university of warmia and mazury in olsztyn polish · university of warmia and mazury in olsztyn k e...

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PUBLISHER UWM

UNIVERSITY OF WARMIA AND MAZURY IN OLSZTYN

PolishJournal

of Natural Sciences

(2/2009) 24

OLSZTYN 2009

EDITORIAL BOARDJanusz Falkowski (Editor-in-chief), Eugeniusz Biesiadka, Jan Glogowski,

Ryszard Zadernowski, Hans Harms (Germany), Vaclav Matousek (Czech Republic),Juraj Mlynek (Slovak Republic)

Executive editor Agnieszka Orłowska-Rachwał

The Polish Journal of Natural Sciences is indexed and abstractedin Biological Abstracts and Biosis Previews

The Journal is also available (from volume 22) in electronic form. The online editionis hosted by MetaPress (www.metapress.com) in partnership with Versita

(www.versita.com)

PL ISSN 1643-9953

Copyright by Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Warmińsko-MazurskiegoOlsztyn 2009

PUBLISHER UWM OLSZTYN

Addressul. Jana Heweliusza 14

10-718 Olsztyn-Kortowo, Polandtel.: (48) (089) 523-36-61fax: (48) (089) 523-34-38

e-mail: [email protected]

Ark. wyd. 3,92, ark. druk. 3,19, nakład 110 egz.Druk – Zakład Poligraficzny UWM w Olsztynie

zam. nr 320

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Agriculture

J. OLSZEWSKI, A. PSZCZÓŁKOWSKA, M. MAKOWSKA, T. KULIK, A. OKORSKI – Effectof Water Deficit on Gas Exchange Parameters, Productivity and Grain Whole-someness of Spring Wheat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

M. WYRZYKOWSKA, J. ZIEMIŃSKA, C. STANKIEWICZ, M. LISOWSKA – Evaluation of SeedYield Variability in lp-Type Lucerne (Medicago Sativa ssp. Media L.) Based onSelected Yield Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Animal Breeding and Husbandry

J. MICIŃSKI, J. POGORZELSKA, W. BARAŃSKI, B. KALICKA – Effect of Disease Incidenceon the Milk Performance of High-Yielding Cows in Successive Lactations . . 102

R. WINARSKI, S. WAJDA – Fat Thickness and the Longest Back Muscle Measurementof Carcasses of Fatteners Slaughtered at Different Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Food and Nutrition Sciences

M. TAŃSKA, D. ROTKIEWICZ, M. AMBROSEWICZ – Technological Value of SelectedPolish Varieties of Rapeseed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

SPIS TREŚCI

Rolnictwo

J. OLSZEWSKI, A. PSZCZÓŁKOWSKA, M. MAKOWSKA, T. KULIK, A. OKORSKI – Wpływdeficytu wodnego na wskaźniki wymiany gazowej, produkcyjność i zdrowotnośćziarna pszenicy jarej . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

M. WYRZYKOWSKA, J. ZIEMIŃSKA, C. STANKIEWICZ, M. LISOWSKA – Ocena zmiennościplonu nasion lucerny mieszańcowej długogroniastej (Medicago Sativa ssp.Media L.) w oparciu o wybrane elementy struktury plonu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93

Chów i Hodowla Zwierząt

J. MICIŃSKI, J. POGORZELSKA, W. BARAŃSKI, B. KALICKA – Wpływ rodzaju schorzeńu krów wysoko wydajnych na ich użytkowość mleczną w kolejnych laktacjach 102

R. WINARSKI, S. WAJDA – Grubość słoniny i pomiary mięśnia najdłuższego grzbietutusz tuczników poddawanych ubojowi przy różnej masie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113

Nauka o Żywności i Żywieniu

M. TAŃSKA, D. ROTKIEWICZ, M. AMBROSEWICZ – Wartość technologiczna nasionwybranych krajowych odmian rzepaku . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122

POLISH JOURNAL OF NATURAL SCIENCESAbbrev.: Pol. J. Natur. Sc., Vol 24(2): 85–92, Y. 2009

DOI 10.2478/v10020-009-0008-8

EFFECT OF WATER DEFICIT ON GAS EXCHANGEPARAMETERS, PRODUCTIVITY AND GRAIN

WHOLESOMENESS OF SPRING WHEAT

Jacek Olszewski, Agnieszka Pszczółkowska,Monika Makowska, Tomasz Kulik, Adam Okorski

Department of Plant Diagnostics and PathophysiologyUniversity of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn

K e y w o r d s: water deficit, spring wheat, photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance,intercellular CO2 concentration, grain wholesomeness, BIO-PCR.

A b s t r a c t

The rate of photosynthesis and transpiration, intercellular CO2 concentration and stomatalconductance in spring wheat plants were determined in an experiment conducted during the years2004–2005. The severity of fungal infection of wheat kernels was estimated by a traditional methodand a molecular BIO-PCR technique with the use of universal and SCAR primers. It was found thatwater deficit decreased thousand grain weight, grain weight per plant and the values of gas exchangeparameters (including photosynthesis, transpiration, stomatal conductance, intercellular CO2 con-centration), in particular photosynthesis. The values of biometric characters did not decrease.The rate of wheat grain colonization by fungal pathogens was slightly higher under water stressconditions.

WPŁYW DEFICYTU WODNEGO NA WSKAŹNIKI WYMIANY GAZOWEJ,PRODUKCYJNOŚĆ I ZDROWOTNOŚĆ ZIARNA PSZENICY JAREJ

Jacek Olszewski, Agnieszka Pszczółkowska, Monika Makowska, Tomasz Kulik,Adam Okorski

Katedra Diagnostyki i Patofizjologii RoślinUniwersytet Warmińsko-Mazurski w Olsztynie

S ł o w a k l u c z o w e: niedobór wody, pszenica jara, fotosynteza, transpiracja, przewodnośćszparkowa, międzykomórkowe stężenie CO2, zdrowotność ziarna, BIO-PCR.

Address: Jacek Olszewski, University of Warmia and Mazury, ul. Plac Łódzki 5, 10-727 Olsztyn,Poland, phone: +48 (089) 523 35 11, e-mail: [email protected]

A b s t r a k t

W latach 2004–2005 przeprowadzono eksperyment badawczy, w którym mierzono intensywnośćfotosyntezy i transpiracji, międzykomórkowe stężenie CO2 oraz przewodność szparkową pszenicyjarej. Określono ponadto zasiedlenie grzybami ziarniaków – metodą tradycyjną oraz molekularnąBIO-PCR z wykorzystaniem primerów uniwersalnych oraz typu SCAR. Wykazano, że deficyt wodyspowodował obniżenie MTZ, masy ziarna z rośliny oraz wskaźników wymiany gazowej (fotosynteza,transpiracja, przewodność szparkowa, międzykomórkowe stężenie CO2), a zwłaszcza fotosyntezy. Niestwierdzono natomiast spadku wartości cech biometrycznych. Zanotowano także nieco wyższezasiedlenie ziarna pszenicy jarej patogenami grzybowymi w obiektach z niedoborem wody.

Introduction

One of the factors that determine the growth, development and yieldof crops is adequate water supply, which is essential to all life processes. Waterdeficit disturbs metabolic reactions, leads to changes in the chemical composi-tion of seeds as well as to considerable yield loss and quality deterioration(KACPERSKA 1991, GRZESIUK and GÓRECKI 1994, OZTURK and AYOLIN 2004).Water deficit is caused by a substantial water shortage in the soil, atmosphericdrought, and the excess of transpiration over absorption (BOCZEK and SZLEN-

DAK 1992, FORDOŃSKI et al. 1994). Moisture deficiency is manifested in plantwilting already when water levels decrease from 75–90% (considered optimal)to 55–70% (GRZESIUK et al. 1999). Long-term drought may damage photosys-tem II (PS II) structure, which in turn reduces the rate of photosynthesis.Plants respond to water stress by closing their stomata to prevent water loss,which hinders CO2 assimilation. The adverse changes in the photosynthesisprocess lead to considerable yield loss. On the other hand, plants grown underwater deficit conditions have an ability to alter their metabolism so as to savewater and minimize the negative effects of its shortage.

Among the biotic factors affecting the photosynthesis process, an importantrole is played by various diseases, 80% of which are caused by fungal patho-gens. At an advanced stage of a fungal disease, the rate of photosynthesis maybe reduced by as much as 75%. This results, among others, from a decrease inleaf surface area caused by damage to the green organs of a plant, plant growthinhibition or the occurrence of extensive necrotic lesions. Moreover, organelledestruction in infected plants leads to disturbances in water relations.

In view of the above, a study was undertaken to determine the effectof water deficit on the morphological characters, gas exchange parameters andgrain wholesomeness of spring wheat.

Jacek Olszewski et al.86

Materials and Methods

A two-factorial pot experiment was conducted in six replications in thegreenhouse of the University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, duringthe years 2004–2005. The experimental factors included spring wheat cv.Nawra, and two levels of soil moisture content:– optimal (60–70% of capillary water capacity),– deficient (30–35% of capillary water capacity).Scope of the study:– determination of gas exchange parameters (the rate of photosynthesis and

transpiration, stomatal conductance and intercellular CO2 concentration),with the use of a LI-COR 6400 portable gas analyzer;

– mycological evaluation of wheat grain by a traditional method and moleculartechniques (BIO-PCR, SCAR-PCR), preceded by DNA isolation;

– determination of selected biometric characters of wheat plants.Gas exchange parameters were measured five times, at several-day inter-

vals, using a LI-COR 6400 gas analyzer (Portable Photosynthesis System,DMP AG S.A. LTD, at a constant CO2 concentration of 400 ppm andillumination of 1000 µmol m-2 s-1. The source of photons was a LED LightSource lamp, emitting wide-spectrum light at a peak wavelength of between670 nm and 465 nm. Measurements were performed on the flag leaf of springwheat plants, at selected development stages. Mean values for each stage aregiven in the paper.

