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Section 1: Instructional Module and Project Overview

This instructional lecture, project and assessment are presented to candidates in a doctoral program for educational leadership. The module is designed to incorporate the study of biographical information to provide background for EDDL 6600, Seminar in Critical Issues in Urban Educational Leadership, a doctoral level course The lecture, project and assessment is aligned for NCATE accreditation to Educational Leadership Constituent Council 2002 Advanced Standards (ELCC) 1-6. This module specifically relates to topics and concepts addressing multicultural and social environment issues prevalent in urban education. The background information introduces candidates to the work of two educators, James A. Banks and Lev Vygotsky. The approach for this module incorporates the use of biographies as a means to apply research and theory to critical issues in urban education. Curriculum in educational leadership programs strives to afford a balance of theory and practical application. Utilization of biographical reviews enhances the meaning and value of studied theories. Comprehensive investigation of a theorist not only focuses on the theory constructs but also reflects on the history and background of the theorist. In this environment of high stakes testing administrators are expected to be accountable for state standards and achieving Annual Yearly Progress (AYP). The review of a comprehensive study of the lifelong work and research of James A. Banks and Lev Vygotsky for doctoral students is a timely and fitting topic of inquiry. Using Banks’ design of five dimensions of multicultural education, and Vygotsky’s social development theory, doctoral students immerse themselves in an in-depth analysis of the researcher’s theories and discuss and analyze the application for educational administration in the 21st century. Utilization of biographical reviews enhances the meaning and value of studied theories. Comprehensive investigation of a theorist not only focuses on the theory constructs but also reflects on the history and background of the theorist. Studying the theories and concepts of both researchers, candidates will be challenged to recognize multiculturalism and social development and construct the connection of theory and practice through the lens of educational leaders. As a result of studying the biography of theorists, students in educational leadership programs will be able to answer the following questions:

• What is the value of theory review when schools in the 21st century measure knowledge by results of state mandated testing?

• How do you apply theories to program improvements which translate into improved test scores?

Course instruction and assignments built upon biography review, strengthens content and enhances practical application of studied theory.

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This module is also designed to: • Provide instructors with biographical information • Provide instructors with supplemental information on multiculturalism and social

development theory • Demonstrate candidate’s ability to apply theory and research of multiculturalism for the

use of promoting success of all students • Provide opportunities of success for all students in an ethical manner.

Section 2: Module Methodology The classroom approach incorporates a biographical study of the theorists coupled with a review of their theories. These philosophies are studied for the purpose of applying concepts for the improvement of student achievement. Depending on the content of the course, students can analyze as few as one biography or a combination of several. The use of several biographies enhances the group discussion, providing a forum for comparative analysis. In addition, the use of biographies as a learning tool will augment the student’s knowledge base, allowing articulation of their ideas for improvement strategies for academic achievement. This module focuses on the work of James A. Banks and Lev Vygotsky and their contribution to the field of education. The classroom methodology begins with an introduction to the theorist, their philosophy and educational theory. The instructor presents a brief overview of the theorist and their contributions in the field of education. The instruction challenges the students to apply the theory to current trends and educational issues. A brief biographical outline of both theorists is shared with the students to focus their attention on specific theoretical constructs. The presented information is to assist them in questioning the appropriateness and effectiveness of the theories presented. The following overview contains the necessary baseline information for students to begin to investigate the theorist’s life and contributions. It includes information on their background, education, and educational theories. What follows is an overview of this baseline information and implementation of the module for each theorist. Additional charts and tables have been added for classroom presentations. Selected books and articles have been provided for reference.

Section 3: Background Information

Theorist: James A. Banks: “Father of Multicultural Education”

Introduction

Over the past decade the nation’s demographic makeup has been changing, and projections for 2050 indicate a 16.8% rise in Hispanic, 4.2% rise in Asian/Pacific Islander, a 1.9% rise in Black populations, and a decline of 19.3% in the White population (American School Board Journal, 2010). Demographic data (Tables 1-3) for the past three years in the Chicago Public schools have mirrored national demographic trends indicating the largest shift will be the increasing number

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of Hispanic students (Illinois State Board of Education, 2010). These findings support the call for incorporating diversity and multicultural education courses in programs for educational leaders in P-12 and higher education in order to meet the needs of students at all instructional levels.

Table 1

Table 2

Table 3

12%

73%

0% 5% 6% 4%

2006‐2007

White

Black

American Indian

Asian

Hispanic

8%

47%

0%3%

39%

3%

2007‐2008

White

Black

American Indian

Asian

Hispanic

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James A. Banks

Born on September 24, 1941 near Marianna in the Arkansas Delta to farmers Mathew and Lula, James Albert Banks began his formal education by completing elementary, junior high and high school near his home. During this time, Banks questioned the images of happy slaves and saw a contradiction to what he and his community experienced. He began asking questions about the images of happy slaves and the process for developing curricula.

