? If not, why not, is it not available or too expensive? Do you use water from somebody else? P.C.: Do you think that having your own water connection would have advantages, e.g. save time/other? F.C: Can you estimate how much money you spend each month on: – Water: – Electricity: – food + charcoal or kerosene: – school: – clothing: – medication and sanitation (hygiene) – housing – other F.&S.C: Do you have loans? If so, by which banks, or informal institutions, family, friends? Did you need some income or stocks to get a loan? F.C.: Do you have stocks in the form of: – money/ savings – jewellery – land/ houses (in Keko or in other (rural) areas?) If so, what is the value? P.&N.C: Do you own land, if so what land?

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P.&N.C: Is it easy to buy land? If not, why? Is the land expensive or difficult to get access to it? N.C: Do you use water that is not charged for, e.g. from the small river/ wells? If so, for what purposes? N.C: Are you satisfied with the quality of the water? N.C: Do you think that Keko has pollution problems in the field of: – waste disposal – water pollution – air pollution N.C: Do you think that pollution is a big problem in Keko? Why (not)? S.C: Are you a member of a CBO, NGO, LG, or other organisations? If so, which one and what is your function? The following question has only been asked to respondent 11 until 30 because it has been added later: S.C.: Do you think that the 10-cell structure is important, Is the 10-cell leader important for you? S.C: Are you a member of a Church? Do you visit the church often? If so, where is this Church located? S.C.: Is it important for you to be a member of an organisation? Why (not)? S.C.: Do you meet people in these organisations that help you, e.g. with childcare, food preparation, etc? S.C: Do you know a lot of people, family, friends in your close neighbourhood? S.C.: Do you rely upon these people, do they help you with: – financial assistance – to increase job opportunities – child care – other? P.U.E.&S.C.: Where do you meet people? – at home? – at a bar? – other places? P.U.E.&S.C.: Where do you spend the most of your time? Are you satisfied with these locations or would you like to see something changed in these locations, if so, what? P.C.: Do you travel a lot, if so; where do you go to and by what means of transport? P.C.: Do you spent a lot of money on transport, what share of your total spending? P.C.: Would you travel more of it was less expensive, why (not)? P.C.: Do you have a toilet? A place to wash yourself/ clothes? P.C.: If not, why not, is it not available or too expensive? Do you use it from somebody else? P.C.: Where do you leave your garbage? P.C.: Are you satisfied with your house? If not, what are the problems? Problems with the size; too small, not enough rooms? Problems with the materials, other problems? P.C.: Do you have goods that help you to create income such as a bike, cooking material, a sewing machine? H.&F.C: Does anybody in your household have a skilled job, or specific skills? If so, what kind of job, skills? Where did you learn these skills, at home, from friends or did you go to university? H.C.: Which members of your household have taken primary education (and is thus literate)? For how many years? H.C.: Which members of your household have taken secondary education? For how many years? H.C.: Is education important in your opinion, why (not)? E.g., do you think education increases job opportunities? H.C.: Do you or members in your household have health problems? If so, which problems do they have? H.C.: Do you undertake activities to prevent health problems? If so, what do you do (hygiene, educate children about aids)? H.C.: What do you do when you or a member of your household is sick (see a doctor, family member)? P.U.E.&H.C.: Where do you go to (location)? H.&F.C.: Is a good health important, why (not)? (e.g. Do you think that a good health increases job opportunities (the chance to generate income)?

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Appendix VII Preference ranking The preference ranking exercises were made with the help of a table with all the issues written in Swahili. The table was printed on a paper and brought to the site, where the respondents filled it in. The tables are included in this appendix. Two graphs that show the results of the exercises are included as well, more data and more analysis of the data are found on the included CD-rom. The exercises were introduced with 3 general questions: What do you like the most in Keko Magurumbasi A? What do you like the least in Keko Magurumbasi A? What would you like to improve in Keko Magurumbasi A? Than the first ranking exercise was executed: Could you put the following issues in order of importance? The issue that is most important to you to have you list the first. – good roads+ transport options – your own electricity connection – your own access to piped water – other forms of energy supply for cooking (electricity, gas) – good quality sanitation facilities (a toilet and a place for washing) – a waste collection system – a big house – a good quality house Followed by the second exercise: Are the following public facilities important to you and do you think they need to be improved? Or maybe you think another public facility, not in the list, is very important. – The market place in Keko Magurumbasi A – The primary school in Keko Magurumbasi A – Good access to the doctor and hospital – A General Meeting Place, (in which NGO’s and the Local Government committees can

organise meetings for all the people from Keko Magurumbasi A) – other Remarks regarding methodological issues of the ranking exercises People are asked to judge the importance of good sanitation facilities in general, not to judge whether it is important to improve their own sanitation facilities. It is also possible that people already have a good quality house or good quality sanitation facilities because they think it is very important. In the second exercise they are asked if they think improvement of e.g. health care or education is the most important. Although, strictly methodologically it would have been better to ask for the importance of good access to health care, etc., it is chosen not to do this. Questions regarding improvement of issues are less abstract and easier to interpret for the local people. Moreover everybody agrees that access to health care and education and the quality of the market place are poor and thus need to be improved. Therefore it is considered that the prioritisation of these issues does give a good impression of the relative importance of the elements. In the open-ended questions people also judge whether they think it is important to improve situations concerning certain issues, this also gives a good idea of how important elements are. The exercises are kept as simple as possible, people are asked to give merely a ranking (most important, 2nd most important, etc.) instead of a more complex method such as dividing a specific budget for the different elements. Because it is possible to miss important elements in a ranking method, people are first asked what they see as a positive aspect, a negative aspect and the most important improvement in the sub-ward they live in. Besides this, people can add an item in preference ranking exercise II.