In order to determine the health status of spring wheat grain by a tradi-tional method (artificial cultures), 100 kernels were selected randomly of eachtreatment. The kernels were rinsed under running water for 15 to 20 minutesand surface disinfected with 70% ethyl alcohol and 1% sodium hypochlorite toremove impurities, and next rinsed three times in sterile distilled water. Thenthe kernels were placed in Petri dishes with a PDA solid medium. The disheswere stored in a thermostat at 20 to 23oC for 7 to 10 days, and next myceliumhyphae were transferred to PDA slants. Finally fungal cultures were identifiedto genus and species based on their morphological characters observed underan optical microscope, as described in the monographs by ELLIS (1971), GILMAN

(1957) and KWAŚNA et al. (1991).Mycelium hyphae (i.e. live pathogen inoculum with potential infectious

properties) obtained from kernels cultured on a PDA medium were isolated inseparate Petri dishes for BIO-PCR analysis. After 2 to 3 days mycelium pieceswere taken with a scalpel, placed in porcelain mortars and ground in liquidnitrogen. DNA was isolated by the CTAB method (NICHOLSON et al. 1996).Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was performed using primers known fromliterature (PARRY and NICHOLSON 1996, HUE et al. 1999).

Effect of Water Deficit... 87

Experimental results were processed statistically based on a multiple rangetest involving mean values in homogenous groups, at a significance levelof α = 0.01, with the use of STATISTICA ver. 6.0 software.

Results and Discussion

The results of the present study, obtained both in the first and second yearof the experimental period, revealed a decrease in the values of the testedbiometric characters of spring wheat plants under conditions of reducedcapillary water capacity, in comparison with the control treatment (Table 1).However, significant differences were observed only with respect to grainweight per plant and thousand grain weight.

Table 1Selected biometric characters of spring wheat cv. Nawra under water stress conditions (mean values

of 2004–2005)

Watercapacity Plant height

of the soil (cm)(%)

Number Number Thousand Grain weightCultivar of spikes of grains grain weight per plant

per plant per spike (g) (g)

60–70%Nawra 30–35%

49.60A

45.84A2.90A

2.26A11.87A

12.64A38.7B

30.9A1.29B

0.77A

Homogeneous groups A, AB, B – according to Fisher’s LSD test

KOCOŃ and SUŁEK (2004) also noted an average yield decline of around 30%under moisture deficiency conditions. Such a decrease results from the plant’sresponse to water stress involving a decrease in the rate of photosynthesis andgrowth (LU and ZHANG 1998, STARCK 2002).

Crop yield is largely dependent on the photosynthesis process as well as onthe transport and distribution of assimilates (AUSTIN et al. 1977, NALBORCZYK

1989, STARCK et al. 1995). The rate of photosynthesis may be limited by almostall adverse environmental factors (STARCK 1995). One of such factors is watershortage in the soil, related to weather conditions.

It was found that water deficit over the period from ear formation to grainfilling in the tested cereal species caused a significant decrease in the rateof photosynthesis, particularly noticeable in the first year of the experiment(Table 2). As regards transpiration and intercellular CO2 concentration,a similar response was observed later, i.e. from the flowering stage to grainfilling. Stomatal conductance remained at a comparable level. In the secondyear the values of all parameters of gas exchange were similar, but theintensity of changes was slightly lower (Table 3).


Table 2Gas exchange parameters in spring wheat under water stress conditions in 2004

Intercellular CO2 Stomatalconcentration conductance

(µmol CO2mol-1) (mol H2O m-2s-1)

Photosynthesis Transpiration(µmol CO2m-2s-1) (mmol H2Om-2s-1)

I II III I II III I II III I II III

CapillaryCultivar water

capacity

60–70% 12.5B 9.4B 6.3B 3.9A 2.2B 1.1B 337A 254B 192B 0.33A 0.19A 0.08A

Nawra 30–35% 5.8A 7.1A 4.9A 3.2A 1.3A 0.4A 303A 212A 114A 0.20A 0.14A 0.05A

I – measurement of gas exchange parameters at the ear formation stage;II – measurement of gas exchange parameters at the flowering stage;III – measurement of gas exchange parameters at the grain filling stage.

Table 3Gas exchange parameters in spring wheat under water stress conditions in 2005

Intercellular CO2 Stomatalconcentration conductance

(µmol CO2mol-1) (mol H2O m-2s-1)

Photosynthesis Transpiration(µmol CO2m-2s-1) (mmol H2Om-2s-1)

I II III I II III I II III I II III

CapillaryCultivar water

capacity

60–70% 12.5B 8.3A 8.4B 2.4A 1.8A 3.0B 320B 173A 139B 0.38A 0.06A 0.08A

Nawra 30–35% 9.6A 7.7A 5.6A 1.9A 1.6A 1.1A 262A 155A 107A 0.15A 0.06A 0.01A

I, II, III – explanations as in Table 2.

The present results are consistent with the findings of PSZCZÓŁKOWSKA etal. (2003) who demonstrated that the rate of photosynthesis decreased inresponse to water shortage in the soil. A similar trend was observed byOLSZEWSKI et al. (2007) who studied the response of winter wheat to moisturedeficiency. Photosynthesis, especially in the flag leaf, is particularly importantduring kernel formation, when bottom leaves begin to wilt (INOUE et al. 2004),because the rate of this process affects yield height.

Microscopic mycological analyses of wheat grain, performed in 2004,showed the presence of Chaetomium spp. only in the water-deficient treatment(Table 4). In 2005 the rate of fungal infection was substantially higher. Fungalisolates were found in both the control and water-deficient treatment.The dominant species was Penicillium ssp. The proportion of potentiallypathogenic fungi of the genus Fusarium was also high. The occurrenceof Fusarium graminearum, Fusarium poae and Fusarium proliferatum wasconfirmed. Fusarium proliferatum is a common species in southern Europe(Spain). OLSZEWSKI et al. (2007) reported the presence of this pathogen undergreenhouse conditions, which could be related to high temperature levelsduring the experiment. In our study the number of fungal isolates was slightly


higher in the water-deficient treatment. According to FORDOŃSKI et al. (1994),water stress decreases plant resistance, thus contributing to increased diseaseincidence.

Table 4Number of fungal isolates in spring wheat grain cv. Nawra under water stress conditions

in the years 2004–2005

Control Water stress

60–70% capillarywater capacity

30–35% capillarywater capacity

Fungal species

2004

Chaetomium spp. 1

Total 1

2005

Colletotrichum graminearum 1

Fusarium gramniearum 1

Fusarium poae (Peck) Wollenw. 4 3

Fusarium proliferatum 3 3

Mucor spp. 1

Penicillium spp. 23 27

Total 30 36

60–70% capillary water capacity – control30–35% capillary water capacity – water stress

The results of microscopic examinations were partly confirmed by BIO--PCR analyses with the use of SCAR primers (Figure 1). The PCR productsindicated the presence of fungi of the genus Fusarium. Further analysesrevealed the occurrence of Fusarium poae in the second year of the study(Figure 2), as indicated by a PCR product of 220 bp. Similar results wereobtained by PARRY and NICHOLSON (1996).

M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 1. PCR product obtained from spring wheat grain with the use of species-specific primers(PL58SL/PL28SL) for Fusarium spp. under water stress conditions in 2005. M – molecularweight standard 1–5 spring wheat cv. Nawra, control treatment, 6–10 – spring wheat cv. Nawra,

water stress


M 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Fig. 2. PCR product obtained from spring wheat grain with the use of species-specific primers(Fp82R/Fp82R) for Fusarium poae under water stress conditions in 2005. M – molecular weightstandard 1–5 spring wheat cv. Nawra, control treatment, 6–10 – spring wheat cv. Nawra, water stress

SCAR primers do not amplify plant DNA, but they permit pathogenidentification directly in the host tissue, with no need for pure cultureisolation. They also allow to detect infection at an early stage, and to recognizetissue damage prior to the onset of disease symptoms (CHEŁKOWSKI andWITKOWSKA 1999). The BIO-PCR technique enables to confirm the presenceof live pathogen inoculum with potential infectious properties.

It should be stressed that PCR analyses may be an effective tool forpresymptomatic diagnostics in plants, applied prior to the appearance of thesigns and symptoms of a disease. According to reference data, in some casespathogens had been identified before disease symptoms became apparent(TURNER et al. 1998).

Conclusions

1. Water deficit did not decrease the values of the investigated biometriccharacters of spring wheat plants, but it contributed to a drop in thousandgrain weight and grain weight per plant.

2. Water stress resulted in a decrease in the values of gas exchangeparameters, particularly in the rate of photosynthesis in the leavesof spring wheat.

3. Members of the genus Penicillium and toxin-producing fungi of thegenus Fusarium were identified in wheat kernels. The rate of wheat graincolonization by fungal pathogens was slightly higher under water stressconditions.

4. The use of the BIO-PCR technique with species-specific SCAR primerspermitted the detection of Fusarium poae in wheat grain.

Translated by ALEKSANDRA POPRAWSKA

Accepted for print 4.03.2009


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DOI 10.2478/v10020-009-0009-7

EVALUATION OF SEED YIELD VARIABILITYIN LP-TYPE LUCERNE (MEDICAGO SATIVA SSP.