In 1963, Banks obtained his associates degree from Chicago City Junior College. The following year, he completed his bachelor’s degree in elementary and social science from Chicago Teachers College (now Chicago State University). He then received his master’s and PhD degrees from Michigan State University between 1966 and 1969. During 1965 and 1966, he taught at Forest Park School in Joliet and at the Francis W. Parker School in Chicago. On February 15, 1969, Banks married Cherry A. McGee. She also is a college professor and author. Together, they have written several books and articles and have two daughters.

Banks became the first black professor at University of Washington (UW) in Seattle in 1969, and by 1973, he became a full professor. He founded the Center for Multicultural Education at the University in 1992, and continues today as the director. His research, writings, and teaching remains focused on explaining issues in black studies, ethnic studies, multiethnic studies, multicultural education and citizenship education. His contribution to education continues to focus on creating a just society for all students. His commitment to this discipline has earned him the title “Father of Multicultural Education” (Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture, 2008).

For more than four decades, Banks has authored or edited over 20 books as well as over 60 book chapters, and has written about 100 journal articles. His most noted publications include Handbook of Research on Multicultural Education (1995, 2004) and Diversity and Citizenship Education: Global Perspectives (2004).

Banks has been recognized for numerous awards including the Russell F. Stark University Professor in 2000, Kerry and Linda Killinger Professor of Diversity Studies in 2006, has received honorary doctorates from six colleges and universities, was presented the UCLA Medal

9%

46%

0%4%

41%

0%

2008‐2009

White

Black

American Indian

Asian

Hispanic

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and was awarded the first Social Justice in Education Award for a career in research that advances social justice through educational research from the American Education Research Association (AERA) in 2004.

Five Dimensions of Multicultural Education

Banks’ development of the five dimensions of multicultural education was to assist educators in understanding the importance of content integration-putting content about various ethnic groups into the curriculum. Content integration incorporates utilizing content from different places. Lessons include background from different regions, genders and styles. Banks contends that language arts and social studies teachers can more easily integrate content, but he believes that even a physics teacher can do more than produce bulletin boards with famous women or minority physicists. He also believes that an effort must be made to add multiculturalism to the core curriculum and not as an addition to what is taught. Educators must realize that students have preconceived notions about other cultures that are based on race, neighborhoods, ethnicity and gender. If a commitment to multiculturalism is embraced, then it must be an area addressed.

The second dimension of multicultural education is knowledge construction. This dimension focuses on teachers helping students to understand, investigate, and determine the implicit cultural assumptions and frames of references and perspectives of the discipline being taught. This insight helps students to become critical thinkers and readers asking the question, “What are the assumptions of that writer?” Teachers ought to encourage students to think about the way knowledge is created and influenced by people of certain orientations and how differing perspectives would approach the same inquiry.

Equity pedagogy is the third dimension of multicultural education and it focuses on teachers changing their methods to enable students from diverse racial groups and genders to achieve. Teachers need to teach in a way that ensures that all students have an opportunity to achieve. Banks contends that he is not referring to teaching styles, but rather, the teachers modifying their methods to incorporate a wide range of strategies and teaching techniques.

The fourth dimension of Banks’ multicultural education is referred to as prejudice reduction. Banks believes that all teachers should be sensitive to prejudice, and should work to reduce that prejudice in the classroom. Prejudice is very real and present in schools, whether it is implicit or explicit, and students attend school with prejudices toward different groups. Teachers should use methods to help students develop more positive racial attitudes.

The final dimension of multicultural education is to empower school culture and social structure. Banks focuses on not only individual classrooms, but the total school culture and making it more equitable. As schools are reviewed, questions such as the following should be asked: Who are the teachers? Who are the leaders? Are they diverse? Does the culture of the school reflect multiculturalism? The focus of this dimension is to create equal opportunities for success of all students regardless of diversity orientation.

 Sample Handout

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Five Dimensions of Multicultural Education

Content Integration • Variety of content from different sources

Knowledge Construction • Understanding and investigation of perspectives and cultural

assumptions Equity Pedagogy

• Changing methods to enable diverse racial groups and genders to achieve

Prejudice Reduction • Sensitive to and reduction of prejudice

Empowerment of School Culture and Social Structure • Equity for the students in the class and in the school culture

Cultural Characteristics

According to Banks, a common question is, how does a teacher with a different culture from their students teach them effectively? Banks believes it is not the race of the teacher, but the set of cultural characteristics that makes the teacher effective with students. Those characteristics include knowing the culture of the students, understanding their daily lives, relating to the students, understanding verbal and nonverbal cues, showing they cared and having high expectations of these students before making demands.

Assisting teachers in expanding their experiences will help to develop these cultural characteristics. As part of their training, teachers need exposure to cross-cultural experiences, such as reading multicultural literature or discussing topics that enable them to reach across cultures. It is equally important that as lessons are being covered, teachers approach the topics from various cultural perspectives Likewise, unity and balanced diversity must be discussed and constructed. Banks believes that to engage in this process, teachers must start with the process of self-transformation, a process of reading, a process of engaging with other cultures and understanding that the other cultures are us and we are the other cultures (Banks & Tucker, 1998).