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Preference ranking exercise I Item Barabara +

usafiri Umeme

(nyumbani) Maji (nyumbani)

Nishah yakupikia

Mazingira Ukusanyajitaka

nyumba kubwa

Nyumba bora yenye (vifaa vya kisasa vya ujenzi)

Name + nr. of resp. 1.2.3.......30.

Preference ranking exercise II Item Uboreshaji wa soko la

Keko Magurumbasi A Uboreshaji wa shule msingi Keko Magurumbasi A

Uboreshaji wa huduma za afya Keko Magurumbasi A

Ujenzi wa ukumbi wa mikutano

Mengineyo

Name + nr. of resp.1.2.3.......30.

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Average scores of ranking exercises The average score of each item that was ranked in the preference ranking exercises is calculated. Based upon the average a new ranking is made. The graphs give a visual insight in the differences of the relative importance that is given to the issues.

0 2 4 6

1

2

3Total Average ofgeneral meeting plTotal Average ofmarket place Total Average ofpr schoolTotal Average ofdrainageTotal Average ofacces to health c

0 2 4 6 8

1

2

3

Total Average of bighouseTotal Average of othercooking fuelTotal Average of wastecoll systemTotal Average of electrconn Total Average of waterconnTotal Average of goodquality houseTotal Average of qualitysanitation facTotal Average of goodroads+ transp

Figure VI.b Results of preferences ranking exercise 2

Figure VI.a Results of preferences ranking exercise 1

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Appendix VIII Testing of urban upgrading needs

The interview English version Based upon earlier questions urban upgrading needs are identified. In other words, it is tried to identify what problems the local people see in Keko Magurumbasi A and how they feel these problems should be solved. In order to test the identified needs some question are formulated. Are the following needs important for you? Please answer yes/ no and motivate your answer if possible. Do you want to add needs, what needs? Urban Upgrading Needs Yes/ No Motivation More money and power for LG Maintenance of car free areas Improvement of solid waste collection Improvement of situation concerning the river Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, washing place) at the plot

Improvement of quality of house Improvement of opportunities to generate income

Improvement of market place Improvement of access to health care Improvement of access to (primary) education Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities

Construction of roads in Keko Magurumbasi A A private water connection A private electricity connection It is assumed that the local people are willing to invest in the fulfilment of some of these needs, while for others they think it can only be achieved by public action and investment. Could you say for each need if you are willing to invest in it, if you have the financial opportunity, or that you think public action is needed? You can also choose or a combination of public and private investment. Urban Upgrading Needs Private

Investm. Public Investm.

Comb. Of publ.& Priv.

More money and power for LG Maintenance of car free areas Improvement of solid waste collection Improvement of situation concerning the river Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, washing place) at the plot

Improvement of quality of house Improvement of opportunities to generate income Improvement of market place Improvement of access to health care Improvement of access to (primary) education Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities

Construction of roads in Keko Magurumbasi A A private water connection A private electricity connection Given the fact that there are always limited resources it is important to understand what needs have the highest priority. Could you put the following needs in order of importance?

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Urban Upgrading Needs Importance More money and power for LG Maintenance of car free areas Improvement of solid waste collection Improvement of situation concerning the river Improvement of sanitation facilities (toilet, washing place) at the plot Improvement of quality of house Improvement of opportunities to generate income Improvement of market place Improvement of access to health care Improvement of access to (primary) education Construction of sewerage and drainage to serve sanitation facilities Construction of roads in Keko Magurumbasi A A private water connection A private electricity connection Extra questions: How can opportunities to generate income be improved? Are you willing to move for the construction of a road? If yes, under what conditions? If not, why not? Are you willing to move for the construction of a drainage system? If yes, under what conditions? If not, why not?

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The interview Swahili version Tarehe:...................................................................................... Jina: ................................................................................... Tafadhali jaza fomu hii kwa makini na kama unaona muhimu toa sababu.

Uboreshaji miundo mbinu Ndiyo/ Hapana

Sababu

Serikali za mtaa wanahitaji pesa na nguvu za kisheria

Kutenga maeneo Keko Magurumbasi A yasiyo pita magari

Kuboresha mfumo wa ukusanyaji taka

Kuboresha mfereji wa bondeni

Kuboresha mazingira (kama vyoo, ..)

Kuboresha ubora wa nyumbani

Kuboresha vyanzo vya mapato

Kuboresha soko la Magurumbasi A

Kuboresha huduma za afya

Kuboresha elimu ya msingi

Kujenga mitaro ya maji taka/mvua

Kujenga barabara/ mitaa

Kupata maji ya bomba kwa watu binafisi

Kupata umeme nyumba za watu binafisi

NB: Kama unafikiri kuna jambo limesahaulika na ni muhimu kwa jamii tafadhali ongeza.