MEDIA L.) BASED ON SELECTED YIELDCOMPONENTS

Małgorzata Wyrzykowska, Jolanta Ziemińska,Czesław Stankiewicz, Marzena Lisowska

Department of Plant Breeding and Seed ProductionUniversity of Podlasie in Siedlce

K e y w o r d s: lucerne, lp-type, seed yield, principle component analysis (PCA), cluster analysis(CA), phenotypic diversity, repeatability.

A b s t r a c t

An experiment was established to study a population of long raceme peduncle-type (lp-type)lucerne. 15 groups of plants were grown in selection plots. Each group comprised plants originatingfrom seeds collected from a single plant, and since lucerne is allogamous, the obtained resultsprovided a basis for an evaluation within the maternal line. The aim of this study was to analyze theseed yield and the expression of phenotypic traits affecting the seed yield structure. Principlecomponent analysis (PCA) was performed. The Euclidean distance and K-means grouping were usedas a taxonomic measure of similarity between groups. Two agglomerated phenotypic groups werediscriminated within the examined population, and the differentiating traits in a multivariateanalysis were: number of racemes per shoot, number of seeds per shoot and seed yield per shoot.Statistical characteristics of the distinguished groups provided a basis for determining the ideotypewith a high seed yield.

OCENA ZMIENNOŚCI PLONU NASION LUCERNY MIESZAŃCOWEJDŁUGOGRONIASTEJ (MEDICAGO SATIVA SSP. MEDIA L.) W OPARCIU O WYBRANE

ELEMENTY STRUKTURY PLONU

Małgorzata Wyrzykowska, Jolanta Ziemińska, Czesław Stankiewicz, Marzena Lisowska

Katedra Hodowli Roślin i NasiennictwaAkademia Podlaska w Siedlcach

S ł o w a k l u c z o w e: lucerna, forma „Lp”, plon nasion, analiza składowych głównych, analizaskupień, zróżnicowanie fenotypowe, powtarzalność.

Address: Małgorzata Wyrzykowska, University of Podlasie, ul. Bolesława Prusa 14, 08-110 Siedlce,phone: +48 (025) 643 13 22, e-mail: [email protected]

A b s t r a k t

W doświadczeniu, będącym podstawą tej pracy, badano populację roślin lucerny o długichkwiatostanach, formę „Lp”. Do badań wybrano 15 grup roślin charakteryzujących się długimigronami, które wysiano na poletkach selekcyjnych. Rośliny w grupie pochodziły z nasion zebranychz jednej rośliny, a ze względu na obcopylność lucerny, uzyskane wyniki traktowano jak ocenępo linii matecznej. Celem opracowania była analiza plonowania nasiennego i ekspresji cechfenotypowych składających się na strukturę plonu nasion. Zastosowano analizę składowychgłównych. Jako taksonomiczną miarę podobieństwa między grupami wybrano odległości euklidesowei grupowanie metodą k-średnich. Stwierdzono aglomerację badanej populacji lucerny mieszańcowejna dwie wyraźne grupy fenotypowe. Cechami różnicującymi w analizie wielowymiarowej były:liczba gron na pędzie, liczba nasion z pędu oraz plon nasion z pędu. Sporządzono charakterystykęstatystyczną wydzielonych grup. Na tej podstawie sporządzono ideotyp formy o wysokim plonienasion.

Introduction

The evaluation of variability regarding seed yield and yield-forming factorsis an important stage of breeding work. However, yield estimation andprediction in a collection population is extremely difficult. In the lucernebreeding experiments presented in this paper, the authors evaluated the seedproduction potential of initial material. Lp-type lucerne plants were analyzed.Lucerne is an allogamous and perennial crop whose green matter yield andseed yield are harvested in the second and following years, therefore itsvarietal stability is hard to determine. Discovering certain common, unknownfactors responsible for dependencies between variables (...), or in other wordspresenting observable variables in the form of a smaller number of non--observable (hidden) variables referred to as factors (...) (MORRISON 1990), maybe used for the purpose of dividing the initial material into homogeneousgroups, each with a specific set of attributes. Early selection and reproductiveisolation of the discriminated groups, based on a multivariate analysis, maycontribute to progress in breeding work. Other important aspects are thedetermination of repeatability of results in particular years of lucerne growing,and the variation of trait values within and between progeny groups.

The aim of this study was to determine the traits having the greatestdiscriminant value, differentiating the investigated population of lp-typeluicerne plants. This will enable to select progeny groups with the highest seedproduction potential.


A collection of lucerne plants analyzed in this study was established in 2003in the village of Raczyny, commune of Przesmyki, situated in the eastern part

Małgorzata Wyrzykowska et al.94

of the Masovian Province. The material was supplied by dr Zbigniew Bodzonfrom the Department of Genetics, Institute of Plant Breeding and Acclimatiz-ation in Radzików. The lp phenotype was selected of the RAH 100 population.15 groups of plants were grown in selection plots. Each group comprised plantsoriginating from seeds collected from a single plant, and since lucerne isallogamous, the obtained results provided a basis for an evaluation within thematernal line. The following yield-forming traits were considered: shootlength, number of nodes per shoot, number of racemes per shoot, length of thereceptacle and of its productive part, average number of pods and seeds perraceme, average number of seeds per pod, number of seeds per shoot, thousandseed weight and seed yield per shoot.

The statistical characteristics of the examined population included the mean,maximum and minimum value, and the coefficient of variation for each of theanalyzed traits. The coefficients of correlation (n=15) between traits, deter-mined in 2004 and 2005, were used as a measure of the repeatability of resultsin particular years of lucerne growing. An analysis of variance in a one-factordesign provided a basis for calculating the coefficients of trait heritabilityin consecutive years (FALCONER 1974, JANICKI, SOBEK 1989, PŁOCHIŃSKI 1968,SKOLASIŃSKI, CHARON 1987). The coefficient of heritability describes the diver-sity of groups of plants with a similar genotype, but of different origin.A comparison of the values of heritability coefficients in particular years allowsto determine the effect of of non-genetic factors on this diversity.

A multivariate analysis was performed by the principle componentsmethod. The Euclidean distance was used as a taxonomic measure of similaritybetween groups, and cluster analysis involving K-means grouping was carriedout (SIECZKO et al. 2004, LIU et al. 2004, JAMES et al. 2000, ROJAS et al. 2000,Statystyczne metody... 1999, ZEVEN et al. 1999, MĄDRY 1993, MAREK 1989). PCAwas conducted based on the matrix of correlation coefficients R for meanvalues of two years and 11 investigated traits. The estimates of eigenvalues(characteristic values) λ i of the correlation matrix R and the correspondingestimates of eigenvectors wi were determined. The coefficient of simple correla-tion rzixj between the i-th principle component and the j-th observable variable(trait) was calculated using the formula (SIECZKO et al. 2004):

rzixj =wij √λ i

Sj2

where:Sj

2 – estimate of variance of the j-th trait xj (j-th element on the diagonal of thecovariance matrix S; wij – elements of the i-th eigenvector for the j-thobservable variable (trait) xj, j = 1,...,p.Calculations were performed using Statistica software.

Evaluation of Seed Yield Variability... 95


An analysis of the obtained results revealed that the examined lucernepopulation was characterized by relatively high diversity (Table 1). Seed yieldper shoot showed the highest variability within population (V=74%). Slightlylower values of the coefficient of variation were observed for the numberof seeds per shoot (V=67%), the average number of seeds per pod (V=62%) andthe average number of seeds per raceme (V=55%). Low variability was notedwith respect to receptacle length (V=16%), shoot length (V=24%) and thou-sand seed weight (V=25%). The minimum values of the analyzed traits weremost often recorded in group 3 shoots. Single plants showing the maximumexpression of individual traits were most frequently noted in groups 4, 5, 6,9 (Table 1).

Table 1Characteristics of trait variation for lp-type lucerne forms (2004–2005)

Coefficientof variation

Specification Mean Minimum Maximum

Shoot length (cm) 92.8 3913* 1425 24

Number of nodes per shoot 18.1 615 263 46

Number of racemes per shoot 48.1 66 1225 51

Average number of pods per raceme 13.4 6.14 30.26 25

Receptacle length (cm) 5.9 4.813 12.39 16

Length of the productive part of receptacle (cm) 3.4 2.212 9.029 30

Average number of seeds per raceme 19.3 3.33 58.76 55

Average number of seeds per pod 1.0 0.806 2.912 62

Number of seeds per shoot 722.7 863 27414 67

Thousand seed weight (g) 1.74 1.03 4.08 25

Seed yield per shoot (g) 1.3 0.53 6.424 74

* – numbers denote genetic forms from which single plants with extreme values of traits originated

Table 2 presents an evaluation of diversity within progeny groups of lp-typelucerne. The coefficients of heritability, determined based on an analysisof variance in a randomized one-factor design, were used. These coefficientsserved as a measure of diversity within groups of plants, and of the effectof non-genetic factors on this diversity. An analysis of the coefficientsof heritability revealed that the number of nodes, the length of the receptacleand of its productive part, and the number of seeds per raceme showed thehighest degree of heritability, repeatable in the years of study. This isindicative of a relatively high diversity of groups of plants on the one hand, andof genetic similarity within groups with respect to the above traits on the other.