Theory to Practice

Incorporating a comprehensive study of the lifelong work and research of James A. Banks for doctoral students in an urban university is a timely and fitting topic of inquiry. Using Banks’ design of the five dimensions of multicultural education, doctoral students would immerse themselves in an analysis of Banks’ work and discuss and analyze the application for educational administration in the 21st century. Studying the theories and concepts of Banks’ research, candidates will be challenged to internalize his theory of multiculturalism and diversity and construct the connection of theory to practice. The objective is to understand the importance of

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multicultural education and develop a strategic plan to infuse these theories and practices into curriculum in school districts providing the leadership and guidance.

Application for Inquiry

The focus of the course content is multidimensional and includes five main areas of study. The initial introduction to multicultural education consists of participation in an interactive tool titled, Race Card. This activity was developed by Robert F. George (2006) from the University of New Mexico, and provides educators the opportunity to “examine the power relationships…with the goal of creating social justice” (p. 53). This activity consists of cards describing characteristics that can be used to “control access of an individual or group to power, privilege, and advantages offered by society” (p. 53). Cards also identify economic groups, gender, social groups, occupations, additions, marital status and education levels. These cards are then used as the basis of discussion concerning the implication of each characteristic.

Upon conclusion of the activity, students will read Robert F. George’s article entitled The Race Card: an Interactive Tool for Teaching Multiculturalism and reflect on the concepts presented in the article and their personal reaction to the activity. This will serve as the basis for class discussion.

The second area of study incorporates a biographical study of Banks coupled with an in-depth analysis of his five identified dimensions of multicultural education. An exhaustive literature review of Banks’ publications and books will be used as the basis of content for the inquiry. Students are required to read at least five articles or book chapters and be prepared to share with the class a discussion and analysis of the educational implications of his theories as related to educational leadership and multiculturalism.

Upon completion of discussion and reflection, the third activity challenges candidates to prepare a scholarly paper on the impact of Banks’ research. Students are to investigate the topic of changing demographics and student achievement from a leadership perspective and outline a strategic plan of action for incorporation of his theories for application in the schools. Through the analysis of Banks’ research, the candidates will be able to visualize their ideas for improvement strategies for academic achievement.

As students begin to work on their research, Banks’ most recent publication entitled, Diversity, Group Identity, and Citizenship Education in a Global Age, will serve as the foundation for continued class discussion and guide the fourth activity. This publication in 2009 will provide a summary of his views and the relationship to diversity from a global perspective. Also included with this article will be two reviews of Banks’ research authored by Michael Vavrus and the second written by Gillian Klein. The reviews also will be presented to the students for the purpose of discussion and debate on the perception of the article. As Banks expounds on his dimensions of multicultural education, presenting varying viewpoints bring the richness and diversity in the classroom by exhibiting cultural characteristics.

The fifth and final activity will include a class presentation by each student summarizing and sharing their strategic plan for implementation of the five dimensions of multicultural education

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as a means to mentor teachers for the purpose of increasing academic achievement for all students.

Conclusion

For more than four decades, Dr. Banks has devoted his research and studies to the challenge of educating global citizens in a diverse world. As a young child growing up during the Jim Crow years, he developed a commitment to social justice that he continues today. As diversity continues to grow in stature nationwide, diversity training must change to effectively prepare students for the 21st century. As stated by Dr. Banks (2003), “Citizens in this century need the knowledge, attitudes, and skills required to function in their cultural communities and beyond their cultural borders” (p. 2). Banks contends citizenship must be transformed to include the ethnic texture of nations. This citizenship education should help students develop identification with their communities, state, nation and world community. Global education will assist students in understanding the interdependence among nation and clarify attitudes. This understanding will develop a balance of cultural, national, regional and global identifications. An overview of the classroom approach for content review is provided in Table 1.

Table 1

Course Assignments

Use of Biographies for Class Instruction

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 Opening Activity “Race Card Activity”

(presented by instructor)

Divide students into two groups-participants and observers

Discuss, reflect and react

to the “game” recording comments of participants focusing on the participants view as well as observers view

Read and discuss George’s article on The Race Card

Conduct a biographical

study and literature review on Banks

Background Philosophy Theories Educational

Contributions

Five Dimensions of Multicultural education

Distribute Selected

Readings and Book list

Students select and

read publications of Banks’ for scholarly report

Students discuss in groups Banks’ concepts and theories as presented in his works

Students prepare a scholarly report at least 8 pages in length using APA format and documented with data sources.

Be prepared to contribute to a class discussion on the impact of Banks’ theory and principles as related to educational leadership for the purpose of improvement strategies for academic achievement.

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Selected Readings*

Books

The Routledge International Companion to Multicultural Education. London & New York: Routledge, 2009.

Teaching Strategies for Ethnic Studies. Boston: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon, 1975. Second Edition, 1979; Third Edition, 1984; Fourth Edition, 1987, Fifth Edition, 1991, Sixth Edition, 1997. Seventh Edition, 2003. Eighth Edition, 2009

Cultural Diversity and Education: Foundations, Curriculum and Teaching. Boston: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon, 2001; 5th edition, 2006.

An Introduction to Multicultural Education. Boston: Pearson, Allyn & Bacon, 1994; Fourth Edition, 2008. Translated and published in Japan by The Simul Press, 1996.