………………………………………………………………………………………………...

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………

Kati ya vitu vifuatauyo hapa chini, nini kifanywe na watu binafsi, serikali au kwa kushirikiana serikali na wananchi. Weka alama (✓ ) katika nafasi inayohusika.

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Vyanzo vya mapato Uboreshaji miundo mbinu Wananchi Serikali/

wafadhili Wananchi & Serikali/ wafadhili

Serikali za mtaa wanahitaji pesa na nguvu za kisheria

Kutenga maeneo Keko Magurumbasi A yasiyo pita magari

Kuboresha mfumo wa ukusanyaji taka Kuboresha mfereji wa bondeni Kuboresha mazingira (kama vyoo, ..) Kuboresha ubora wa nyumbani Kuboresha vyanzo vya mapato Kuboresha soko la Magurumbasi A Kuboresha huduma za afya Kuboresha elimu ya msingi Kujenga mitaro ya maji taka/mvua Kujenga barabara/ mitaa Kupata maji ya bomba kwa watu binafisi Kupata umeme nyumba za watu binafisi Katika huduma zifuatazo andika namba kuonyesha kipaumbele katika huduma hizo. Uboreshaji miundo mbinu Kipaumbele Serikali za mtaa wanahitaji pesa na nguvu za kisheria Kutenga maeneo Keko Magurumbasi A yasiyo pita magari Kuboresha mfumo wa ukusanyaji taka Kuboresha mfereji wa bondeni Kuboresha mazingira (kama vyoo, ..) Kuboresha ubora wa nyumbani Kuboresha vyanzo vya mapato Kuboresha soko la Magurumbasi A Kuboresha huduma za afya Kuboresha elimu ya msingi Kujenga mitaro ya maji taka/mvua Kujenga barabara/ mitaa Kupata maji ya bomba kwa watu binafisi Kupata umeme nyumba za watu binafisi

Data obtained with the test The data that is obtained with this interview is documented on the included CD-rom. Figure 7.1 in chapter 7 gives an impression about the results of the preference ranking exercise that is a part of this interview. The data that has been obtained with this exercise is compared to data that has been obtained in the two preference ranking exercises made as a part of the household interview. Some respondents gave answers that differed a lot, e.g. in the first exercise a respondent could have said that good roads had a very high priority while the construction of roads was given a very low priority. Nevertheless it is chosen not to exclude them from the sample. If the respondents would have been removed the results would not differ a lot and it would mean that the ratio between household interview respondents and key informants would have changed to an undesirable extent. Besides this, one cannot really compare the elements and characteristics tested in the exercises that were a part of the HHI, with the exercise of prioritising needs. On the included CD-rom the comparison is found in the excel sheet named ‘results after testing. The criteria that were used were chosen based upon an estimation made by the researcher and are given in the data sheet.

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Appendix IX Photo Impression Keko Magurumbasi A

Overview Hous

e Pit latrine

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Appendix X Photo impression 3 selected areas

The small Kariakoo The pombe area

1

The small river

15

Appendix XI Keko Magurumbasi A aerial photograph

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Appendix XII Keko Magurumbasi A map of the area

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Appendix XIII Settlements for upgrading in Dar es Salaam

Uzuri Uzuri Uzuri Uzuri Uzuri Uzuri Uzuri Uzuri Uzuri

KilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimani

I N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A NI N D I A N O C E A N

Selected Settlements Selected Settlements Selected Settlements Selected Settlements Selected Settlements Selected Settlements Selected Settlements Selected Settlements Selected Settlements (option II)(option II)(option II)(option II)(option II)(option II)(option II)(option II)(option II)

Unplanned SettlementsUnplanned SettlementsUnplanned SettlementsUnplanned SettlementsUnplanned SettlementsUnplanned SettlementsUnplanned SettlementsUnplanned SettlementsUnplanned Settlements

Ward BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard Boundary

Sub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward Boundary

Municipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal Boundary

3

Kilometers

1.50

LegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegend

Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II Settlements selected as per option II

SAMNUJO

MA RAOD

SAMNUJO

MA RAOD

SAMNUJO

MA RAOD

SAMNUJO

MA RAOD

SAMNUJO

MA RAOD

SAMNUJOMA R

AOD

SAMNUJOMA R

AOD

SAMNUJOMA R

AOD

SAMNUJO

MA RAOD

MOROGORO RAODMOROGORO RAODMOROGORO RAODMOROGORO RAODMOROGORO RAODMOROGORO RAODMOROGORO RAODMOROGORO RAOD

MOROGORO RAOD

BA

GA

MO

YO R

AO

D

BA

GA

MO

YO R

AO

D

BA

GA

MO

YO R

AO

D

BA

GA

MO

YO R

AO

D

BA

GA

MO

YO R

AO

D

BA

GA

MO

YO R

AO

D

BA

GA

MO

YO R

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BA

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MO

YO R

AO

D

BA

GA

MO

YO R

AO

D

KILW

A R

AO

DK

ILWA

RA

OD

KILW

A R

AO

DK

ILWA

RA

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KILW

A R

AO

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ILWA

RA

OD

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A R

AO

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ILWA

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A R

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CENTRAL RAILWAY

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CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