Table 2Evaluation of diversity within progeny groups (h2) of lp-type lucerne (Medicago sativa) plants and

repeatability of expression of the examined traits in the years 2004 and 2005

Coefficientsof correlation

Specification 2004 2005 between traitsin the years of study

Shoot length (cm) 0.11 0.26* 0.19

Number of nodes per shoot 0.47* 0.53* 0.33

Number of racemes per shoot 0.18* 0.00 -0.06

Average number of pods per raceme 0.13* 0.03 0.36

Receptacle length (cm) 0.41* 0.31* 0.50*

Length of the productive part of receptacle (cm) 0.51* 0.54* 0.59*

Average number of seeds per raceme 0.43* 0.34* -0.68*

Average number of seeds per pod 0.32* 0.00 0.24

Number of seeds per shoot 0.14* 0.14* -0.51*

Thousand seed weight (g) 0.03 0.98 0.26

Seed yield per shoot (g) 0.15* 0.18* -0.49*

* – significant at α = 0.05

The coefficients of correlation were calculated between the years of study,for particular traits represented by mean values determined for each of theanalyzed groups of lucerne plants. In case of full repeatability of traits in years,the correlation coefficient would be close to 1. The following traits werecharacterized by the highest degree of repeatability: number of seeds perraceme (-0.68), length of the receptacle (0.45) and of its productive part (0.59),number of seeds per plant (-0.51), number of seeds per shoot (-0.41). Theremaining traits, which developed earlier during ontogenesis, showed lowrepeatability.

A low proportion of genetic variation in total variation in groups of plants,as well as high values of heritability coefficients and repeatability of resultsin years, may provide a basis for predicting trait expression in successiveyears. Therefore, a question arises whether a set of selected traits and theirexpression e.g. in the first year of lucerne growing may contribute to predictingtheir expression in following years.

Multivariate methods are employed to determine trait variation in lucernepopulations, but primarily they are applied in studies using genetic markers,DNA analysis and chromosomal similarity (BAUCHAN et al. 2003, JENCZEWSKI

et al. 1999, BENA et al. 1998, BARACCIA et al. 1997). Many authors havesuccessfully deployed the above methods to evaluate population variabilityof agricultural (KUBICKA et al. 2004, KURIATA et al. 2004, MĄDRY 1993,


NOFFSINGER 2000, PIETRZYKOWSKI 2004, SIECZKO et al. 2004, TYRKA,MIKULSKI 2004, RONFORT et al. 1998) and horticultural plants (UKALSKA

et al. 2004).A principle component analysis (Table 3) revealed that the first two

components explained 48% of the total multifactor variation of the studiedgenetic forms of lucerne. The number of racemes per shoot, the numberof seeds per shoot and the seed yield per shoot showed the strongest correlationwith the first principle component, and significantly differentiated the inves-tigated homogeneous groups. As regards the second principal components, thehighest discriminant value was noted for the length of the receptacle and of itsproductive part.

Table 3Eigenvalues for two principal components and coefficients of correlation rzixj

Component 1 (z1) Component 2 (z2)

correlation coefficients correlation coefficientsrzixj rzixj

Trait

Shoot length 0.061 0.209

Number of nodes per shoot 0.285 0.427

Number of racemes per shoot 0.878 -0.016

Average number of pods per raceme -0.161 -0.099

Receptacle length (cm) 0.102 0.842

Length of the productive part of receptacle (cm) 0.364 0.769

Average number of seeds per raceme 0.309 -0.622

Average number of seeds per pod -0.288 0.016

Number of seeds per shoot 0.938 -0.307

Thousand seed weight (g) 0.270 0.436

Seed yield per shoot (g) 0.948 -0.143

Eigenvalues λ i 3.05 2.23

Percentage of explained multifactor variation 27.8 20.2

As indicated by the diagram presented in Figure 1 and by K-meansgrouping, the examined groups of single plants could be divided into twoclusters. The first cluster comprised high-seed-yielding forms with the follow-ing numbers: 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 14, 15. The other cluster included the remaininggroups of individual plants (2, 3, 7, 8, 11, 12, 13). Mean values of traits for bothclusters are presented in Table 4. The traits differentiating the analyzedgroups of individual plants were: number of racemes per shoot, averagenumber of seeds per pod, yield and number of seeds per shoot; the traits hadbeen determined earlier by the principle component analysis.


1

14

5

10

3

8

13

11

6

12

15

4

2

7

9

1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0distance between clusters

gen

etic

form

s

Fig. 1. Diagram for 15 forms of lucerne

Table 4Mean values of the examined traits for clusters

Level of significanceof differences

between clusters

Mean valuesSpecification of traits for

cluster 1

Mean valuesof traits for

cluster 2

Shoot length (cm) 93.9 88.3 0.41

Number of nodes per shoot 17.5 15.6 0.42

Number of racemes per shoot 55.34.1* 32.8 0.01

Average number of pods per raceme 13.1 13.5 0.63

Receptacle length (cm) 5.9 5.7 0.43

Length of the productive partof receptacle (cm) 3.4 3.0 0.23

Average number of seeds per raceme 20.1 17.3 0.31

Average number of seeds per pod 0.94 1.3 0.05

Number of seeds per shoot 882.64.15 457.3 0.01

Thousand seed weight (g) 1.754 1.7 0.72

Seed yield per shoot (g) 1.574.15 0.8 0.01

* – numbers of groups of single plants with the highest values of traits in a cluster

Shoots marked by high seed productivity (1.57 g seeds per shoot onaverage) set approximately 883 seeds each (Table 4). The pods on these shootsset a relatively low number of seeds – one seed per pod on average, whereas thenumber of seeds per raceme amounted to 20. The relationship between seedyield and the number of seeds set per raceme has been described by STA-


SZEWSKI (1975), PUZIO-IDŹKOWSKA (1993). As demonstrated in a previous studyconducted by a co-author of the present paper (WYRZYKOWSKA 2004), high--yielding lucerne plants set many seeds per shoot and per raceme.

Long peduncles are not always correlated with high seed productivity. Thegroups of plants classified into the second cluster produced a low seed yield.According to data from field observations, long peduncles are often poorin seeds. Low raceme compactness may be caused by poor seed set (due toweather conditions, insect invasions, short-term flower viability) or by seedbreaking during harvest.

Based on the obtained results, the following forms were selected for furtherbreeding: 1, 4, 15. Their high breeding value was confirmed over two yearsof utilization.

Conclusions

1. A principle component analysis revealed that the first two componentsexplained 48% of the total multifactor variation of the examined groupsof plants. The number of racemes per shoot, the number of seeds per shoot andthe seed yield per shoot showed the strongest correlation with the firstprinciple component. These traits had the greatest discriminant value.

2. A multivariate analysis allowed to divide the examined lucerne popula-tion into two homogeneous groups differing significantly with regard to seedproduction potential and traits characterizing seed yield. The first clustercomprised high-seed-yielding forms with the following numbers: 1, 4, 5, 6, 9,10, 14, 15.

3. Selected plants marked by high seed productivity (1.57 g seeds per shooton average) set approximately 883 seeds each, one seed per pod and 20 seedsper raceme.



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DOI 10.2478/v10020-009-0010-1

EFFECT OF DISEASE INCIDENCE ON THE MILKPERFORMANCE OF HIGH-YIELDING COWS

IN SUCCESSIVE LACTATIONS*

Jan Miciński1, Janina Pogorzelska1, Wojciech Barański2,Beata Kalicka1

1 Department of Cattle Breeding and Milk Quality Evaluation2 Department of Animal Reproduction

University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn

Key words: health status of cows, mastitis, endometritis, lameness, ketosis, ovarian cysts, milkyield, fat, protein.

A b s t r a c t

The study was conducted in the years 2006–2008. The experimental materials comprised 368Holstein-Friesian cows purchased from Germany as in-calf heifers. The objective of this study was todetermine the health status of cows in a commercial herd kept in the Olsztyn region, based on thetype and incidence of diseases that occurred during three consecutive lactations, and to analyzethe effect of these diseases on milk yield and composition in the first, second and third lactation cycle.The cows were divided into five groups: HEA – clinically healthy cows (showing no diseasesymptoms), MAS – cows with mastitis, LAM – cows with foot/leg defects and lameness, REP – cowswith reproductive problems (retention of the placenta, endometritis, ovarian cysts), MET – cows withmetabolic diseases (ketosis, abomasal displacement). It was found that the most common diseasesduring three consecutive lactations in the investigated herd were endometritis (37.63%) whichoccurred soon after calving (on day 18 post-partum), mastitis (35.48%), formation of ovarian cysts(10.10%), ketosis (8.39%) and leg/foot defects (6.44%). Retention of the placenta and abomasaldisplacement were diagnosed much less frequently (1.62% and 0.34% respectively). The percentageof healthy cows decreased in successive lactations (19.81% in the first lactation, 12.28% in the secondlactation, 6.22% in the third lactation). During each lactation, more than one third of cows sufferedfrom mastitis. The proportion of cows showing the symptoms of ketosis increased with age, from5.12% in the first lactation to 12.23% in the third lactation. The highest yields of milk and milkcomponents over a 305-day lactation cycle were noted in cows with reproductive diseases (ROZ).Foot/led defects and lameness (LAM), mastitis (MAS) and metabolic diseases (MET) had the mostsignificant effect on a decrease in milk production.

Address: Jan Miciński, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Oczapowskiego 5, 10-957Olsztyn, Poland, phone: +48 (089) 523 38 64, e-mail: [email protected]* This study was supported by funds allocated by the Ministry of Scientific Research and InformationTechnology to research project in the years 2006–2009. Grant no. N31105631/0237

WPŁYW RODZAJU SCHORZEŃ U KRÓW WYSOKO WYDAJNYCH NA ICH UŻYTKOWOŚĆMLECZNĄ W KOLEJNYCH LAKTACJACH

Jan Miciński1, Janina Pogorzelska1, Wojciech Barański2, Beata Kalicka1

1 Katedra Hodowli Bydła i Oceny Mleka2 Katedra Rozrodu Zwierząt z Kliniką

Uniwersytet Warmińsko-Mazurski w Olsztynie

S ł o w a k l u c z o w e: zdrowotność krów, mastitis, endometritis, kulawizny, ketoza, cysty jajnikowe,wydajność mleka, tluszcz, białko.