Educating Citizens in a Multicultural Society. New York: Teachers College Press, Second Edition, 2007.

Race, Culture, and Education: The Selected Works of James A. Banks. London & New York: Routledge, 2006.

Journal Articles "Utilizing the Historical Method in Social Studies." Instructor 77 (January 1968): 104-105. Co-author (with Ermon 0. Hogan). "Inquiry: A History Teaching Tool." Illinois Schools Journal 48 (Fall 1968): 176-189. "A Profile of the Black American: Implications for Teaching." College Composition and Communication 19 (December 1968): 288-296. "Relevant Social Studies for Black Pupils." Social Education 33 (January 1969): 66-69. "A Content Analysis of the Black American in Textbooks." Social Education 33 (December 1969): 954-957, p. 963 ff. "Teaching Black History with a Focus on Decision Making." Social Education 35 (November 1971): 740-745, 820-821 ff. "Curriculum Strategies for Black Liberation." School Review 81 (May 1973): 405-414.

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"Teaching for Ethnic Literacy: A Comparative Approach." Social Education 37 (December 1973): 738-750. Guest Editorial. "Cultural Pluralism and the Schools." Educational Leadership 32 (December 1974): 163-166. "Ethnic Studies as a Process of Curriculum Reform." Social Education 40 (February 1976): 76-80. "Pluralism, Ideology, and Curriculum Reform." The Social Studies 67 (May/June 1976): 99-106. "The Emerging Stages of Ethnicity: Implications for Staff Development." Educational Leadership 34 (December 1976): 190-193. "Multiethnic Education Across Cultures: United States, Mexico, Puerto Rico, France, and Great Britain." Social Education 42 (March 1978): 177-185. "Ethnicity in Contemporary American Society: Toward the Development of a Typology." Ethnicity 5 (1978): 238-251. (With Geneva Gay.) "Shaping the Future of Multicultural Education." The Journal of Negro Education 48 (Summer 1979): 237-252. "Cultural Democracy, Citizenship Education, and the American Dream." National Council for the Social Studies; Presidential address. Social Education 47 (March 1983): 178-179, ff 222-232. "Black Youths in Predominantly White Suburbs: An Exploratory Study of Their Attitudes and Self-Concepts." The Journal of Negro Education 53 (Winter 1984): 3-17. "Multiethnic Education and the Quest for Equality." Phi Delta Kappan 64 (April 1983): 582-585. "Ethnic Revitalization Movements and Education." Educational Review 37, No. 2 (1985): 131-139. [Published in the United Kingdom] "The Social Studies, Ethnic Diversity, and Social Change." The Elementary School Journal 87 (May 1987): 531-543. "Ethnicity, Class, Cognitive, and Motivational Styles: Research and Teaching Implications." Journal of Negro Education 57 (Fall 1988): 452-466. "The Dimensions of Multicultural Education." Multicultural Leader, 4 (Winter/Spring, 1991): 3-4. "Multicultural Education: For Freedom's Sake," Educational Leadership, Vol. 49, No. 4 (December, 1991 /January, 1992), pp. 32-36.

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"Teaching Multicultural Literacy to Teachers," Teaching Education, Vol. 4, No. 1 (Fall, 1991), pp. 135-144. "African American Scholarship and the Evolution of Multicultural Education." Journal of Negro Education, (Summer, 1992), Vol. 61, No. 3, pp. 273-296. "The Canon Debate, Knowledge Construction, and Multicultural Education," Educational Researcher, Vol. 22, No. 5 (June-July, 1993), pp. 4-14. "Multicultural Education: Development, Dimensions, and Challenges." Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 75, No. 1 (September, 1993), pp. 22-28. "Multicultural Education and Curriculum Transformation." Multicultural Education, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 8-11. "Transforming the Mainstream Curriculum," Educational Leadership, Vol. 51 (8), pp. 4-8, 1994. "The Transformative Challenges to the Social Science Disciplines: Implications for Social Studies Teaching and Learning, " Theory and Research in Social Education, Vol. 23 (1), pp. 2-20, 1995. "The Historical Reconstruction of Knowledge about Race: Implications for Transformative Teaching," Educational Researcher, Vol. 24 (2), pp. 15-25, 1995. (With Cherry A. McGee Banks), "Equity Pedagogy: An Essential Component of Multicultural Education" Theory into Practice, Vol. 34 (3), pp. 152-158, 1995. "Multicultural Education and Curriculum Transformation," The Journal of Negro Education, Vol. 64 (4), 390-400, 1995. “The Lives and Values of Researchers: Implications for Educating Citizens in a Multicultural Society.” Educational Researcher, Vol. 27 (7), pp. 4-17, 1998. (AERA Presidential Address). "Citizenship Education and Diversity: Implications for Teacher Education." Journal of Teacher Education, Vol. 52, No. 1, 2001, pp. 5-16. “Race, Knowledge Construction, and Education in the USA: Lessons from History.” Race, Ethnicity and Education, Vol. 5, No. 1, 2002, pp. 7-27. "Remembering Brown: Silence, Loss, Rage and Hope." Multicultural Perspectives, Vol. 6, No. 4, 2004, pp. 6-8. "Teaching for Social Justice, Diversity and Citizenship in a Global World." The Educational Forum, 68, 2004, pp. 296-305.

