Urban Dynamics The urban dynamics of change:

Suburbanisation – growth of areas suburbs as units away from the centre.

Exurbanisation – a process whereby people, usually affluent, move from the city to rural areas but continue to maintain an urban way of life either through long distance commuting or technology.

Counter-urbanisation – a marked decline in the total population, or growth of the population, of large metropolitan areas and the subsequent growth of smaller urban centres at their expense.

Decentralisation – to spread or redistribute, reorganise urban settlement patterns away from the centre/city.

Consolidation – to reorganise urban planning to concentrate growth and reduce the negative consequences of urban sprawl eg: dual occupancy.

Urban decay – the deterioration of the built environment. Urban infrastructure falls into a state of disrepair and buildings are left empty for long periods of time.

Urban renewal – a process of rebirth of an urban area involving redevelopment. A change in functional role of the area. Improvement in the quality of living for residents.

Urban village – distinctive residential districts comprising a clustering of people with a common culture and forming an identifiable community.

Spatial exclusion – the defence of luxury lifestyles, which have resulted in restrictions in spatial access and the freedom of movement of other urban dwellers. It is manifest in ‘high security suburbs’, ‘walled estates’ and security conscious retail-business complexes.

Spatial patterns – key theme in geography that includes the concepts of location, distribution, spatial organization and spatial differentiation.

Urban dynamics refer to the processes responsible for changing the morphology or urban places. These processes are listed above.

SUBURBANISATIONSuburbanisation initially occurred in terms of residences in the mid-to-late nineteenth century in Sydney.Push factors (away from the CITY CENTRE)- deteriorating infrastructure- aging housing stock- congestion- pollution- crime

Pull factors (to the SUBURBS)- “Great Australian Dream” – detached house with front & back

yard- space- privacy

Stages of Development:1. City Centre alone.2. Introduction of railway eg: Richmond/Penrith line. People

now lived along the railway lines and not just in the city centre as they could now easily get to work and not live in the city centre.

3. Infilling by bus & trains. People now filled in the empty spaces and began living further and further away from the train stations but still relatively near.

4. Impact of cars.From the 1950’s patterns developed of generally higher quality housing on the northern side of the harbour and poor quality to the west and south (exceptions on the south side of the harbour eg: eastern suburbs and pockets of expensive housing especially near the coast).

The pattern is still changing today eg: recent rise in prices of beachside southern suburbs eg: CRONULLA.The 1970’s saw development of “dormitory” suburbs eg: Wollongong & Central Coast.Residential suburbanisation was followed by suburbanisation of commercial industry led by Miranda Fair & Roselands closely followed by manufacturing and office based activities. Today multifunctional urban centres or “mini-cities” or “edge cities” have become a distinct feature of the urban landscape eg: CHATSWOOD and PARRAMATTA.The process of suburbanisation continues today. The concept of “owning your own house” is deeply engrained in the Australia community. It is a process reinforced by the government eg: The First Home Owners Grant of $10 000.Most suburbanisation is taking place to the west and south of Sydney.

EXURBANISATIONThis is a form of counter-urbanisation comprising people who are ‘of the city but not in it’. These households may share more rural than urban or suburban values but may not appreciate essentially rural attributes.Much of exurbia comprises prestige, higher-income social areas and an area of relative affluence, characterised by widely spaced housing, quaint classy villages and dedicated to the “gentleman” farming of fox hunting and horse racing.Exurbia excludes urban townships lying beyond the urban fringe.The Australian ContextThe perimetropolitan region around Sydney is the region bounded by the furthest extent of commuting to metropolitan jobs.Exurban areas include: - Dural, Galston & Kenthurst- north-west – Windsor & Richmond- south-west – Picton & Camden

- west – Lithgow- north – Gosford – Wyong

Katoomba in the Blue Mountains, Bowral, Mittagong & Berrima are not part of exurbia.The perimetropolitan area is characterised by a mix of land use activities – commercial and wholesale nurseries in the Galston-Dural area, hotels and resorts for a weekend getaway from Sydney in the Bowral-Mittagong area.Sydney’s exurban population consists of mainly younger (25 – 34 yrs) couples in managerial, professional and skilled trade based occupation and middle-income earners.There has been an increase in the ‘one hour or more’ category for travel times to work and an increase in those working at home. People are moving to exurbia predominantly for the high-quality, larger dwellings.