A b s t r a k t

Badania przeprowadzono w latach 2006–2008. Materiał badawczy stanowiło 368 krów rasyholsztyńsko-fryzyjskiej zakupionych jako jałówki cielne z Niemiec. Celem badań była ocena stanuzdrowotnego krów na podstawie rodzaju i częstotliwości występowania chorób w 3 kolejnychlaktacjach, a także określenie ich wpływu na wydajność i skład mleka w I, II i III laktacji zwierzątużytkowanych w hodowli wielkostadnej w regionie olsztyńskim. Wszystkie krowy w stadzie podzie-lono na 5 grup zdrowotnych: ZDR – krowy zdrowe (bez objawów chorobowych); MAS – krowyz zapaleniem wymienia (mastitis); KUL – krowy z chorobami racic (kulawizny); ROZ – krowyz chorobami układu rozrodczego (zatrzymanie łożyska, zapalenie błony śluzowej macicy [endometri-tis], cysty jajnikowe); MET – krowy z chorobami metabolicznymi (ketoza, przemieszczenietrawieńca). W stadzie wysoko wydajnych krów odnotowano, że w trzech analizowanych laktacjachnajczęściej stwierdzanymi chorobami były: zapalenia błony śluzowej macicy (37,63%), pojawiające sięnajwcześniej po wycieleniu (w 18 dniu ), zapalenia wymienia (35,48%), a następnie cysty jajnikowe(10,10%), ketoza (8,39%) i kulawizny (6,44%); znacznie rzadziej diagnozowano zatrzymanie łożyska(1,62%) i przemieszczenie trawieńca (0,34%). Udział krów zdrowych zmniejszał się w kolejnychlaktacjach, wynosząc w I laktacji 19,81%, w II – 12,28% i w III – tylko 6,22%. W każdej laktacji ponad1/3 krów w stadzie zapadała na mastitis. Wraz z wiekiem wzrastał także udział krów z objawamiketozy z 5,12% (w I laktacji) do 12,23% (w III laktacji). Najwyższą wydajność mleka i jego składnikóww laktacji 305-dniowej odnotowano u krów z chorobami układu rozrodczego (ROZ). Największywpływ na obniżenie produkcji mleka i jego składników miały choroby związane z układem ruchu(KUL), mastitis (MAS) oraz choroby metaboliczne (MET).

Introduction

The health status of cattle is affected by livestock production intensifica-tion (MALINOWSKI et al. 2003, WROŃSKI et al. 2007). The breeding programsaimed at improving overall cow performance lead to general herd healthdeterioration, which is manifested in a higher disease incidence and a decreasein fertility. The most common health problems include metabolic diseases,reproductive diseases and motor system disorders (TWARDOŃ et al. 2001,JANOWSKI 2004, WÓJCIK 2005). As a result, the yields of milk and milkcomponents decrease. According to FLEISCHER et al. (2001), since the correla-

Effect of Disease Incidence... 103

tion between milk yield and disease incidence rates has not been proved, itshould be assumed that high-producing cows are not more susceptible todiseases, provided that their maintenance and production needs are met.SHAVER (1997) pointed to the importance of adequate nutrition and well-beingof cows during the perinatal period, when cows are particularly prone toabomasal displacement. The findings of other authors suggest that a signifi-cant increase in milk yield may be associated with such health problems asmetabolic diseases, reproductive diseases and mastistis, as well as with higherfeed costs and a deterioration in the nutritional value of milk (COPPOCK 1973,EMPEL et al. 1986, CORREA et al. 1993, KONDRACKI 2001). The above negativeprocesses result in higher costs of medical treatment, a shorter herd life,reduced revenues from milk sales and, in consequence, lower milk productionprofitability (BRZOZOWSKI et al. 2003, DORYNEK et al. 2005).

The objective of this study was to determine the health status of cows ina commercial herd kept in the Olsztyn region, based on the type and incidenceof selected diseases that occurred during three consecutive lactations, and toanalyze the effect of these diseases on milk yield and composition.


The study was conducted in the years 2006–2008. The experimentalmaterials comprised 368 Holstein-Friesian cows purchased from Germany asin-calf heifers. The cows were kept in four free-stall barns, on deep litter, underthe indoor feeding system. The mono diet fed to cows was based on succulentroughage: hay silage, corn-cob-mix and corn garin silage as well as soybeanmeal, rapeseed meal, ground rye, pelleted concentrated feed “Focus” (Cargill,Poland) and a “Super Premium” vitamin premix. The diet was supplementedwith diamond yeast metabolites, limestone, salt lick and sodium bicarbonate.Total mixed rations (TMR) were administered from a movable feed cart intofeeders inside the barns. The cows were divided into five technological groups,based on their performance and physiological condition. Average daily milkyield in each group was as follows: group 1 – over 40 kg, group 2–31 to 40 kg,group 3–15 to 30 kg, group 4 – below 15 kg. Group 5 comprised dry cows.

Cows were milked twice daily in two herringbone milking parlors (2 x 7,Fullwood Limited Ellesmere Shropshire, England). Due to daily collection,milk was cooled to 6oC. Technological processes were managed and controlledwith the use of Afifarm v.2. 05F software. The herd was regularly inspected bya veterinary surgeon. The following milk performance parameters were ana-lyzed: the yields of milk, fat, protein and dry matter, and the percentagecontent of milk components over 305 days of the first, second and third

Jan Miciński et al.104

lactation, as dependent on disease incidence. Actual milk yield was convertedinto the yield of value-corrected milk (VCM) (kg), according to the followingformula:

VCM (kg) = – 0.05 x (milk kg) + 8.66 x (fat kg) + 25.98 x (protein kg)(ARBEL et al. 2001).

Based on their health status, the cows were divided into five groups: HEA– clinically healthy cows (showing no disease symptoms), MAS – cows withmastitis and other udder diseases, LAM – cows with foot/leg defects (lameness,foul-in-the-foot), REP – cows with reproductive problems (retention of theplacenta, endometritis, ovarian cysts), MET – cows with metabolic diseases(ketosis, abomasal displacement). The analysis did not include cows in whichmore than one disease was diagnosed.

The results were processed statistically using Statistica ver. 7.1 software.Least square means (LSM) and standard errors (Se) were determined bya one-factor analysis of variance, and the significance of differences betweenmeans was estimated by Duncan’s test.


Disease incidence in groups of cows over three consecutive lactationsis presented in Table 1. The percentage of healthy cows decreased graduallyduring successive lactation cycles. In each lactation, over 30% of cowswere affected by reproductive problems (REP), including endometritis, for-mation of ovarian cysts and retained placenta (32.47%, 31.10% and 36.20%in the first, second and third lactation respectively). In a study conductedby FLEISCHER et al. (2001), the most common diseases observed in lactatingcows were metritis (23.0%) and mastitis (21.6%), followed by the occurrenceof ovarian cysts (11.7%) and abomasal displacement (1.1%). HINRICHS etal. (2006) also reported that reproductive disorders were diagnosed mostfrequently in lactating cows.

The second most common disease was mastitis (MAS). Disease incidencerates increased with cow’s age (from 22.73% in primiparous cows to 27.23%in the oldest cows). According to MALINOWSKI et al. (2003), mastitis remainsthe most frequent disease in dairy cattle herds, and the treatment of thiscondition generates the highest costs. These authors examined 972 cowsin western Poland, and observed the clinical symptoms of mastitis in 15.1%of the population. They concluded that effective mastitis control requires bothregular herd monitoring and the implementation of new prevention andtreatment programs.


Table 1Disease incidence in groups of cows over three consecutive lactations

Lactation

Group of cows I II III Average

n % n % N* % n %

HEA 61 19.81 40 12.28 19 6.22 40 12.77MAS 70 22.73 81 24.73 52 27.23 68 24.90LAM 47 15.26 7 2.54 – – 27 8.90REP 100 32.47 95 31.10 69 36.30 88 33.29MET 30 9.73 35 12.47 37 18.85 34 13.68

TOTAL 308 100 256 83.12 191 62.01 882 81.71

* number of cases

Cows with foot and leg defects had the lowest share among the analyzedgroups (Table 1). They accounted for 15.26% of the studied population in thefirst lactation and for 2.54% in the second lactation, while no cases of lamenesswere noted in the third lactation. This could result from the fact that as manyas 43 cows (11.68%) were culled for health disorders in the second lactation,and a total of 177 cows (48.10%) were culled in the second and third lactation.TWARDOŃ et al. (2001) demonstrated that on dairy farms over 15% of cowssuffer from lameness. According to these authors, the most prevalent reasonsfor lameness include too high milk production levels, feeding excessiveamounts of high-protein concentrate and insufficient amounts of high-energyfeed to cows, genetic factors and inadequate foot care. EMPEL et al. (1986), andPOGORZELSKA and LEWAROWSKI (2005) reported that hoof health is affected byhousing conditions, as foot and leg abnormalities are much more common inthe tie-stall system than in the free-stall system.

Endometritis was diagnosed most frequently in the investigated herd(Table 2), i.e. in more than 36% of cows in every lactation. CORREA etal. (1993) found that metritis causes massive economic losses on dairyfarms, being the main reason for culling due to decreased milk productionand impaired reproduction.