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*Selected reading was made available from: http://faculty.washington.edu/jbanks/index.htm with permission from the author, James A. Banks.

References

Banks, J. A. (1984). Black youths in predominately white suburbs: An exploratory study of

their attitudes and self-concepts. Journal of Negro Education, 53(1), 3-17.

Banks, J. A. (2001). Citizenship education and diversity: Implications for teacher education.

Journal of Teacher Education, 52(1), 5-16.

Banks, J. A. (2005). Democracy, diversity, and social justice: Education in a golden age.

University of Washington: Online lecture. Retrieved January 23, 2010 from

http://www.uwtv.org/programs/displayevent.aspx?rID=2668 .

Banks, J. A. (2009). Diversity, group identity, and citizenship education in a global age.

Educational Researcher, 37(3), 129-139.

Banks, J. A. (2001). Diversity within unity: Essential principles for teaching and learning in a

multicultural society. Retrieved October 16, 2009 from

http://www.newhorizons.org/strategies/multicultural/banks.htm .

Banks, J. A. (1997). Educating citizens in a multicultural society. New York: Teachers

College Press.

Banks, J. A. (2009). Human Rights, diversity and citizenship education. The Educational Forum,

73, 100-110.

Banks, J. A. (2006). Improving race relations in schools: from theory to research to practice.

Journal of Social Issues. 62(3), 607-614.

Banks, J. A. (ed.). (2003). Introduction: Democratic citizenship education in multicultural

societies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Banks, J. A. (2010). Personal electronic communication.

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Bank, J. A. & Tucker, M. (1998). NEA Today, Online. Retrieved January 1, 2010 from

Multiculturalism's Five Dimensions.

Brandt, R. (1994). On educating with diversity: A conversation with James A. Banks.

Educational Leadership, 5(8), 28-31.

By the numbers. (2010). American School Board Journal, 197(1), 46.

Data analysis & progress reporting: Fall enrollment counts. (2010). Illinois State Board of

Education. Retrieved October 23, 2009 from

http://isbe.net/research/htmls/fall_housing.htm.

George, R. F. (2006). The race card: An interactive tool for teaching multiculturalism.

Multicultural Perspectives, 8(3), 51-55.

James A. Banks. Center for Multicultural Education: University of Washington-Seattle.

Retrieved October 1, 2009, from http://faculty.washington.edu/jbanks/longbio.htm.

James Albert Banks (1941-). (2008). Encyclopedia of Arkansas History and Culture. Retrieved

December 14, 2009, from http://www.encyclopediaofarkansas.net/encyclopedia/entry-

detail.aspx?entryID=4682.

Stats and facts. (2009). Chicago Public Schools: About CPS. Retrieved October 28, 2009, from

http://www.cps.edu/About_CPS/At-a-glance/Pages/Stats_and_facts.aspx.

James A. Banks model. (2009). University of Michigan. Retrieved October 5, 2009, from

http://sitemaker.umich.edu/356.berman/james_banks__model.

Vavrus, M. (Reviewer). (2009). The Routledge international companion to multicultural

education. Teachers College Record. Retrieved on November 20, 2009, from

www.tcrecord.org.

Theorist: Lev Vygotsky

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Introduction A question may be raised as to the value of studying biographies of theorists when schools of the 21st century measure knowledge by results of state mandated testing. How does one link theories to program improvements which must translate into improved test scores? When developing curriculum programs, sound theory transforms into strong practical application. Students in educational leadership programs require exposure to theory to facilitate change for achievement. By reviewing biographies of theorists, students will be challenged to construct the balance of theory and practice into transformational change. Since the passage of No Child Left Behind, there has been a shift in the focus of administration responsibilities. In the past administrators were viewed as “managers” where as today they are “instructional leaders.” In order to facilitate this change in position responsibilities, students are required to have a sustained understanding of theory as related to curriculum development and student achievement. A comprehensive review of the biographies of theorists provides the foundation for an increased understanding of curriculum development and the relationship to student achievement. As presented in this paper, instructors for administrative certification programs can seamlessly incorporate biographical study throughout leadership programs. Lev Vygotsky On November 5, 1896, Lev S. Vygotsky was born in the small town of Orshe (Western Russia) to Semion L’vovich and Cecilia. Before his first birthday his family moved to the town of Gomel. His father was a manager at the Gomel bank and his mother a teacher, although she never taught, devoting her life to raising her children and managing the home. Vygotsky’s family was considered one of the most educated in the town. His father was described as stern and demanding, but his love for his family was evident. Many family traditions revolved around time spent together in the evenings talking, reading aloud, or discussing topics of interest. Exposure to literature and the performing arts was valued by the family.