COUNTERURBANISATION & DECENTRALISATIONCounter-urbanisation was first detected in the USA in the 1970’s. In some developed countries decentralisation became official government policy.The rate of counter-urbanisation has slowed since the 1970’s. By the 1990’s, the growth rate of large metropolitan areas in Australia had increased significantly eg: Sydney’s 1989-99 growth rate of 1.5% compared to the overall population growth rate of NSW of 1.2%.Some areas of significant amenity value are going against this trend eg: large numbers of retirees settling on the coast have meant that areas like Port Macquarie lave experienced growth rates above the average.

URBAN CONSOLIDATIONArguments for:- reduces urban sprawl- lowers cost of housing construction if units built

- more efficient use of infrastructure- decrease pollution – less use of energy resources- rejuvenation of housing stock

Arguments against:- possible infrastructure overload- congestion- possible overcrowding – possible social problems- possible loss of heritage values- possible loss of amenity eg: less open space/person

Urban Consolidation in SydneyIn Sydney the process usually involves demolishing a row of ¾ buildings and replacing them with town homes, villas or apartment blocks. This trend is especially apparent around railway stations in desirable residential areas. In inner city areas old industrial sites or desolate port facilities are being developed eg: Walsh Bay Finger Wharves, Darling Harbour & Pyrmont Bay.Demand for medium density housing is increasing as: - Population ages, therefore increased demand for smaller

dwellings “empty nesters” People living alone now represent: the fastest growing category

of housing type in Sydney Numbers of DINKS increasing (double income no kids) Migrants often seek medium density housing in inner city areas Increased attraction of inner city living – entertainment,

employment

URBAN DECAY & RENEWALThis is similar to urban consolidation. It usually occurs in inner city areas where deteriorating industrial or infrastructure areas are redeveloped.Case Study:Pyrmont Bay

If the process occurs with housing stock it is often called gentrification. Examples of this process can be found in Pyrmont Bay and areas such as Balmain, Darlinghurst, Leichhardt, Surry Hills & Paddington.Urban decay is a much greater issue in the US.Case Study:Los AngelesL.A. is located on America’s west coast, being one of the closest larger cities to Mexico.The rich live in walled estates and high-security apartment blocks, while the masses live in identical suburbia. The homeless & dispossessed then live in deserted back lots of the inner city.This is a population drawn away from the inner suburbs, the relocation of employment & industry in outer areas and degradation of the social & physical infrastructure in the inner city. These processes have led to the urban wastelands that dominate the centres of America’s largest cities.The community hit hardest in LA are those in the centre. There has been a total abandonment of inner residential areas, putting the unemployed and low-income residents in a cycle of poverty.In the 1960’s & 70’s, the Federal Government took a greater role with the introduction of well-funded programs designed to assist urban areas. Then in the 1980’s there was a dramatic reduction in federal support for cities. This shifted responsibility for housing, urban infrastructure and other areas to the cities. Federal housing assistance was cut by as much as 80%.In inner-city areas, increasing property taxes encouraged more people to leave. This led to a downward spiral in quality of inner-urban environment. The urban infrastructure has been left to crumble and the range of social problems has escalated – urban gangs, ‘crack’, ‘coke’ & alcohol. The sense of isolation, rejection & poverty has had a debilitating effect.

URBAN VILLAGEThis is a community-based concept. People with similar backgrounds/interests often gather in discrete areas to create distinct communities.Their functional form & character is influenced by a particular community.A community-as-place defines a community as one based on shared space.A community-as-society defines a community as one based on groups of people (eg: business people, university students etc). When these two intersect, ‘urban villages’ are created.