PUGU RAOD

PUGU RAOD

PUGU RAODPUGU RAOD

PUGU RAODPUGU RAOD

PUGU RAOD

PUGU RAODPUGU RAOD

TAZARA RAILWAY

TAZARA RAILWAY

TAZARA RAILWAY

TAZARA RAILWAY

TAZARA RAILWAY

TAZARA RAILWAY

TAZARA RAILWAY

TAZARA RAILWAY

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21A21A21A

21A21A

21A21A21A

21A

21B21B21B

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21B

21C21C21C

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21D21D21D

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36C36C36C

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36A36A36A

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36B36B36B

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36D

41A41A41A

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39C39C39C

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41A

54C54C54C

54C54C

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54C

54A54A54A

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54A

53A53A53A

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53A53A53A

53A

53C53C53C

53C53C

53C53C53C

53C

54B54B54B

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54B54B54B

54B

56A56A56A

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56A

51D51D51D

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39A39A39A

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39B39B39B

39B39B

39B39B39B

39B

51A51A51A

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51A51A51A

51A

51B51B51B

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51B51B51B

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51B51B51B

51B51B

51B51B51B

51B

52C52C52C

52C52C

52C52C52C

52C

56B56B56B

56B56B

56B56B56B

56B

56F56F56F

56F56F

56F56F56F

56F

14C14C14C

14C14C

14C14C14C

14C

14A14A14A

14A14A

14A14A14A

14A14B14B14B

14B14B

14B14B14B

14B

14D14D14D

14D14D

14D14D14D

14D

32D32D32D

32D32D

32D32D32D

32D32C32C32C

32C32C

32C32C32C

32C

13C13C13C

13C13C

13C13C13C

13C

13A13A13A

13A13A

13A13A13A

13A

13B13B13B

13B13B

13B13B13B

13B

13D13D13D

13D13D

13D13D13D

13D13G13G13G

13G13G

13G13G13G

13G

13F13F13F

13F13F

13F13F13F

13F31A31A31A

31A31A

31A31A31A

31A

41C41C41C

41C41C

41C41C41C

41C56D56D56D

56D56D

56D56D56D

56D

56E56E56E

56E56E

56E56E56E

56E

31C31C31C

31C31C

31C31C31C

31C

13E13E13E

13E13E

13E13E13E

13E

25C25C25C

25C25C

25C25C25C

25C

31E31E31E

31E31E

31E31E31E

31E31F31F31F

31F31F

31F31F31F

31F

32B32B32B

32B32B

32B32B32B

32B

24C24C24C

24C24C

24C24C24C

24C

24A24A24A

24A24A

24A24A24A

24A

22B22B22B

22B22B

22B22B22B

22B

24D24D24D

24D24D

24D24D24D

24D

24E24E24E

24E24E

24E24E24E

24E

24F24F24F

24F24F

24F24F24F

24F

24G24G24G

24G24G

24G24G24G

24G

42B42B42B

42B42B

42B42B42B

42B

42A42A42A

42A42A

42A42A42A

42A

50C50C50C

50C50C

50C50C50C

50C50E50E50E

50E50E

50E50E50E

50E

55A55A55A

55A55A

55A55A55A

55A

55C55C55C

55C55C

55C55C55C

55C

5C5C5C

5C5C

5C5C5C

5C

5B5B5B

5B5B

5B5B5B

5B

5A5A5A

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5A

30A30A30A

30A30A

30A30A30A

30A

30D30D30D

30D30D

30D30D30D

30D

30B30B30B

30B30B

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30B

30C30C30C

30C30C

30C30C30C

30C

30E30E30E

30E30E

30E30E30E

30E

31B31B31B

31B31B

31B31B31B

31B

31D31D31D

31D31D

31D31D31D

31D

32A32A32A

32A32A

32A32A32A

32A

59A59A59A

59A59A

59A59A59A

59A

52A52A52A

52A52A

52A52A52A

52A

50A50A50A

50A50A

50A50A50A

50A

52B52B52B

52B52B

52B52B52B

52B

52D52D52D

52D52D

52D52D52D

52D

52E52E52E

52E52E

52E52E52E

52E

56C56C56C

56C56C

56C56C56C

56C

59B59B59B

59B59B

59B59B59B

59B

1D1D1D