A high incidence of mastitis was noted in the present study (32.62%,37.37% and 36.78% of cows in the first, second and third lactation respective-ly). Other frequently occurring health disorders in the analyzed herd were theformation of ovarian cysts (10.40%), lameness (6.44%) and retention of theplacenta (1.62%). The most prevalent metabolic diseases (Table 2) were ketosis(8.39%) and abomasal displacement (0.34%).

In a study performed by FLEISCHER et al. (2001), the percentage of cowswith metabolic diseases (acidosis, ruminal alkalosis and ketosis) increased insuccessive lactations. According to the above authors, this could be related


Table 2Types of diseases diagnosed in cows during three consecutive lactations

Lactation

Type of disease I II III Average

N* % n % N % n %

Endometritis 271 37.22 321 38.77 179 36.14 257 37.63Mastitis 237 32.62 308 37.37 182 36.78 242.3 35.48Formation of ovarian cysts 80 10.97 69 8.32 58 11.70 69 10.10Ketosis 37 5.12 76 9.23 59 12.23 57.3 8.39Lameness 88 12.03 44 5.29 – – 44 6.44Retention of the placenta 15 2.04 7 0.85 11 2.24 11 1.62Abomasal displacement – – 2 0.17 5 0.91 2.3 0.34

Total 728 100 827 100 494 100 682.9 100

* – number of cases

to the diet whose influence on the health status of cows is particularlyimportant at high milk production levels, reaching 7 to 10 000 kg per lactation.This relationship was also observed by BOHDANOWICZ-ZULA et al. (2004) whofound that an increase in milk yield is often accompanied by the occurrenceof metabolic diseases, especially at the first stage of lactation, due to theimbalance between milk production levels and nutrient supply and intake.

According to MALINOWSKI and KACZMAROWSKI (2003), the reasons forretention of the placenta in cows are complex and have not been fullyelucidated yet. Retained placenta is a risk factor for both acute and chronicpost-partum endometritis and the formation of ovarian cysts. The negativeimpact of retained placenta on the reproductive performance of dairy cows,leading to increased culling rates, has also been documented.

The time of disease occurrence after calving is shown in Table 3. Endomet-ritis was diagnosed soonest after calving (18 days post-partum on average).In the oldest cows the symptoms appeared as early as on day 16 post-partumin the third lactation. Motor system disorders, including lameness, wererecorded much later, on day 150 post-partum on average. Their occurrenceis closely correlated with the age of cows, since younger animals generally havehealthier legs and feet. During the first and third lactation, lame cows weredetected within 194 and 82 days post-partum respectively. Mastitis wasdiagnosed on day 81 after calving in the third lactation, while in primiparouscows the symptoms of this disease were observed two months later. A decreasein cow performance was noted after recovery, ending the period of maximummilk production.


Table 3Time of disease occurrence (days post-partum)

Lactation

I II III AverageType of disease

Endometritis 20 19 16 18Mastitis 139 104 81 108Formation of ovarian cysts 116 107 62 95Lameness 194 173 82 150Ketosis 40 30 35 35

GIL et al. (2007) studied the relationship between milk performance andfertility indicators in dairy cows and found that an increase in milk yield wasaccompanied by extended inter-pregnancy interval. Ovarian cysts and chronicendometritis were detected in 19% and 21% of the analyzed populationrespectively. STEVENSON and CALL (1988) demonstrated that the formationof ovarian cysts (diagnosed in 47% of cows) is observed most frequentlybetween day 31 and 60 post-partum. Ovarian cysts are detected more oftenin older cows. Cows aged from 7 to 10 years are more prone to developingovarian cysts than those aged 2 to 7 years. These regularities were notconfirmed in the present study. NOGALSKI and GÓRAK (2007) stress the factthat blood analyses performed at the first stage of lactation may be a helpfulreproductive management tool enabling to evaluate the metabolic profileof cows and to predict the optimum time for insemination. According to theabove authors, conception rates can be increased in high-producing cowsby prolonging the rest period after calving.

Milk yield and composition over three 305-day lactations, as dependenton the health status of cows, are presented in Table 4. In the first andsecond lactation, clinically healthy cows (HEA) were characterized by pro-ductivity exceeding 9000 kg milk. An even higher milk yield, i.e. 9487kg in the second lactation and 9254 kg in the third lactation, was recordedin group 4 cows (REP).

GROHN et al. (1995) reported that reproductive disorders (metritis, ovariancysts and retained placenta) had no effect on milk production levels, whileRAJALA and GROHN (1998) demonstrated a negative impact of retained placentaon milk yield within a few weeks after the first calving. In a study conductedby STEVENSON and CALL (1988), cow productivity did not change duringretention of the placenta, but this disorder caused a significant decrease in dailymilk yield expressed in kg over the entire production cycle. STEVENSON and CALL

(1988) pointed to an increase in milk production in cows with ovarian cysts over305-day lactation, but during the extended inter-calving interval milk yielddecreased by 2.5%. According to these authors, a high milk yield during


Table 4Milk yield and composition in three 305-day lactations as dependent on the heath status of cows

Group of cows

Trait Lactation HEA MAS LAM REP MET

LSM Se LSM Se LSM Se LSM Se LSM Se

I 7027A 288 7355B 302 8314C 253 6997A 273 6779A 265Milk (kg) II 9235A 338 8804B 403 8220C 586 9487D 412 8299C 413

III 9186A 872 7610B 406 8320C 564 9254A 551 7310D 414

Significanceof differences 2.3>1xx 2>3.1xx; 3>1x 1.3>2xx 2.3>1xx; 2>3x 2.3>1xx

I 7665A 279 8517B 290 9414C 294 8059D 258 7555E 248VCM (kg) II 10112A 293 9585B 362 9389B 608 10119A 378 9177B 376

III 9898a 589 9592b 586 8423b 725 10311c 448 8456d 441

Significanceof differences 2.3>1xx; 2>3x 2.3>1xx 1.2>3xx 2.3>1xx 2.3>1xx; 2>3x

I 265A 9.29 297B 10.79 339B 12.34 290A 9.10 264A 7.95Fat (kg) II 343A 11.32 353A 11.28 348A 25.00 353A 10.14 321B 13.77

III 351A 12.34 301B 20.06 344B 25.07 369A 10.96 301A 12.36

Significanceof differences 2.3>1xx 2>1.3xx n.s.d. 2.3>1x 2.3>1xx

I 3.77A 0.12 4.04B 0.13 4.08B 0.09 4.14B 0.09 3.90C 0.13Fat (%) II 3.72A 0.14 4.01B 0.13 4.24C 0.20 3.72A 0.12 3.87D 0.13

III 3.82A 0.45 3.96B 0.11 4.14B 0.19 3.99A 0.13 4.12B 0.12

Significanceof differences 3.1>2x 1.2>3x 2.3>1x 1>3.2xx; 3>2x 3.1>2xx

I 235A 9.01 256B 9.67 274C 7.90 240A 7.54 230A 8.04Protein (kg) II 313A 9.01 300A 11.45 279B 17.00 313A 13.21 282B 11.13

III 303A 25.86 261B 17.02 285B 21.20 317A 14.96 250B 11.50

Significanceof differences 2.3>1xx 2>1.3xx n.s.d. 3.2>1xx 2.3>1xx

I 3.35a 0.04 3.48b 0.05 3.29a 0.04 3.43b 0.05 3.40b 0.07Protein (%) II 3.39a 0.04 3.41a 0.07 3.40a 0.07 3.30b 0.05 3.40a 0.06

III 3.30a 0.07 3.43b 0.07 3.43b 0.05 3.43b 0.08 3.42b 0.04

Significanceof differences 2>1.3x n.s.d. 3>1x 1.3>2x n.s.d.

I 854a 25.42 926b 34.24 1031c 32.81 887a 29.31 862a 33.50II 1116a 33.00 1083b 41.66 1031b 69.35 1127a 42.77 1010b 45.18III 1097a 65.17 921b 58.81 1029b 77.06 1145c 55.20 903a 46.57

Dry matter(kg)

Significanceof differences 2.3>1xx; 2>3x 2>1.3xx n.s.d. 3.2>1xx 2>1.3xx

I 12.15a 0.17 12.59b 0.16 12.40b 0.11 12.68c 0.13 12.72c 0.31II 12.09a 0.17 12.30b 0.18 12.54c 0.25 11.88d 0.14 12.17e 0.19III 11.94a 0.51 12.10b 0.16 12.37c 0.25 12.37c 0.25 12.35c 0.13

Dry matter(%)

Significanceof differences 1>3xx; 1>2x 1>2.3x 2>1.3x 1.3>2x 1>3.2x

Significance of differences between groups: A, B at p ≤ 0.01 and a, b at p ≤ 0.05;Significance of differences between lactations: xx – p ≤ 0.01 and x – p ≤ 0.05.n.s.d. – non-significant difference


previous lactations and a high genetic potential of cows do not contribute todisease occurrence.

In the present study the lowest milk yield was reported for cows withmetabolic disorders (MET) – 6779 kg milk in the first lactation, 8299 kg milk inthe second lactation and 7310 kg milk in the third lactation. Substantially higherproductivity was noted when actual milk yield was converted into the yield ofvalue-corrected milk (VCM), which exceeded 10 000 kg milk in healthy cows inthe second lactation (10 112 kg) and in cows with reproductive diseases in thesecond and third lactation (10 119 kg and 10 311 kg respectively).