Chinatown – in the CBD, focus for Chinese-Australian interests Norton St., Leichhardt – focus of local café society with strong

Italian presence SPATIAL EXCLUSIONOften referred to as “fortified suburbs”. It refers to excluding what are regarded as “undesirable elements” from particular urban spaces. It began in the USA.Examples in Australia:

Development of former H.W. Wills site in Todman Avenue, East Kensington

Pyrmont Bay – exclusion by means of price eg: most units new cost over $1 million or rent for a 3 bedroom unit are $700+

Aurora Adult Residential Community, Hope Island on Queensland Gold Coast

A case study of the results of the urban dynamics in a large city: SYDNEY

SOCIAL STRUCTURE & SPATIAL PATTERNS OF ADVANTAGE & DISADVANTAGE, WEALTH & POVERTY, ETHNICITYCLASS- Sydney has well defined class structure

- Class determined by a person’s occupation in terms of prestige, financial rewards & material lifestyle

- Where one lives and what kind of housing reflects income, occupation & education

SOCIAL EFFECTS OF ECONOMIC RESTRUCTURING- Major effect of economic restructuring has been growth in the

producer services & finance sectors & a decline in manufacturing jobs

- Economic restructuring involves massive job cuts- Differences in living standards growing- Pockets and districts of poverty, unemployment, violence, poor

health & social distress now feature in Sydney’s social morphology

- There are also areas of wealth & privilege, producing security apartment buildings & ‘gated communities’

Australia’s changing social structure- End of 1990’s:

1% of the population controlled 25% of Australia’s personal wealth

the wealthiest 10% owned 60% of the total wealth the least wealthy 30% had no wealth 50% of Australians had just 7% nearly 2.1 million of Australia’s 19 million people live at

or below the poverty line about 21% of children live in poverty

- Growing divisions socially and economically have risen spatial inequality (distinct geographical divisions between poor & affluent)

- Between 1976 & 1991, the average household income in the 1000 poorest neighbourhoods declines $8000 p.a.

- The richest neighbourhoods rose almost $20 000 p.a.- Poor are becoming increasingly concentrated in one set of

neighbourhoods and rich in another

- Rising poverty & social disadvantage because of: High levels of unemployment Casualisation of the workforce Falling wages Cuts to welfare & public services

- Concentration of economically & socially disadvantaged into particular neighbourhoods often results in association with high crime rates, drug dependency, domestic violence, urban decay & vandalism

- Advantage or disadvantage depends on class (or socio-economic status)

Spatial patterns of advantage & disadvantage- 3 most common indicators: - occupation

- education- income

- Spatial concentration of disadvantaged can lead to being caught up in a cycle of poverty

- Intergenerational transmission of unemployment – ‘underclass’ & a ‘culture of poverty’ (in the US but not Australia)This is because Australia’s welfare system provides a working safety net.

Spatial patterns of wealth & povertyWealthy zone: 40% of men 25 – 44 earn $1000+/week

: north & harbour side : - Sydney- Mosman- Pittwater- North Sydney

Poor zone: >17% of men 25 – 44 earning <$300/week : inner west : - Fairfield

- Auburn- Canterbury- Bankstown

“Battlers”: 25% earn $300 - $599/week

: outer west : - Blacktown north- Blacktown southwest- Blacktown southeast- Holroyd

Moderate income: 35% of men 25 – 44 earn $600 - $900/week : periphery : - Liverpool

- Campbelltown- Hawkesbury- Penrith

CHANGING ECONOMIC CHARACTER, NATURE & LOCATION OF RESIDNETIAL LAND, COMMERCIAL & INDUSTRIAL DEVELOPMENTSydney is an ‘international city’, being Australia’s financial capital and the regional corporate base for a growing number of TNC’s with investments in Asia. It is emerging as a national metropolis.Economic restructuring involves shifts in the productive base of an economy and the subsequent changes in patterns of employment. Job losses – manufacturing or goods production. Job gains – service or non-good production and in business & information services.

Industrial The suburbanisation of manufacturing and the process of economic restructuring have resulted in the decline of Sydney’s central industrial area (CIA), Sydney Harbour’s decline as a working port & the development of new business parks.Sydney’s CIA had undergone a prolonged period of decline. Where it was previously dominated by industry, is now entertainment facilities & apartment blocks.The manufacturing employment sector in the CIA between 1968-1969 & 1983-1984, declined from 42% of all employed in manufacturing, to 29%. The middle suburban industrial areas have benefited from suburbanisation. These areas include Parramatta, Rosehill, Bankstown & Auburn, which have increased their share from 30% in 1969-1969 to 33% in 1983-1984.