1D1D

1D1D1D

1D

1A1A1A

1A1A

1A1A1A

1A

1B1B1B

1B1B

1B1B1B

1B

1C1C1C

1C1C

1C1C1C

1C

10B10B10B

10B10B

10B10B10B

10B

10F10F10F

10F10F

10F10F10F

10F

12A12A12A

12A12A

12A12A12A

12A

MuunganoMuunganoMuunganoMuunganoMuunganoMuunganoMuunganoMuunganoMuungano

Manzese UzuriManzese UzuriManzese UzuriManzese Uzuri

Manzese UzuriManzese UzuriManzese UzuriManzese Uzuri

Manzese Uzuri

50F50F50F

50F50F

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50F

59C59C59C

59C59C

59C59C59C

59C59D59D59D

59D59D

59D59D59D

59D

59E59E59E

59E59E

59E59E59E

59E59F59F59F

59F59F

59F59F59F

59F

46A & B46A & B46A & B

46A & B46A & B

46A & B46A & B46A & B

46A & B

49C49C49C

49C49C

49C49C49C

49C

42C42C42C

42C42C

42C42C42C

42C

49A49A49A

49A49A

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49A

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49E

50D50D50D

50D50D

50D50D50D

50D

55B55B55B

55B55B

55B55B55B

55B

10A10A10A

10A10A

10A10A10A

10A

2B2B2B

2B2B

2B2B2B

2B

2A2A2A

2A2A

2A2A2A

2A

2C2C2C

2C2C

2C2C2C

2C

2D2D2D

2D2D

2D2D2D

2D

12B12B12B

12B12B

12B12B12B

12B

12C12C12C

12C12C

12C12C12C

12C

12D12D12D

12D12D

12D12D12D

12D

KilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimaniKilimani

MidiziniMidiziniMidiziniMidiziniMidiziniMidiziniMidiziniMidiziniMidizini

Mnazi MmojaMnazi MmojaMnazi MmojaMnazi MmojaMnazi MmojaMnazi MmojaMnazi MmojaMnazi MmojaMnazi Mmoja

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

Mvu

leni

50B50B50B

50B50B

50B50B50B

50B

40B40B40B

40B40B

40B40B40B

40B

40D40D40D

40D40D

40D40D40D

40D

40F40F40F

40F40F

40F40F40F

40F

40C40C40C

40C40C

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40C

53B53B53B

53B53B

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53B

40H40H40H40H40H40H40H40H40H

10C10C10C

10C10C

10C10C10C

10C

49B49B49B

49B49B

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49B

49D49D49D

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49D

10E10E10E

10E10E

10E10E10E

10E

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10D10D10D

10D

T E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K E

K I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N IK I N O N D O N I

I L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L A

Source: Map produced for CIUP project, handed over by project management, July 2003

118

Appendix XIV Settlements for upgrading in Temeke Municipality The area of research, Keko Magurumbasi A, is marked as the settlement with number 22 D in this map.

Source: Map produced for CIUP project, handed over by project management, July 2003

Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality Settlements Recommended for Upgrading in Temeke Municipality

10

LegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegendLegend

30D30D30D30D30D30D30D30D30D

Kilometers

2

Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002Source: Aerial photo, 1992 and Fieldwork, 2002

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

IND

IAN

OC

EAN

Ward BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard BoundaryWard Boundary

Sub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward BoundarySub Ward Boundary

Municipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal BoundaryMunicipal Boundary

Phase I settlements Phase I settlements Phase I settlements Phase I settlements Phase I settlements Phase I settlements Phase I settlements Phase I settlements Phase I settlements

Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see Subward numbers - see appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details appendix I and IV for details