Regardless of the group, milk fat yield was lower in the first lactation (264 to339 kg) than in the next two lactations. The highest fat yield was reported forthe oldest cows of group 4 (REP) (369 kg). The same trend was noted withrespect to milk protein yield, which was the lowest in the first lactation (230 to274 kg). As regards the percentage content of milk components, the highestvalues were observed in cows characterized by the lowest milk yield, whereas thelowest – in cows marked by the highest milk yield. MICIŃSKI et al. (2008)analyzed disease incidence in dairy cattle herds and found that the highest-producing cows were most susceptible to diseases.

Conclusions

It was found that the most common diseases during three consecutivelactations in the investigated herd were endometritis (37.63%) which occurredsoon after calving (on day 18 post-partum), mastitis (35.48%), formation ofovarian cysts (10.10%), ketosis (8.39%) and leg/foot defects (6.44%). Retention ofthe placenta and abomasal displacement were diagnosed much less frequently(1.62% and 0.34% respectively). The percentage of healthy cows decreased insuccessive lactations (19.81% in the first lactation, 12.28% in the secondlactation, 6.22% in the third lactation). During each lactation, more than onethird of cows suffered from mastitis. The proportion of cows showing thesymptoms of ketosis increased with age, from 5.12% in the first lactation to12.23% in the third lactation. The highest yields of milk and milk componentsover a 305-day lactation cycle were noted in cows with reproductive diseases.Foot/led defects and lameness, mastitis and metabolic diseases had the mostsignificant effect on a decrease in milk production.




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DOI 10.2478/v10020-009-0011-0

FAT THICKNESS AND THE LONGEST BACK MUSCLEMEASUREMENT OF CARCASSES OF FATTENERS

SLAUGHTERED AT DIFFERENT WEIGHT

Rafał Winarski, Stanisław WajdaChair of Commodities Sciences and Animal Raw Materials


K e y w o r d s: fatteners, fat thickness, the longest back muscle measurements, different carcassweight.

A b s t r a c t

The research was conducted on 286 fattener carcasses chosen from mass population in threedifferent regions of the country. On the carcasses, fat thickness measurements were performed on thecarcass cross section as well as fat and the longest back muscle thickness measurements on two crosssections of the loin. Carcasses, depending on their weight, were divided into three groups, i.e. of theaverage weight of about 70, 80 and 90 kg. Research showed that the increase of carcass weight byabout 10 kg in the case of fatteners bought by meat plants caused statistically significant increaseof fat thickness and measurement results of the longest back muscle in all measured points. Theincrease of carcass weight from 70.0 to 80.0 kg caused relatively small increase of fat thickness (about2 mm), and higher increase of the longest back muscle height (about 5mm), however the increaseof carcass weight from 80.0 to 90.0 kg, influenced greater increase of fat thickness (about 5 mm), andsmaller increase of the longest back muscle (about 2 mm). In the classification system, where onetakes into account fat thickness and the longest back muscle height when estimating the meatpercentage, we may expect small decrease of carcass meatiness at carcass weight increase to 85.0 kg,and having exceeded this weight, greater decrease of carcass meat percentage may be expected.

GRUBOŚĆ SŁONINY I POMIARY MIĘŚNIA NAJDŁUŻSZEGO GRZBIETU TUSZTUCZNIKÓW PODDAWANYCH UBOJOWI PRZY RÓŻNEJ MASIE

Rafał Winarski, Stanisław Wajda

Katedra Towaroznawstwa Surowców ZwierzęcychUniwersytet Warmińsko-Mazurski w Olsztynie

S ł o w a k l u c z o w e: tuczniki, grubość słoniny, pomiary mięśnia najdłuższego grzbietu, różnamasa tusz.

Address: Rafał Winarski, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, ul. Oczapowskiego 5, 10-719Olsztyn, phone: (+48) 089 523 32 59, e-mail: [email protected]

A b s t r a k t

Badania przeprowadzono na 286 tuszach tuczników wybranych z pogłowia masowego w trzechróżnych regionach kraju. Wykonano pomiary grubości słoniny na przepołowieniu tuszy oraz pomiarygrubości słoniny i mięśnia najdłuższego grzbietu na dwóch przekrojach polędwicy. Tusze podzielonona trzy grupy, tj. o średniej masie ok. 70, 80 i 90 kg. Badania wykazały, że wzrost masy tusz(tuczników skupowanych przez zakłady mięsne) o ok. 10 kg, spowodował statystycznie istotny wzrostgrubości słoniny i wartości pomiarów mięśnia najdłuższego grzbietu we wszystkich badanychpunktach. Wzrost masy tusz od 70,0 do 80,0 kg powodował stosunkowo niewielki wzrost grubościsłoniny (ok. 2 mm), a większy wzrost wysokości mięśnia najdłuższego grzbietu (ok. 5mm). Wzrostmasy tusz od 80,0 do 90,0 kg wpłynął natomiast na większy wzrost grubości słoniny (ok. 5 mm),a mniejszy mięśnia najdłuższego grzbietu (ok. 2 mm). W systemie klasyfikacji, w którym w trakcieokreślania mięsności tusz bierze się pod uwagę grubość słoniny i wysokość mięśnia najdłuższegogrzbietu, można się spodziewać niewielkiego obniżenia mięsności tusz, gdy wzrasta ich masa do85,0 kg. Po jej przekroczeniu można spodziewać się większego obniżenia mięsności tusz.

Introduction

Optimum carcass weight at which fatteners should be slaughtered is in thecentre of interest of pig suppliers as well as meat plants. It is a commonknowledge that fatteners of lower weight use smaller amount of feed for 1 kg ofgain and have lower slaughter yield factor and higher meat percentage,whereas from fattener carcasses of higher weight we obtain heavier musclesand their meat is more useful as for consumption and processing (BAROWICZ etal. 2006, BUCK 1963, KOĆWIN-PODSIADŁA et al. 2000, ŁYCZYŃSKI et al. 2006,WAJDA 1973, DASZKIEWICZ and WAJDA 2004, Włodawiec 2006). Mostly, theseresearches were conducted on the fatteners of the chosen breed or cross-bredpigs and they cannot be directly transposed onto mass population. That is why,performing the measurement on the representative sample of fatteners givenfor slaughter will make it possible to estimate correctly a pricelist of fattenercarcass purchase and implementing proper system of rewarding producers forproviding meat plants with fatteners of optimum carcass weight.

The objective of this thesis was to define the influence of different carcassweight (70, 80, 90 kg) on fat thickness and the longest back muscle measure-ments of the fatteners bought by meat plants.

Material and Methods

The research was conducted on 286 carcasses of fatteners which represen-ted mass population of pigs bought in the country. That is why before thechoice of carcasses for research was made, the analysis of fat variation levelof 14 650 carcasses of fatteners bought by seven meat plants in the different

Rafał Winarski, Stanisław Wajda114

regions of the country was performed (BORZUTA et al. 2003, GRZEŚKOWIAK et al.2002). The data gathered in that way enabled to point three ranges of fat coverthickness and was the basis to select such carcasses for the research, whichwould represent fattener population in the country (WINARSKI 2006). Theselection of the carcasses for the research was based on the fat thickness, theequal number of gilt and barrow carcasses and correct division of carcassesinto equal half-carcasses. Carcasses for the research originated from rawmaterial background of three meat plants located in different regionsof Poland, having different raw material background, i.e.: Ł-Meat in Łuków(93 carcasses), Morliny near Ostróda (62 carcasses), Prime Food in Przechlewo(131 carcasses).

Fattener slaughter was conducted in agreement with regulations of meatindustry, and carcasses fulfilled the definition of pig carcass stated in EUregulations (Council Regulation... 1984). After about 45 minutes from begin-ning the bleeding, carcasses were weighed (up to 0,1 kg precision), and afterchilling fattener carcasses in Meat Plant in Łuków and Przechlewo they weretransported by car coolers to “Morliny” Meat Plant for dissection.

On the left half-carcasses, the following measurement were performed withcaliper:– Fat thickness on the back on the level of last rib,– Fat thickness over head edge and the centre of gluteus medius muscle, i.e. in

the so-called points of cross I and cross II.Half-carcasses were divided into elements according to WALSTRA and

MERKUS methodology (1996). After that, loin was cut behind last and between3rd and 4th thoracic vertebrae, counting from the end of thoracic section of thespine. On obtained cross sections in two points (Figure1), i.e. in the distanceof 6 and 7 cm from the division line of the carcass into half-carcasses (so-calledpoints C6 and C7) fat thickness and the longest back muscle height(m. longissimus dorsi) was measured. Measurements of height and width ofthe longest back muscle were the basis to estimate the area of eye of the loin(KIELANOWSKI et al. 1955).

In order to define the influence of carcass weight on the analysed features,the gathered data was divided in the course of statistical calculations into threegroups, i.e. carcasses of the weight 60.0 to 76.0 kg (98 carcasses), 76.1 to 85.0 kg(117 pieces.) and over 85.1 kg (71 pieces).

In the statistical calculations, arithmetic mean was taken into account aswell as standard deviation for the analysed features, and the significanceof statistical differences between the means from the groups with the helpof Duncan test. In the statistical calculations, StatSoft STATISTICA softwareversion 7.0 PL was used (ZIELIŃSKI 1999).

Fat Thickness and the Longest... 115

b

a

7 cm

6 cm

carc

ass-

div

esio

n-l

ine

Fig. 1. Longissimus dorsi muscle measure points


In Poland, just as in most EU countries, classification system EUROPincludes into fattener commodity group also gilt and barrow carcass weightof which amounts from 60.0 to 120.0 kg. The initial research (BORZUTA et al.2003, GRZEŚKOWIAK et al. 2002) showed that the fatteners bought by meatplants usually had the weight between 60.0 to 100.0 kg. Having that on mind,in order to asses the influence of carcass weight on the values of the linearmeasurements, three ranges were acquired of average carcass weight, i.e. 70,80 and 90 kg.

