Chris Frasquieri

CULF 3330: History and Evolution

Professor Austin

3 December 2015

Smallpox: The Dire Combination of the Conquest of the Americas and

Disease

Introduction

The Age of Exploration, which occurred through the years 1450 to

1650, was a time of exploration, curiosity, and discovery. Europeans

circumnavigated the world via boat in the hopes of finding new trade routes

east towards Asia, Africa, and India, new goods to sell and distribute to

European citizens, and lastly to learn more about the world and acquire

potential new territory. The Portuguese and Spanish made significant

strides towards global exploration, but sometimes exploration came with

negative costs. Upon discovery of a huge western landmass between Europe

and Asia—as we know it as the Americas—the opportunity for colonization,

harboring of gold and precious metals, and dominating foreign resources

became a reality. With the discovery of the Americas came its indigenous

people, whom were unaccustomed to the life, culture, and especially the

diseases from the East.

Hatuey, chief of the island nation Hispaniola (Haiti and the Dominican

Republic), lived during the early sixteenth century. The importance of

Hatuey is significant—he was the first man to stand up to the Spaniards

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during the Age of Exploration. Although Hatuey showed great resistance

towards the Spaniards, the indigenous people of South and North America

were desecreated substantially by unseen forces. This hidden enemy lurked

within the immunities of the Europeans—Smallpox. Significance of the

smallpox disease will be shown through understanding the origins and

transfer of the Smallpox disease in the Americas, which caused devastating

effects upon the native population during the 1500s-1600s. Lastly, looking

at two specific events during the Age of Exploration—the explorers

Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés’ arrival—will show how history

was revolutionized with the unfortunate aid of smallpox.

The Basics: Smallpox History

To begin, context of the history of smallpox and its effects on society

will show how relevant its existence has been to world history. Smallpox is

arguably one of the most lethal illnesses—so lethal that over the centuries it

has killed more people combined than any other infectious disease

combined. As the author of Smallpox: A History notes, “men in ranks died

more frequently from disease than from bullets” (Kotar 3). Although the

origins to smallpox have been lost in history, historians believe that the

agrarian societies in northeastern Africa, approximately 10,000 BC, is when

smallpox first arrived. Smallpox has coexisted with humans for centuries;

given this information provided, it is known to have killed a third of those

whom get infected. Smallpox is caused by the Variola major virus and is

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presented with flu-like symptoms, which include the following: high fever,

fatigue, aching from the back and head, and the infamous red sore rash.

Approximately 300 million people died of smallpox throughout the 20th

century alone, resulting in the necessity for a world coalition to eradicate

the deadly disease in the late 20th century. Although the Center for Disease

Control (CDC) was initially created in order to combat malaria, “by 1971

[the CDC] coordinated a national attack on a wide range of diseases that

spread from person to person and from animals and nature to humans,” one

of which included the extermination of smallpox (370). The reason why

smallpox had been easily transferrable between humans was because of

population rise and increased contact with infected individuals. Smallpox

spreads through direct contact of bodily fluids infected with the Variola

virus or contaminated objects like cloths or silverware. With these key facts

in mind, smallpox has definitely shaped the world as one of the most deadly

diseases a person can catch. In terms of history during the 1500s, this

disease caused a monumental pandemic throughout the Americas, which

will be discussed as effects of exploration and colonization.

As mentioned earlier, the America’s remained unknown by the rest of

the world, more or less, until the Age of Exploration, which gave the

invitation for new customs, products, and people to intermingle. As this

occurred, so did diseases, which Europeans had developed an immunity for.

Antibodies, are tiny molecule in the bloodstream and mucus that “are made

by the immune system to neutralize foreign particles entering the body;”

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these antibodies had been present in European society, thus creating an

immunity (Noymer 179). Such diseases, like smallpox, riveted the native

population of the Americas. Instigators of this travesty, Christopher

Columbus and Hernán Cortés, brought smallpox into the current day

Central and North America, but the events that prospered because of their

arrival leads to their individual significance.