KILW

A R

AO

DK

ILWA

RA

OD

KILW

A R

AO

DK

ILWA

RA

OD

KILW

A R

AO

DK

ILWA

RA

OD

KILW

A R

AO

DK

ILWA

RA

OD

KILW

A R

AO

D

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

CENTRAL RAILWAY

PUGU RAOD

PUGU RAOD

PUGU RAODPUGU RAOD

PUGU RAODPUGU RAOD

PUGU RAOD

PUGU RAOD

PUGU RAOD

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

TAZA

RA RAILW

AY

21A21A21A21A21A21A21A21A21A

21D21D21D21D21D21D21D21D21D

21E21E21E21E21E21E21E21E21E

21B21B21B21B21B21B21B21B21B

21C21C21C21C21C21C21C21C21C

36C36C36C36C36C36C36C36C36C

36D36D36D36D36D36D36D36D36D13E13E13E13E13E13E13E13E13E

25C25C25C25C25C25C25C25C25C

13C13C13C13C13C13C13C13C13C

13A13A13A13A13A13A13A13A13A

13D13D13D13D13D13D13D13D13D13G13G13G13G13G13G13G13G13G

13F13F13F13F13F13F13F13F13F

22E22E22E22E22E22E22E22E22E

22C22C22C22C22C22C22C22C22C25A25A25A25A25A25A25A25A25A

22A22A22A22A22A22A22A22A22A

22B22B22B22B22B22B22B22B22B22D22D22D22D22D22D22D22D22D

25B25B25B25B25B25B25B25B25B

25D25D25D25D25D25D25D25D25D

14A14A14A14A14A14A14A14A14A

25E25E25E25E25E25E25E25E25E

36A36A36A36A36A36A36A36A36A

36B36B36B36B36B36B36B36B36B

24A24A24A24A24A24A24A24A24A

24C24C24C24C24C24C24C24C24C

22B22B22B22B22B22B22B22B22B

24D24D24D24D24D24D24D24D24D

24E24E24E24E24E24E24E24E24E

24F24F24F24F24F24F24F24F24F

24G24G24G24G24G24G24G24G24G

31F31F31F31F31F31F31F31F31F

32C32C32C32C32C32C32C32C32C 32D32D32D32D32D32D32D32D32D

14C14C14C14C14C14C14C14C14C

14B14B14B14B14B14B14B14B14B

31C31C31C31C31C31C31C31C31C

31E31E31E31E31E31E31E31E31E

32B32B32B32B32B32B32B32B32B

32A32A32A32A32A32A32A32A32A

14D14D14D14D14D14D14D14D14D1A1A1A1A1A1A1A1A1A

1B1B1B1B1B1B1B1B1B

1D1D1D1D1D1D1D1D1D

31A31A31A31A31A31A31A31A31A

31B31B31B31B31B31B31B31B31B

31D31D31D31D31D31D31D31D31D

13B13B13B13B13B13B13B13B13B

30D30D30D30D30D30D30D30D30D

30A30A30A30A30A30A30A30A30A

30B30B30B30B30B30B30B30B30B30C30C30C30C30C30C30C30C30C

30E30E30E30E30E30E30E30E30E

2A2A2A2A2A2A2A2A2A

2D2D2D2D2D2D2D2D2D

10F10F10F10F10F10F10F10F10F

10C10C10C10C10C10C10C10C10C

1C1C1C1C1C1C1C1C1C

10B10B10B10B10B10B10B10B10B10D10D10D10D10D10D10D10D10D

12A12A12A12A12A12A12A12A12A

12B12B12B12B12B12B12B12B12B

12C12C12C12C12C12C12C12C12C

12D12D12D12D12D12D12D12D12D

2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2C2C

2B2B2B2B2B2B2B2B2B

I L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L AI L A L A

T E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K ET E M E K E

119

Appendix XV Keko Magurumbasi A marked map

120 120

Appendix XVI Resident’s routes in Keko Magurumbasi A

0 0.1

Kilometers

0.2

CHANG`O

MBE RO

AD

5.9

5.6 Kwa Ngaweza 5.7 Kwa Mbokiku5.8 Kwa Bibi Star

Kiv Sokoni - Kwa Salu alleyKv Kwa Kachimbe - Omax Area alleyKvi Kwa Ndeenja - Kwa Ngawezi alleyKvii Kwa Salehe Kileba - Kwa Bibi Sta

Route 77.1 Kwa Mzee Kessy7.2 Missanga's Kiosk7.3 Maura's Shop7.4 Mpemb's Shop7.5 Kwa Mkwida7.6 Kindanda chips kiosk7.7 Kwa Mzee Nassoro

5.9 Kwa Mhonda Kanisani (Church)

5.7

Kvii

5.8

5.6

Kiv

Kvi

Kv

M

5.1

5.2

7.7

7.27.1

7.37.47.5

6.37.67.8

6.2

6.4

5.3

5.55.4

6.1N Omax

5.3 Omar Bar5.4 Mama Miki house5.5 Millenium guest house

6.1 Kwa Mzee Omari6.2 Mwasonjobe's House6.3 Kwa Masharubu6.4 Kwa Mama Faffari

Route 6

6.56.5 Keko Magurumbasi Primary School

Route 55.1 Furniture Mart

M Mbuyuni5.2 Kwa Salu

Source: Constructed by M.Arch. C.T. Lekule, lecturer at UCLAS, as the ‘Resident’s Map Keko Magurumbasi Route 5,6 & 7’, for his PhD research on urban space in Keko Magurumbasi. At the period of writing of this report, the thesis concerning his PhD research is not published yet.

121

Appendix XVII Climate in Dar es Salaam The climate of Dar es Salaam is represented in graphs of the temperature, the precipitation, the relative humidity and the average wind speed.

Dar es Salaam has a tropical climate. In the coldest months (June, July and August) the average temperature is still around 26-27°C. The maximum temperature is around 32°C, which is hot, especially since the relative humidity can rise to almost 100%, but in shady and windy places this temperature is still bearable.

Dar es Salaam has a rain season from the end of March until the middle towards end of May. April is the month with far most the most precipitation (around 200mm). The rains during the rainy seasons can be heavily tropical showers.

The relative humidity in Dar es Salaam is high, especially just before and in the rain season. Because of the high relative humidity it can get fairly hot in Dar es Salaam.

122

Because Dar es Salaam is coastal area, there is some wind. Storms however do not occur.

References: Internet www.free-wheater.com/Dar-es-Salaam-Tanzania.php

123

Appendix XVIII The interaction between urban space and livelihood strategy In this table the direction, the value (positive or negative) and the nature (what happens?) of the interactions are listed. The table is a simplification of the true more complex interaction, but gives a good impression. Each row represents an element or characteristics of the urban space and the different forms of capital are set out in five columns. A lot of interactions are identified based upon the analysis (A) of data that are gathered with different techniques; the household interview (HHI), key informant interviews (KI) secondary data (SD) and observation (O). When an interaction is identified with help of analysis of all types of data no remark is made, but when the interaction is identified for example based upon analysis of data gathered with observation this is highlighted as O+A. Context FC HC PC NC SCLocation: Proximity to city centre and to lower area of the river site

+ good business area

+ relatively easy access to schools and hospitals, but still poor access!