Education

Lev was considered a typical child enjoying his friends, playing chess, swimming and collecting stamps. He was homeschooled for his elementary years. At an early age he passed the exam for grade school and entered a private secondary school. He was an excellent student who preferred the study of literature and philosophy. Although advanced in his level of knowledge he remained humble and offered assistance to his colleagues with their studies. This willingness to help others continued in his life. In 1913 he graduated from a secondary school in Russia that prepared students for the university. He wanted to study philosophy; however that would lead to a teaching position which would not be available in pre-revolutionary Russia. He applied to medical school at Moscow University, but decided to change after a month, thinking his interest was with law. Again, his true interest

15

in historical philosophy surfaced and so not to interrupt his law degree, he attended Shanavsky’s University. This progressive institution did not receive official recognition, but students like Lev received an education from well qualified educators for that time. In 1917 Lev completed his education at both universities and returned home to care for his sick brothers and ill mother. In 1919, when Russian rule was reestablished in Gomel, he began to teach literature, arts, philosophy and Russian language at a vocational school. Vygotsky then was appointed to an official position in the Department of Education in Gomel. He was soon nominated as the best teacher of the province and many of his writings were highlighted. These writings lead to three presentations in 1924 at the All-Union Congress on Psychoneurology in St. Petersburg. This was the first time the psychological community was introduced to Vygotsky. As a result of his presentations and work, Vyogtsky joined the Moscow Institute of Experimental Psychology. With Vygotsky as the “leader” at the institute, the focus was a review of contemporary psychology. He also worked in the center for handicapped and mentally retarded children. His work led to a presentation on the topic in England initiating his interest in the works of psychological laboratories and special schools. In 1925 Vygotsky contacted tuberculosis. While recovering he was granted permission to teach at higher learning institutions where he continued his psychological research focusing on the problems of the psychology of normal and abnormal children. In 1926 he founded a laboratory to study abnormal children which developed into the Experimental Institute of Defectology. The most noted aspect of his work at the laboratory was the consultations he had with the children referred to the institute. Teachers would listen to the detailed analysis of the case studies he conducted on these children. Content included the development of the child, pedagogy to assist abnormal children, and practical recommendations to both parents and teachers to assist the child. His ease with children and the development of a trusting relationship was a unique strategy that prior to this time did not exist. Vygotsky worked persistently in the field of psychology and in 1926 published the first of many books and manuscripts as well as introductions, prologues, and critical comments. In spring of 1934, at the age of 37 Vygotsky fell ill from his continued battle with tuberculosis and ultimately died. When the cold War ended, many of Vygotsky’s ideas were disclaimed by the government; however his research was continued by his students.

Social Development Theory

Vygotsky believed social interaction contributed to changes in children’s thoughts and behaviors and these behaviors were unique to a particular culture. His theory supports the idea that development depends on the interaction of people to their culture. These interactions form their personal view of the world.

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Vygotsky defines three ways culture is passed from one person to another. The first is through imitative learning when one person copies another. The second way is identified as instructed learning in which one remembers the instruction of a teacher and then uses these instructions. Collaborative learning is the final way a culture is passed from one person to another. Groups of peers work together and try to understand each other to acquire a specific task. Vygotsky’s theory combines social environment and cognition. There are four basic core principles for his theory:

• Children construct their own knowledge • Development cannot be separated from its social content • Learning can lead development • Language plays a central role in mental development.

An important element in Vygotsky’s theory is cognitive development, which he describes as the “zone of proximal development” (ZPD). ZPD is defined as the difference between what a child can do by individual problem solving and what they are able to do under adult guidance or collaboration. Success of ZPD is hinged on two features: subjectivity and scaffolding. Subjectivity is when two individuals begin a task and ultimately arrive at a shared understanding. Scaffolding is the building of knowledge, concept by concept, by which connections are made to attain additional knowledge. This results in a change which produces performance at a higher level. Vygotsky’s Work and the Educational Implication for Curriculum Development

The standards movement and the guidelines of No Child Left Behind have changed the complexion of curriculum development. Curriculum development models are no longer identified with a district’s philosophy, but rather follow standards with little to no connection to theory. The one size fits all method becoming popular eliminates teacher freedom and flexibility promoting a “prescribed” method of teaching with the aid of curriculum maps and pacing guides. A balance must be maintained when developing curriculum. Standards must be considered in curriculum development but at the same time thought must be given to the presentation of content and the natural learning process of students. This author’s instructional approach continues providing students with a list of articles related to Vygotsky and his work. Students are required to read a paper titled “His Life” which is a reflection written by his daughter, Gita Vydgodskaya. This manuscript serves as insight of Vygotsky’s life and his work through a different lens. Students are to complete a self-reflection paper focusing on Vygotsky’s life through the recollections of his daughter and the connections to his beliefs. A directed class discussion is conducted to share perceptions and insights. The third activity consists of students conducting a literature review on Vygotsky’s theoretical constructs and their relationship to curriculum development. Students are assigned theories and are required to explain these theories and their application for curriculum development. This review is presented and shared through class discussion. Figure 1 is Vygotsky’s Four Stage Model of ZPD (Zone of Proximal Development). It is a sample of one of his theories used as a basis for discussion.