Within the economic restructuring there has been:o Significant closure in:

Metal fabrication Industrial Electrical machinery subsectors

o Growth in: Pharmaceutical & chemical industries Food processing Packaging Building materials Manufacturing & specialised

engineeringHaving recently started locating head office functions in the CBD, they act by attracting other forms of activity back to the CBD. Up to the late 1980’s banks had been decentralising. The now introduction of phone & internet banking services has increased the competition between banks. This has contributed to the recentralisation of decision-making & inquiry services. The CBD is now becoming increasingly specialised as a banking & financial centre.

Commercial/Retail There are two main areas of geographical interest in the retail sector: -

1. The processes affecting retailing activity2. The spatial outcomes of the processes

There has been a rapid increase in the corporate mergers and takeovers since the 1960’s. This has resulted in domination by large, multi-outlet firms. Large chains have forced many smaller players out of business, having increased their market share from less than 40% to about 75% since the mid-1970’s. Franchising has also become popular, including the franchises of Myers, David Jones & more recently Bakers Delight & Starbucks.Planned shopping centres for one-stop shopping encourage the “come, stay, spend” attitude.

The ‘re-imaging’ of retail activityThe spatial outcome of retail concentration & restructuring is the development of large, planned shopping centres. The effects of these then have been the upgrading of local shopping centres to retain customers and the demise of many independent, local retailers.Planned shopping centres are designed to promote shopping – the aim of “come, stay, spend” – and are complementary, putting individual retailers to an advantage throughout. The architecture of them creates spectacle, fantasy & escapism. To remain competitive, independent retailers have had to:

1. Create visually attractive shopping malls2. The individual ‘store image’ acts to differentiate a shop – used

to attract & hold customersNew types of retailingBecoming increasingly popular are the bulky goods retail complexes, large warehouse-type complexes. They have increased customer flow with advantages associated with being close to sellers of complementary products.A revival of inner-city retailingThere has been a revival of Sydney’s CBD retailing since the mid-1990’s. Potential customers have increased because of growth in the CBD-based economic activity, rising incomes, growth in the CBD population, a surge in international tourism & millions spent on upgrading the physical environment of the CBD.Grace Bros. & David Jones have made comebacks by spending millions rebuilding & refurbishing their ‘flagship’ stores. Representing Sydney’s growing status as a world city is the influx of international designer brands such as Prada, Armani, Gucci & Versace.

Residential Land has no value except in terms of how it can be used.

Economic processes – where people live depends on their ability to buy or rent in a particular area. This relates to socio-economic status.Social processes – lifestyle and family composition help determine where on lives. Lifestyle differentiation divides non-family households to medium-high density but family households to semi or fully detached housing.There are 3 main factors contributing to the decision of where to live:

1. Pattern of land values2. Local residential environment – neighbourhood character &

location relative to work or other facilities3. Type of housing stock

New suburban developments on the urban peripheryThese areas are dominated by detached dwellings, catering primarily for the needs of families. Access to freeways plays an important factor in location. The M2 Motorway has contributed to a further surge in northwest residential development. Residential infilling & replacementThis development is closely linked to economic restructuring. The decline and abandonment of the CIA increased availability of land close to the city centre. Residential units built here vary; usually include medium & high-density housing. (NB: renewal & redevelopment of Pyrmont)

Building conversions- Gentrification – retains architectural heritage- Cost of conversion less than demolition & rebuilding- Historic finger wharves, now residential apartmentsMixed residential developments with shared community facilities- Residential access to sport facilities, playground equipment

& commercial areasTransport node developments

- Suburban railway stations & bus stations become important locational focus for non-family households

- Process of consolidation often centred in these areasDemolition & rebuilding- Most common in middle ring of post WWII suburbs- This is economically viable as existing dwelling worth less

than the landDual occupancy- Subdivision of suburban blocks into 2 residential sites- Usually new dwelling constructed in front/back yard

High-density inner-city residential developmentInner-city living is growing and land acquisition & building costs are very high. This then accounts for the high prices of these housing units.