Hernán Cortés and Strife in Mesoamerica

First, we will begin with Mesoamerican history, (which in my opinion

has been a fairly neglected topic in the overall perspective of world history,)

followed by its relation to Hernán Cortés, the conqueror of the Tenochtitlán

capital of the Aztecs. Throughout the history of Mesoamerica, civilizations

are constantly shifting between powers throughout current day Central

America, but originally, Mesoamerican civilizations grew just like

Mesopotamia in the Middle East. Hunter-gatherers eventually stopped

moving, developed more agrarian, community dependent tribes and

villages, which subsequently developed into large civilizations. In

Mesoamerica, tribes grew quickly and conquered, only to be taken shortly

thereafter. This is seen as the Olmec Kingdom rises and falls in power,

Mayan kingdoms start to conquer areas like Guatemala, and then the Toltec

Empire rises as quickly as it falls from the 9th to 10th Century (Funk &

Wagnalls 6). Most notably, the relationship between the Aztec Empire,

which flourished through the late 14th Century and into the 15th Century

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under the rule of Montezuma, and Cortés begins as he travels to

Mesoamerica in 1519.

Hernán Cortés, born in 1485 in Medellín, Castile, is known for his role

in the conquering of Mexico and his ingenious strategies of turning native

populations against one another. Notably associated with the New World,

Cortés initially went to Hispaniola and Cuba, developing a fairly positive

relationship with the Governor of Cuba at the time, Diego Velázquez de

Cuéllar (Funk & Wagnalls 13). Unfortunately, animosity arose as Cortés

went on yret another expedition, this time leading him to the continent of

Mesoamerica, specifically Mexico. Intercontinental strife and a smallpox

epidemic weakened the Mexicans and helped Cortés conquer them in 1521,

with help from allying with indigenous peoples against the Aztecan Empire:

“Cortez sailed from Cuba to the coast of Mexico, then moved inland,

reaching Tenochtitlán in November 1519 … According to reports from

the period, among the latter’s crew was a Negro suffering from

smallpox; introduction of the disease into the unprotected population

resulted in horrific suffering and death throughout the indigenous

population. So many Aztec warriors were lost that those left had little

ability to prevent further inroads by the invaders, making conquest

inevitable.” (Kotar 24)

All in all in the short term, with the underlying help of smallpox, Hernán

Cortés destroyed the Aztec Empire. He gave Spain—his homeland—the

ability to begin taking resources from the rich lands of Mesoamerica. To

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add, they would gain lands unconquered by any other country. As well, in

the short term, significant damage was done—besides the occurrences of

Cortés’ conquest of Tenochtitlán. The effects of smallpox significantly

decreased population because of the introduction of the disease into a

completely isolated continent. Without the underlying assistance of

smallpox in Mesoamerica (and subsequently South America), conquest

wouldn’t have been possible, thus making its presence if Mesoamerica

significant.

Colonization of North America

Although, in the present day, we commemorate Christopher Columbus

for finding the Americas, Columbus Day has been so controversial because

of the demise and demonization of the indigenous peoples through

colonialism. Columbus, who appealed to King Ferdinand and Queen

Elizabeth of Spain, wanted to find a trading route by travelling west that

would inevitably go to Asia. Columbus calculated the distance between

Europe and Asia correctly by travelling west, approximately 3000 miles, but

he did not take into account the unknown landmass that was between

Europe and Asia—America. Although, technically speaking, Columbus was

not the original discoverer of the Americas, there has been constant

interaction and communication between the continents through exploration

and inevitable colonization. With these inevitable waves of explorers, which

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followed by colonization, came spikes of smallpox epidemics, along with

other nonnative diseases in the isolated Americas, causing “massive

numbers” of indigenous peoples to die in the 1500s (Tischauser 2). Along

with diseases came brutal and atrocious acts committed by Europeans; the

direct impact of killings, maiming, rape, abduction, and depredations on the

conquered population must have been directly associated with the ratio of

conquerors to conquered, and therefore inversely correlated with the

natives’ population size” (Livi-Bacci 201). To be clear, although Christopher

Columbus’ significance falls between the late 15th to the early 16th Century,

the positions that Columbus takes towards the indigenous people is seen

generations later. Perpetuating racism begins with Columbus’ arrival to the

American Continent.