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Figure 1- Four Stage Model of ZPD Excerpted from R.G Tharp and R. Gilmore (1988). Rousing minds to life (p. 35) North Central Regional Laboratory, info@ncrel.org

A culminating lesson follows the class discussion and analysis of the educational implications of Vygotsky’s theories. The students submit a scholarly report and lead a lecture on how educational leaders can incorporate key elements of Vygotsky’s theories into curriculum development for improvement of student achievement while addressing state mandated standards. An overview of the classroom approach for content review is provided in Table 2.

Table 2

Course Assignments Use of Biographies for Class Instruction

Part 1 Part 2 Part 3

Discuss biography of Lev

Vygotsky

(presented by instructor)

Read “His Life”

Reflections of Gita Vygotsky

(daughter)

Conduct a literature review on

Vygotsky including:

• Background

• Philosophy

• Theories

• Educational Contributions

• Principles of Cognitive

Development

Prepare a scholarly report

using APA format and

documented with data sources.

Be prepared to contribute to a

class discussion on the impact

of Vygotsky’s theories as

related to curriculum

development for strategies for

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the purpose of improved

academic achievement

Conclusion

The biography of Vygotsky and his theory of social development are integrated into the class focusing on curriculum and development for educational leaders. The intent of studying theory through biographies is to provide students with a review of one or more educational philosophies and analyze the theoretical frameworks. Through organized class assignments the relevance of these theories are applied to the course content. It is of utmost importance that students distinguish the connection of curriculum development, curriculum theory and how children learn. Standards alone cannot guide instruction. There requires a connection of practice and theory for true transference of learning. This review will provide our students with the foundation to bridge the application of theory to the best practice of curriculum development providing for true accountability.

References

Best Practices in Education Site-Lev Vygotsky page. Brief descriptions of Vygotsky’s ideas with links to Best practices in Education project sites using Vygotskyian ideas. Includes several references for Vygotskian Web Resources. http://web.archive.org/web/20010802101038/www.bestpracticeedu.org/people/LevVogot sky.html Blunden, Andy. (February 2001). The Vygotsky School: “Spirit, Money and Modernity” Seminar. http://home.mira.net/~andy/seminars/chat.htm  Jaramillo, James. (1996).Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory and contributions to the development of constructivist curricula. Fall, 117, 1; ProQuest Educational Journals. Leong, Deborah., Elena Bodrova. (2001). Scholastic early Childhood Today. 15, 4; ProQuest Educational Journals pg. 48. Schutz, Ricardo. (2004). Vygotsky & Language Acquisition. http://www.sk.com.br/sk- vygot.html Tharp, R. G., and R. Gallimore. (1988). Rousing minds to life. Cambridge University press. Timeline results for vygotsky biography Vygodskaya, Gita. Gita’s reflection on her father: L.S. Vygotsky http://webpages.charter.net/schmolze1/vygotsky/gita.html

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Vygotsky's Psychology: A Biography of Ideas. Title: Vygotsky's Psychology: A Biography of Ideas. Authors: Kozulin, Alex. Descriptors: Child Development; Cognitive Development; Cognitive Processes; ... www.eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/recordDetail?accno Through others, we become ourselves. -L. S. Vygotsky, The History of the Development of Higher Mental Functions What children can do with the assistance of others might be in some sense even more indicative of their mental development than what they can do alone. -L. S. Vygotsky, Mind in Society Section 4: Assessment (Scoring Guide) The following scoring guide is used as the assessment rubric for the scholarly report. The assessment is aligned to the ELLC standards 1-6 for school district level (SDL) and identifies specific elements of each standard. Content Knowledge 1 - Content Knowledge

Unacceptable (1 pt)

Acceptable (2 pts) Target (3 pts)

1.1 Knowledge and use of major concepts, assumptions, debates, principles, and theories that is central to the content. ELCC-ADV-2002.2.3.SDL.d

Lacks knowledge or displays misunderstandings of major concepts, assumptions, debates, principles, and/or theories central to the question.

Demonstrates an understanding of major concepts, assumptions, debates, principles, and/or theories central to some parts of the question.

Displays a deep understanding of major concepts, assumptions, debates, principles, and/or theories central to the question. Refutes, applies or combines them in new ways.

1.2 Knowledge and use of processes of inquiry central to content. ELCC-ADV-2002.3.2.SDL.b

Lacks or misuses the processes of inquiry central to educational leadership. Does not analyze major issues raised by the question.

Uses processes of inquiry central to educational leadership to address the question. Provides an adequate, but not fully developed, analysis of major issues raised by the

Uses a process of inquiry central to educational leadership to address the question. Evaluates and applies content knowledge to frame the response. Provides an insightful, in-

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1 - Content Knowledge

Unacceptable (1 pt)

Acceptable (2 pts) Target (3 pts)

question. depth analysis of major issues raised by the question.

1.3 Knowledge and use of the relationship of content areas to other content and real life applications. ELCC-ADV-2002.6.1.SDL.a

Does not connect educational leadership to other content areas and real life applications. Does not provide a synthesis of concepts and/or their application to theory and practice.

Connects educational leadership to other content areas and real life applications. Provides an adequate, but not fully developed, synthesis of concepts and their application to theory and practice.