+ high value PC due to location

+ good access to urban agriculture possibilities due to proximity to lower area of river site

+ easy to visit friends in other parts of city and vice versa

Situated in industrial area

+ opportunities to work in both informal (major) and formal (minor) industry O+A

+ relatively good availability of producer goods O+A

- industrial area used to dump oil: negative influence on the environment KII

Approaches: From different sides of city by roads

+ extra business opportunities O+A

+ producer goods can reach the site easily O+A


Railway and sea approaches

+ extra business opportunities

+ producer goods can reach the site easily

124

FC HC PC NC SC Accesses: Several accesses for pedestrians and bikes vs. two car accesses

- few possibilities to enter minimise opportunities for large scale economic activities

+ opportunities for small scale economic activities increase

- due to low income people have no cars, no stimulus for car entries O+A

- difficult to get large producer goods inside the area KII

Circulation system: Good external circulation system

+ possibilities to transport all kinds of goods, services and people to the site O+A

+ hospitals and schools outside area can be reached easily O+A

+ possible to transport goods to the site O+A

+ cars to collect waste can reach the site

- cars pollute the environment


Poor internal circulation system

- no transport options for large scale activities

+ car free areas for small scale activities O+A

+ and - car free areas are safe and healthy O+A but ambulances or fire engines cannot pass the area and waste is difficult to collect.

- no transport options with cars inside the area

- a lot of houses but a lack of roads (PC): lack of circulation

- poor waste collection

+ no pollution from cars O+A

+ need for waste collection: stimuli for road construction

+ no cars people sit in street and meet O+A

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FC HC PC NC SC Transportation Towards area good but expensive transport options

+ and - reasons as for circulation

- transport too expensive

- due to low income too expensive

+ and - hospitals and schools can be reached, but the transport is too expensive

+ possible to bring producer goods to site

+ and - reasons as for external circulation


Inside area poor but cheap transport options


+ transport (walking) is cheap O+A

- more money more cars, maybe better transport options O+A


+ impossible to transport producer goods through the area

+ and - +

reasons as for internal circulation

+ no cars people sit in street and meet, they walk to each other for visits O+A

Boundaries: Small river as natural barrier

+/- NC (the river) forms a barrier O+A

Man-made barriers such as structures

+/- PC (structures) create boundaries O+A

Main street serves as meshing boundary

+ meshing boundary has economic importance: a lot of small shops and location of market O+A

+/- inside the area meshing boundaries are created based on different social groups O+A

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Physical characteristics FC HC PC NC SCSize: The size of the area has no direct influence on the access to different forms of capital and is therefore not analysed in this respect. Shape:The form of the area has no direct influence on the access to different forms of capital and is therefore not analysed in this respect. Existing structures: Public buildings

- Market place has extremely poor quality: no stimulus for economic activity O+A+KI

+ Existence of school hospital and dispensary, costs remain a problem

- poor access to high quality producer goods determines physical quality of structures O+A

- LG, CBO’s and NGO’s hardly have money: low quality offices, no public meeting place O+A+KI

Self-constructed houses

+ a house creates income opportunities

- if people have more money, they will invest in their house O+A

+ by constructing a house people get skills

- poor quality of house increases health risks

- people often don’t have enough skills to construct well O+A


+ contacts due to proximity of church and mosque

+/- The Swahili house is a direct result from the way people live together O+A

+ better quality of house can express social status O+A

+ no temporary stays: people construct with permanent materials O+A

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FC HC PC NC SC Infrastructure: roads & bridges inside the area

- due to poor quality it decays easily

- due to low income quality is low O+A

+ by constructing infrastructure people get skills

- people often don’t have enough skills to construct well O+A


+ and - +

reasons as for internal circulation

+ connect people with one and another O+A

Infrastructure: services inside the area

- no water connection, high water costs

+ water and electricity are available: better business opportunities

+ no cheap gas or electricity: cheap meals for sale O+A+HHI

- low income: low investment in services

- bad access to especially water creates unhealthy situations

- lack of knowledge on how to connect community to services efficiently O+A

- poor availability and high price of electricity determines type of producer goods that are used O+A

+ water is tapped and than used from buckets, only a little bit of water is used

- cooking on charcoal (due to lack of access to electricity and gas) can damage environment O+A

- lack of services increases necessity of sharing

+ access to services can increase social status O+A

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FC HC PC NC SC Topography/ natural features Climate that makes life outside possible

+ Less costs: less investment in house O+A

+ apart from rain season, healthy climate

- rain creates unhealthy climate and risk of flooding O+A

- malaria is a disease that causes a lot of problems that is related to the climate

- houses are smaller and of low quality because climate makes life outside possible O+A

Topography/ natural features: are a part of NC O+A

+ because people sit outside a lot, they meet relatively easy O+A

Erosion problems due to soil type and slope

- higher costs due to decay of structures O+A

- slopes create dangerous passages (risk of falling) O+A

- houses often don’t suit the circumstances O+A

topography/ natural features: are a part of NC

- elderly/ disabled have difficulties to walk on slopes for visits

Pollution and environment: Solid and liquid waste problems

- pollution decreases urban agriculture possibilities

- low income, few investment in waste collection O+A+HHI

- waste problem is risk to health

- low level of education, few knowledge about solving and preventing waste problem O+A