This violence and maltreatment was only continued through the

generations of Europeans, and then Americans as they gained their

independence, that subsequently followed through history. Instances of

horrid treatment and disenfranchisement of the Native Americans

reoccurred as America expanded, but especially during the time period

known as the Age of Jackson (1829–1837). The Indian Removal Act, enacted

in 1830, sought to incentivize the voluntary movement of Native Americans,

but when the government saw it fit, it would forcefully remove Indians from

their land (Funk & Wagnalls 17). With all of this subjugation towards

populations like the Creek, Cherokee, Chickasaw, and Seminole led to

overall diseases in population. Specifically in 1738-39, the Cherokee tribe

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experienced its worst epidemic to smallpox yet. 7,000 to 10,000 Cherokees

died because of the increasing contact with English through relocation,

traders, and expeditions.

Ultimately, these losses in population—this example above led to the

approximate deaths of half the tribe—resulted in distrust and increased

animosity with the ruthless and insensitive English. Death, strife, and

anguish followed the Native Americans as Europeans conquered their land

through war, manipulation, and the unfortunate effects of disease.

Perpetual violence and stigma towards the indigenous populations of

America led to a harsh reality of racism; treatment of indigenous

populations as “savages” and “lesser beings” cultivated a volatile culture. In

terms of smallpox, the intermingling of isolated Native Americans and

Europeans led to the increasing occurrences of smallpox outbreaks,

desecrating populations significantly to the point of extinction.

Conclusion

In summation, smallpox has killed more people total than any

infectious disease known to man. One major reason for this is because of

the isolation the America’s had towards the disease until the Age of

Exploration, explorers like Christopher Columbus and Hernán Cortés were

the catalyses’ to a pandemic of smallpox within Mesoamerica and the whole

continent of America lastly centuries until its eradication. Cortés, history

known as the conqueror of the Aztecan Empire, had the unfortunate

consequence of smallpox riveting the Aztec’s, which led to the capital,

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Tenochtitlán, being conquered. Christopher Columbus, notoriously known

for his greed, ruthlessness and racism, incentivized a culture of cruelty

towards the indigenous Americans; seen generations later by events like the

Indian Removal Act (1830) and the Trail of Tears (1838-39). Ultimately,

smallpox’s presence throughout history has had significance all across

America’s development into the nation it is currently. With this, I conclude

with evidence proving that smallpox has changed the course of history.

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Chris Frasquieri

CULF 3330: History and Evolution

Professor Austin

3 December 2015

Yellow Fever: The Young Nation of America’s First Enemy

Introduction

As the idiom goes, seeing is believing, but in a time where

technological advancement isn’t as profound as it is today, how do you

explain that something the human eye alone cannot see could result in your

demise? Post the invention of the microscope, it would be absurd to believe

in the possibility of something microscopic could end your life. With such

symptoms as bleeding from your eyes and mouth, dark red, almost black

vomit, and discoloration of your skin because of liver damage, life’s most

destructible weapon is around us at all times. Diseases, viruses, germs, and

parasites are unescapable—they live inside us and all around us. We are

surrounded by an enemy we know exists without the ability to see them

with the naked eye. Although this is common knowledge today, we have

seen that sickness can lead to death just as severely as a bullet can.

Humans have become resilient to many hardships in life, but time and

time again it has been shown that the spread and evolution of disease

through human exploration has led to death and strife. This natural

phenomenon is only exacerbated by increasing population, proximity to

foreign factors, and lack of proper sanitation which has riveted people

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worldwide. Until the early mid 1800s early 1900s, there was no real

correlation between disease and sanitation. In the case of the 1700s

through the 1800s, a formidable disease becomes the foundation for change

to American history: yellow fever. Knowledge of the origins and transfer of

yellow fever in the United States, its infamous epidemic in Philadelphia

during the 1790s, and an evaluation of the relationship of events like the

expansion of the railroads and immigration will prove the overall

significance yellow fever had in human history.

The Basics: Yellow Fever’s History

Time and time again, mosquitoes have been the culprit behind

diseases spread to man, some of which are: the West Nile Virus, Malaria,

and even Heartworms in canines; yellow yever is not an exception. Although

its origins stem from Africa through the beginning of slave trade, wherein

which it became endemic to the United States, its transfer from Africa to

the Americas caused it to become its own unique species. As highlighted in

Juliet E. Bryant, Edward C. Holmes, and Alan D.T. Barret’s findings

presented in their research report, “rigorous examination using gene

sequence data and modern phylogenetic techniques for estimating

divergence times” suggests that geographic isolation occurred resulting in

the distinction between yellow fever in Africa and the United States. (78).