CULTURE OF PLACEFactors contributing to culture of place:

Streetscape Heritage Biophysical environment Architecture Street life Noise Colour Lifestyle

Sydney’s “culture of place” is defined by the nature of its biophysical environment (especially its climate, beaches & harbour setting); its multicultural character; the casual lifestyle of its population; its people’s preoccupation with sport & outdoor pursuits; its streetscape & architectural heritage (especially its iconic buildings – Sydney Opera House & Harbour Bridge); its low density urban sprawl & suburban lifestyle; its increasingly international

outlook; especially its status as a world city and popular tourist destination.

Urban villages are often differentiated on the basis of distinctive “culture of place” that develops in particular areas eg: Chinatown & Little Italy.

SYDNEY’S FUTUREMajor issues confronting Sydney:

Accommodating future growth Projecting the amenity of the biophysical & built environment Traffic congestion & providing transport infrastructure Maintaining air & water quality Disposing of solid & toxic waste1. Accommodating future growth

Sydney’s population will rise by 60 000/annum for the foreseeable future

Major policies are:- Consolidation eg: Jackson’s Landing- New suburban areas on city outskirts eg:

North west sector – Parklea to Londonderry – projected population of 250 000

South creek sector – west of Liverpool, east of Badgery’s Creek – projected population of 200 000

Macarthur south sector (near Picton) – projected population of 250 000

- “Seven city policy” – see article “Bursting at…”2. Protecting amenity

Biophysical – includes protecting remnant bushland, parkland, harbour foreshores, beaches & other places of scenic beauty eg: St. Mary’s ADI site

Built – includes protecting specific buildings eg: Sydney Opera House, distinctive streets eg: Oxford St, important features of industrial & transport heritage eg: Walsh Bay Finger Wharves and places associated with history eg: Woolloomooloo Finger Wharves (embarkation point for troops in WWI & II).Some buildings redeveloped but façade kept eg: Queen Victoria Building (once city market).

3. Traffic congestion & infrastructure Problems of congestion & reliance on cars:- Increase in pollution especially carbon monoxide & lead- Large land areas devoted to roads- Decrease amenity-noise, pollution, physical danger

Problem is getting worse 1981 – 91 – Sydney population up by 12%, car use up by 20%.

Solution:- Flexitime stagger annual arrival & departure times- Work from home technology- Public transport

Transport Infrastructure Problems:- Reliance on cars

Solutions:- Motorway programs: M2 – access to northwest

M5 – access to southwest Eastern Distributor – reducing street level congestion in Sydney’s east

- Encouraging private sector to build & operate tollways & rail links

- NSW government’s Integrated Transport Plano Better use of existing infrastructure eg: computered

traffic controlso Upgrade & extend public transport

o High-speed rail links to Central Coast, Newcastle & Wollongong.

4. Air QualitySydney’s basin-like topography lends itself to the accumulation of pollutants. Air pollution problems peaked in the 1970’s. Since then, regulations limiting car emissions, increased use of unleaded petrol & factory closures have increased the air quality in the inner city. Pollution in western Sydney is increasing especially as cars have increased.5. Waste DisposalProblems of waster disposal have increased, as suitable sites are in short supply. Recycling has been used to increase lifespan. As waste disposal costs have increased, illegal dumping has increased.

A Case Study showing one of the urban dynamics listed above, operating in a country town or suburb: ORANGE & URBAN CONSOLIDATION

Country town: ORANGE: 300 km west of Sydney

(insert own NSW map)Orange is the regional centre of 38 000 people in the Central West of NSW, approximately 300km west of Sydney.It is a thriving rural community with an important orcharding & viticulture industry.As Orange has expanded, concerns have been raised about residential land encroaching on valuable fertile agricultural land. The latest subdivision to the west of Orange – Ploughman’s Hill Estate, will see more than 120 residential blocks on land that was formerly prime orcharding country.

One purpose of the Orange City Council has been CONSOLIDATION. This policy has been facilitated by the fact that many housing blocks close to the centre of Orange are quite large.The process of consolidation has taken 3 main forms:KEY: existing house units/town houses

1.

2.

3.