- lack of roads makes waste collection difficult

- waste and pollution problems negatively influence access to NC O+A

Pollution of water of the river

- -

reasons as for waste problems

- -

reasons as for waste problems

- reason as for waste problems

- waste and pollution problems negatively influence access to NC O+A

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FC HC PC NC SC Flooding of the river -

extra costs due to flooding O+A

- due to low income, people construct house on cheap hazardous land

- extra health risks O+A

- no knowledge on how to construct houses in a way that they cannot flood O+A

- PC deteriorates due to flooding O+A

- no proper drainage increases risk of flooding

- flooding decreases possibilities for urban agriculture O+A

Social and economic characteristics FC HC PC NC SCNumber of inhabitants: Population density

+ a lot of potential buyers

+ due to business opportunities density increases O+A+HHI

- less general hygiene

+/- level of education and high mortality risks can lead to more children O+A

- road construction difficult and other techniques than used (e.g. for toilet system) are required O+A

- high density increasing pollution problems

+/- big family is important: more people O+A

Population density pattern: Fairly evenly distributed

+/- due to relatively equal access to FC O+A+KI

Income groups pattern: fairly evenly distributed

+/- due to relatively equal access to FC O+A+KI

Land utilisation pattern

+/- type of working activities determines pattern to large extent O+A

+/- land use determines type of structures and vice versa O+A

+/- access to NC determines land use: if possible urban agriculture takes place O+A

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FC HC PC NC SC Land costs +

due to good FC access, land is relatively expensive

+/- Type of PC (informally constructed) determines type of settlement and influences land price

Tenure Almost no legal property rights

- no mortgage possibilities O+A+KI

+ easy to create money informally via PC

- People have no knowledge about tenure and mortgages: no stimulus for use of legal tenure system

- lack of legal property can influence quality of PC negatively

+ urban agriculture is not stopped by rules and legal rights O+A

Table XVIII.a Interaction between urban space and Livelihood Source: Own construct based upon fieldwork

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Appendix XIX Relative importance of elements Element Open-ended questions Preference ranking Interaction urban space and livelihood Relative importance

Location Close to city centre (5) Good business area (9)

Good business area (related to theme: ‘centrality vs. periphery’, section 6.2)

+++ People are poor, opportunities to earn income are extremely important

Roads and access (circulation)

Lack of accessibility (2) Lack of infrastructure and planning (5) Sugg. Impr.: accessibility and construction of roads (12).

P.R.I. 1st Negative impacts: few possibilities to enter for cars (related to theme ‘accessibility vs. inaccessibility’, section 6.3) Positive impacts: car free areas, due to few options to enter (section 6.2, 6.3)

Lack of roads: +++ Very high score by residents Car free area: ++ Based upon observation, car free areas seem to be extremely important, residents do not mention item however

Existing buildings Access to hospital (5) Access to school (2)

Hospital: P.R. II 1st

School: P.R. II 3rd

Good quality house: P.R.I. 3rd Big house: P.R.I. 8th Good quality sanitation: P.R.I. 2nd

Bad access to health care and education, however relatively good, compared to rest of country. (related to theme ‘resourcefulness vs. low potential of existing buildings’, section 6.5) Small houses of ‘permanent materials’ with low quality. Low quality sanitation facilities (section 6.5).

Hospital: +++ School: +++ Access to education and health are very important for development and residents give it a high priority. Market place: + General meeting place: + Market and meeting place are important, but clearly less important than other elements. Quality of house and sanitation facilities: ++ House and sanitation are very important elements, but clearly less important to residents than roads.

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Element Open-ended questions Preference ranking Interaction urban space and livelihood Relative importance Existing infrastructure

Services: Good availability of water (5)

PR.I. Private water connection: 4th P.R.I. Private electricity connection: 5th Good quality sanitation: P.R.I. 2nd

+/- 20% has private water connection (related to theme ‘availability vs. unavailability of infrastructure’, section 6.4) +/- 50% has private electricity connection (section 6.4) No sewerage in the area (section 6.4)

Water and electricity connection:++ Very important but clearly less important to residents than roads.

River River is biggest problem (6) Sugg. Impr.: Drainage of the river (8)

P.R..II good drainage of the river 2nd

Flooding of river creates unhealthy situations, destroys capital and seriously decreases the quality of life (related to theme ‘natural resourcefulness vs. hazardous potential’, section 6.6)

River: ++ river is extremely big problem, but only a limited number of residents are bothered by it.

State of environment

Bad general hygiene (7) P.R.I : Improvement of waste collection 6th

Area is heavily polluted; biggest problems are solid and liquid waste (section 6.4, 6.6)

State of environment: + Area is heavily polluted, people are seriously bother, but see it more as a result of bad circumstances and not as a major elements to tackle.

Table XVIII.a Relative importance of elements Source: Own construct + important, ++ very important, +++ extremely important

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urban upgrading needs in an informal settlement in dar es ...urban upgrading needs in an informal...

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