As the World Health Organization propositions, yellow fever is an acute

viral hemorrhagic disease, meaning that an episode of blood loss has to

occur. As mentioned earlier, yellow fever is a difficult disease to eradicate if

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you have the severe strain, which presents itself with symptoms such as

black vomit, bleeding from the eyes, and jaundice—a discoloration of the

skin and eyes. Ultimately, these symptoms can lead to hallucinations, coma

and 50% of severe cases result in death.

Although currently the United States is, for the vast majority, free of

yellow fever, this virus is still prevalent in tropical areas of Latin America as

well as where it originated—Africa. Despite the technological advantages

that have occurred since epidemics of this disease in the United States,

conditions worldwide—where this disease is prevalent—like deforestation,

population movements, and urbanization have ultimately caused the

number of cases to rise. Most cases, specifically 85%, are only sick for a

week with symptoms like the common flu: fever, muscle pain, back pain,

headache, shivers, loss of appetite, and nausea or vomiting (“World Health

Organization”). Although most cases are not severe, what riveted history in

the 1700s was an outbreak of yellow fever in Philadelphia that caused even

the current president at the time, George Washington, to flee the state. In

order to establish the overall severity of this disease, there are a couple of

outbreaks in particular that capsulate the hypothesis of how much havoc a

virus can have on society. The yellow fever outbreak in Philadelphia in 1793

displays the brutality behind diseases, and history, as a whole.

The Yellowing of the U.S.: Outbreak Begins

Although there have been at least five notable instances of outbreaks

in the United States of yellow fever, two of which were in 1798 (in

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Philadelphia, New York, and Boston) and 1878 (the Mississippi Valley), the

most notorious and renown case of yellow fever was the first. In 1793 in

Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, ten percent of the overall population succumbed

to this illness. Because of very wet spring seasons followed by a hot

summer, the perfect conditions for mosquito larvae prospered. Standing

water, the perfect breeding ground for Aedes aegypti, the species of female

mosquitos that harbored the yellow fever virus (Abrams 52). Within two

weeks of its arrival in Philadelphia, the whole city was put under

quarantine. Interestingly enough, it was found that the infected weren’t the

usual victims—the elderly—but the young and middle aged crowd (Abrams

54). It was noted that African Americans got yellow fever in lesser

percentages than white Americans primarily because of immunity from

living in Africa. All in all, the terror stopped in October when vastly cooler

temperatures diminished the mosquito population.

The rise of yellow fever epidemics throughout the United States had

short term significances as well as long term significances. To begin,

“social, political, and economic life was at a standstill” as the epidemic

raged through Philadelphia (54). Residences and businesses, especially near

the Delaware River where the percentages of death were much higher, all

forms of commerce and communication stopped. Yellow Fever even

prevented Philadelphia from partaking in the colonist’s original reason for

founding the community—the ability to practice religious tolerance. This

displays the sheer anguish this virus had on the city. Another short term

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significance of yellow fever was the effects it had on our first President,

George Washington. As briefly mentioned earlier, George Washington was

displaced from his residency because of the severity of yellow fever and the

outbreak that occurred in Philadelphia. Although George Washington never

lived in the present day White House, which was built in 1800 and has

housed every president since John Adams, George Washington, out of fear

of catching yellow fever, fled from the presidential house in Philadelphia

and went to the Germantown White House. Although I’m sure there have

been instances where a President was displaced for his own protection by

enemy, this is the only instance of a president fleeing in order to avoid a

biological threat; a fairly significant event to note in history.

Relationships in a Larger Context

Overall, this virus has made significant and unique marks in United

States history in comparison to other diseases outbreaks that have

occurred. To recap, this was the only instance of a president vacating the

sanctity of his home because of a biological threat; a virus that killed ten

percent of the population in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the original home

of the president. Although in the short term the effects of yellow fever were

fairly significant, such as the immediate response of community shutdown

economically, socially, politically, and even spiritually, this was only the

beginning of the problems yellow fever had on the country. In the long

term, there was a substantial relationship between two large events that

take place in the 1800s that propagated a need to take the spread of disease

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as a national concern. These two relationships—an expanding railroad and

increased immigration—are noteworthy in the United States’ reaction to

disease.