Clearly and insightfully connects educational leadership to other content areas and real life applications. Provides a highly developed synthesis of concepts and their application to theory and practice.

1.4 Knowledge and use of the content as it relates to diverse populations and contexts. ELCC-ADV-2002.5.3.SDL.a ELCC-ADV-2002.6. 1.SDLa

Presents educational leadership as a one-dimensional object and people as holding one perspective.

Relates educational leadership to people with diverse perspectives, backgrounds, contextualized needs, and assets.

Relates educational leadership to diverse cultural and socio-economic backgrounds, perspectives, life experiences, contextualized needs, and assets.

1.5 Knowledge and use of particular researchers' work, resources and materials that are selected for their accuracy, comprehensiveness, and usefulness for representing ideas. ELCC-ADV-2002.4.1.SDL.b

Selected researchers, resources or materials within the response are inaccurate, insufficient, or not useful in demonstrating content knowledge, skills and dispositions.

Selected researchers, resources or materials within the candidate’s response are accurate; represent the field of knowledge, and useful in demonstrating content, knowledge, skills, and dispositions.

Selected researchers, resources or materials within the candidate’s response are accurate, comprehensive, and useful in demonstrating content knowledge, skills, and dispositions.

1.6 Knowledge and use of content-specialized Improper or lack of The student The skillful use

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1 - Content Knowledge

Unacceptable (1 pt)

Acceptable (2 pts) Target (3 pts)

vocabulary, communication of theories and ideas using standard written English. ELCC-ADV-2002.1.1.SDL.b ELCC-ADV-2002.1.2.SDL.b ELCC-ADV-2002.1.3.SDL.b ELCC-ADV-2002.1.4.SDL.b

content specific vocabulary and/or standard written English and/or APA standards severely interferes with the student’s ability to demonstrate content knowledge, skills, or dispositions.

uses content specific vocabulary, standard written English, and APA formatting to demonstrate content knowledge, skills, and dispositions.

of content specific vocabulary, standard written English, and APA skills enhances the candidate’s demonstration of content knowledge, skills, and dispositions.

Standards ELCC-ADV-2002.1

STANDARD: Candidates who complete the program are educational leaders who have the knowledge and ability to promote the success of all students by facilitating the development, articulation, implementation, and stewardship of a school or district vision of learning supported by the school community.

ELCC-ADV-2002.1.1.SDL.b Candidate’s base development of the vision on relevant knowledge and theories applicable to school-level leaders applied to a school district context.

ELCC-ADV-2002.1.2.SDL.b Candidates demonstrate the ability to use data-based research strategies and strategic planning processes that focus on student learning to develop a vision, drawing on relevant information sources such as student assessment results, student and family demographic data, and an analysis of community needs.

ELCC-ADV-2002.1.3.SDL.b Candidates design research-based processes to effectively implement a district vision throughout an entire school district and community.

ELCC-ADV-2002.1.4.SDL.b Candidates understand the theory and research related to organizational and educational leadership and engages in the collection, organization, and analysis of a variety of information, including student performance data, required assessing progress toward a district’s vision, mission, and goals.

ELCC-ADV-2002.2 STANDARD: Candidates who complete the program are educational leaders who have the knowledge and ability to promote the success of all students by promoting a positive school culture, providing an effective instructional program, applying best practice to student learning, and designing comprehensive professional growth plans for staff.

ELCC-ADV-2002.2.3.SDL.a Candidates demonstrate the ability to facilitate and engage in activities that use best practices and sound educational research to improve instructional programs.

ELCC-ADV-2002.2.3.SDL.d Candidates understand how to use appropriate research strategies to profile student performance in a district and analyze differences among subgroups.

ELCC-ADV-2002.3 STANDARD: Candidates who complete the program are educational leaders who have the knowledge and ability to promote the success of all students by managing the organization, operations, and resources in a way that promotes a safe, efficient, and effective learning environment.

ELCC-ADV-2002.3.2.SDL.b Candidates can use appropriate and effective needs assessment, research-based data, and group process skills to build consensus, communicate, and resolve conflicts in order to align resources with the district vision.

ELCC-ADV-2002.4 STANDARD: Candidates who complete the program are educational leaders who have the knowledge and ability to promote the success of all students by collaborating with families and other community members, responding to diverse community interests and needs, and mobilizing community resources.

ELCC-ADV-2002.4.1.SDL.b

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Candidates demonstrate an ability to use public information and research-based knowledge of issues and trends to collaborate with community members and community organizations to have a positive effect on student learning.

ELCC-ADV-2002.5 STANDARD: Candidates who complete the program are educational leaders who have the knowledge and ability to promote the success of all students by acting with integrity, fairly, and in an ethical manner.

ELCC-ADV-2002.5.3.SDL.a Candidates make and explain decisions based upon ethical and legal principles.

ELCC-ADV-2002.6 STANDARD: Candidates who complete the program are educational leaders who have the knowledge and ability to promote the success of all students by understanding, responding to, and influencing the larger political, social, economic, legal, and cultural context.

ELCC-ADV-2002.6.1.SDL.a Candidates demonstrate the ability to use appropriate research methods, theories, and concepts to improve district operations.