Railroad Expansion: Yellow Fever Riding Coach?

Flash forward approximately 50 years from the outbreak in 1793;

these were times that were bloody, cruel, and especially violent. After the

Civil War and during the Reconstruction Era harbored a new, innovative

process highly develops throughout the eighteenth century. As discussed in

class, from the 1840s to 1890s, approximately 175,000 miles worth of

railroads were set throughout the developing Unites States of America. This

means of transportation exacerbated the developed of the United States,

which was already expanded from the original colonies all the way to the

west coast. Other than the intended effect of rapid transportation, economic

growth, and the development of unsettled lands that railroads brought

about, there came an unintended effect—the spread of unwarranted

disease. Time and time again, instances of outbreaks spread via the

Southern states by train became an unfortunate common place

phenomenon.

As mentioned earlier, there were other outbreaks that occurred

throughout the United States that were only worsened by the long distances

trains could travel, for instance the two Outbreaks that occurred in New

Orleans—and subsequently the whole Mississippi Valley—in 1855 and 1878.

Because trains could harbor passengers fleeing from cities where an

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outbreak had occurred, it could be taking unsuspecting passengers with

yellow fever to new areas of the country without knowing because of the

virus’ two day incubation period (Huffard Jr. 84). Adding to this, mosquitoes

could also be transported by the trains, which would be the perfect, damp

environment they’d need to survive and reproduce. The start of a new

epidemic would then causally occur “once the train stopped in the town,

these mosquitoes could [then] exit the train [and] bite new victims” (84). In

order to combat these issues, serious conversation occurred. Ultimately,

and most significantly, discussion of quarantine took place within New

Orleans and other cities in the late 1870s because of the implications that

not only the railroads were transporting yellow fever but immigration as

well were both factors contributing to the lack of control and the

distribution of this virus throughout the United States.

Wave Three: Immigration into the United States

In parallel with the transfer of yellow fever via railroads, an influx of

immigrants were arriving to the United States from Europe from the 1870s

through the 1920s. This time period is commonly referred to as the “Third

Wave” of Immigration to the United States, primarily consisting of poorer

Eastern Europeans (“UV School of Public Health and Community Medicine”

I). The densely packed ships ultimately became a breeding ground for

diseases. The potential for yellow fever outbreaks were exacerbated with

the amount of immigrants coming into the United States along with the

other diseases propagating within these large ships, like cholera and

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typhus. Ultimately, sigma was associated with third wave immigrants—they

were perceived as “dirty and tainted harboring filth, disease, and death (2).

In response to yellow fever, among other illnesses, spreading across

borders within the country, the national government decided it was time to

take authority over disease. In 1878, The National Quarantine Act was

signed taking a two pronged approach to handling disease spread. First, it

took “quarantine powers away from the states and [putting] it into the

hands of a federal entity” and eventually reestablished the need for a

maritime health service (3). Although quarantine was socially used as a tool

to exclude the addition of a lower class into an America that was

prospering, the National Quarantine Act systematically provided health care

services and decontaminating services which “disinfected” all newly

arriving Americans as a precaution to thwart off the spread of disease.

Conclusion

With the evidence provided, it is apparent that yellow fever had

significant strides within United States History. Yellow Fever, a disease that

is described with having symptoms like the yellow discoloration of one’s

eyes and skin color, black vomit, and hemorrhaging, caused significant

damage to citizens of the U.S. living primarily near stagnant water sources

as well as railroad junctions. Yellow Fever, in the short term, affected the

common citizens’ means to a normal, functional life; commerce, politics, the

market place, and the ability to practice one’s religion became impossible

with the outbreak of yellow fever within Philadelphia. Our first president,

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George Washington, had to flee his home in Philly because of the viral

disaster that desecrated the population by approximately 10%. With the

information provided, specifically in the long term effects of yellow fever,

one can decipher that it impacted the United States with a vigor

unparalleled to most viruses. Yellow Fever gave us the National Quarantine

Act, which has provided vast resources and benefits towards the health

community as a whole.

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