The average weight of analysed carcasses was near the assumed oneand amounted to 69.80; 80.37 and 90.77 kg, and the difference betweenmeans in the analysed groups was about 10 kg (Table 1). The highestvariability of carcass weight was found in the group of carcasses of thehighest weight (90 kg) and it amounted to 4.75 kg, whereas the smallestvariability appeared in the group of carcasses of the weight amounting to80 kg (2.64 kg). The differences between the means for half-carcass weightwere about 5 kg and similar tendency was found for this feature as for weightvariability in the analysed groups. Average weight of fattener carcassesincluded in the own research amounted to 79.33 kg. and was near the averageweight of carcasses of fatteners purchased in the country, given by LISIAK andBORZUTA (2003).


Table 1Carcass weight (kg) and fat thickness measurements (mm)

Carcass weight

60.0–76.0n=98

76.1–85.0n=117

85.1–120.0n=71

Specification Statistics

Hot carcass weight x 69.80A 80.37B 90.77C

s 3.78 2.64 4.75

Half carcass weight x 34.12A 39.25B 44.30C

s 1.90 1.31 2.38

Fat thickness:on the back x 18.35A 22.09B 26.61C

s 4.78 5.46 7.00over cross I x 23.15A 24.45B 31.82C

s 5.47 6.16 6.21over cross II x 15.17A 17.71B 22.62C

s 4.41 5.73 6.53on the level of the last thoracicvertebrae*

x 14.81A 17.26B 22.45C

s 5.19 6.82 7.88between 3rd a 4th thoracic vertebrae* x 17.08A 20.18B 25.39C

s 5.75 7.30 7.71on the level of the last thoracicvertebrae**

x 13.23A 15.71B 20.31C

s 4.91 6.38 7.54between 3rd a 4th thoracic vertebrae** x 14.97A 17.86B 22.86C

s 5.15 6.72 7.38

* – measure performed 6 cm from carcass division line** – measure performed 7 cm from carcass division lineMeans in rows with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.01 (A, B, C)

The main objective of the thesis was to analyze the influence of carcassweight on the measurements of fat thickness and the longest back muscle,which were assessed in the points in which the measurements of carcass meatpercentage in EUROP system are performed by the means of ultrasonic oroptical-needle probes.

First thing to discuss is the influence of carcass weight on the measure-ments of fat thickness, performed on the carcass cross section i.e. onthe back, on I and II cross (Table 1). The measurement on the backwas the basis of the selection of carcasses for research, whereas measurementson I and II cross are the basis to estimate meat percentage of pig carcassesin the EUROP classification system with the help of so-called electroniccalipers (BORZUTA 1998). The research proved that the increase of carcassweight is accompanied by the significant increase of fat thickness in allacquired measurement points. Similar growth of fat thickness with theincrease of carcass weight was discovered in other research (BUCK 1963,KOĆWIN-PODSIADŁA et al. 2000, ŁYCZYŃSKI et al. 2000, MELLER 1992, WAJDA

1973). Nevertheless, fat thickness in the analysed carcasses was about


1 cm thinner than fat thickness of carcasses of fatteners purchased in the sameregion of country in 1973 (WAJDA 1973).

Analysing the difference between the means of the examined groups wemay find out that fat thickness on the back increased equally with carcassweight increase, whereas fat thickness on cross I and II increased relativelyslowly (1.30 to 2.54 mm) with carcass weight increase from 70 to 80 kg, andsignificantly faster increase of thickness (4.90–7.37mm) is observed withcarcass weight increase from 80 to 90 kg. It should also be stated thattogether with carcass weight increase, the growth of standard deviation valuewas observed for all analysed fat thickness measurement on carcass crosssection.

In the research on fat thickness measurement usefulness for carcassmeat percentage estimation it was stated that the highest correlationswith carcass meatiness are obtained for fat thickness measurements onthe loin cross section (WAJDA et al. 2005). In own research on the loincross section, fat thickness was measured on the level of last thoracicvertebrae and between 3rd and 4th thoracic vertebrae, counting vertebrasfrom the end, and 6 or 7 cm from the half-carcass cross line (Table 1).In those places, in order to assess meat percentage according to EUROPclassification system, fat thickness is usually measured with optical needleand ultrasonic probe. The data shows that, together with the growthof carcass weight, fat thickness increased significantly in those points,and, as in the case of fat thickness measurements on cross I and II,the increase of fat thickness was lower with carcass weight growth from70 to 80 kg, and over twice as big with carcass weight increase from80 to 90 kg.

Apart from fat thickness measurements according to EUROP classificationsystem, the measurements of cross section of the longest back muscle are alsoused, as they are regarded to be as a good indicator of carcass meatiness(WAJDA et al., 2004). In the post-slaughter classification system EUROP(BORZUTA 1998, LISIAK 2002), the measurements of this muscle height whichwere taken into account, were performed in the same measurement places asfat thickness measurement. The research proved that the values of themeasurements of the longest back muscle thickness significantly increasedtogether with the growth of carcass weight (Table 2). Also, together withcarcass weight growth we can observe a significant increase of measurementvalues for the longest back muscle width and eye of loin area. It should beadded as well that the increase of “eye” of loin area measurements was higherin the case of carcass weight growth from 70 to 80 kg than at carcass weightgrowth from 80 to 90 kg. The results (Table 1, Table 2) prove that carcassmeatiness estimated on the basis fat thickness and the longest back muscle


measurements decreases relatively slowly together with the increase of theirweight in the case of carcass weight up to 85 kg, whereas above this level, fatthickness increases faster and the growth of the longest back muscle heightis lower.

Table 2Longissimus dorsi muscle measurements (mm)

Carcass weight

60.0–76.0n=98

76.1–85.0n=117

85.1–120.0n=71

Specification Statistics

LD muscle height:on the level of the last thoracicvertebrae*

x 53.08A 58.78Bb 60.85Cc

s 8.63 8.07 8.25between 3rd a 4th thoracic vertebrae* x 47.65A 53.44Bb 55.14Cc


x 55.33A 60.78Bb 62.44Cc

s 9.64 7.83 6.86between 3rda 4th thoracic vertebrae** x 50.14A 56.73Bb 58.03Cc

s 8.49 8.04 7.26

LD muscle width:on the level of the last thoracicvertebrae*

x 91.67A 95.73Bb 97.48Cc

s 6.14 6.31 8.45between 3rd a 4th thoracic vertebrae* x 90.03A 94.35B 96.46C

s 6.18 6.27 6.35

Eye of loin area (cm2)on the level of the last thoracicvertebrae*

x 39.20A 45.22B 47.75C

s 8.34 8.20 9.41between 3rd a 4th thoracicvertabrae* x 34.58A 40.5B 42.76C


x 40.83A 46.70Bb 48.91Cc

s 8.80 7.81 8.08between 3rd a 4th thoracic vertebrae** x 36.34A 42.97Bb 44.95Cc

s 7.83 7.61 7.44

* – measure performed 6 cm from carcass division line** – measure performed 7 cm from carcass division lineMeans in rows with different letters are significantly different at p ≤ 0.01 (A, B, C) and p ≤ 0.05 (b, c)

Conclusions

1. The increase of carcass weight of fatteners bought by meat plants byabout 10 kg (i.e. from the weight from 70.0 to 80.0 kg and from 80.0 to 90,0 kg)caused statistically significant increase of fat thickness and the longest backmuscle measurement value in all examined points.

2. The increase of carcass weight from 70.0 to 80.0 kg resulted in relativelysmall increase of fat thickness (about 2 mm), and higher increase of the longestback muscle height (about 5 mm), whereas the growth of carcass weight from


80.0 kg to 90.0 kg influenced the higher increase of fat thickness (about 5 mm)and smaller growth of the longest back muscle (about 2 mm).

3. In the classification system, where one takes into account fat thicknessand the longest back muscle when estimating meat percentage, one may expecta slight decrease of meatiness with the growth of carcass weight to do 85.0 kg,and over this weight, higher decrease of the carcass meat percentage may beexpected.

Translated by MAJA WINARSKA


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DOI 10.2478/v10020-009-0012-z

TECHNOLOGICAL VALUE OF SELECTED POLISHVARIETIES OF RAPESEED*

Małgorzata Tańska, Daniela Rotkiewicz, Marta AmbrosewiczChair of Plant Raw Materials Processing and Chemistry


K e y w o r d s: rapeseeds, varieties, technological value of seeds, oil quality.

A b s t r a c t

The objective of the study was to evaluate the technological value of double-improved Polishvarieties of rape, i.e. two winter varieties: pollinated variety Kana and hybrid variety Pomorzanin,and one spring variety pollinated Bios. The technological values of seeds and the quality of oils wereevaluated by determining their traits which are important in processing and nutrition, i.e.: 1000seeds mass, geometric features of seeds, contents of oil, phosphorus, phenolic compounds andglucosinolates in seeds, pressing yield, lipid composition, degree of hydrolysis and oxidation of oil aswell as contents of total phosphorus and non-hydratable phosphorus. Analyses demonstrated thatseeds of the winter variety (Kana, Pomorzanin) were characterized by a higher technological valuethan those of the spring variety (Bios) due to a higher mass of 1000 seeds and oil content and a lowerconcentration of phosphorus compounds, including non-hydratable phospholipids. The highestnutritive value was demonstrated for oil processed from seeds of the winter hybrid varietyPomorzanin as it was characterized by the most optimal ratios of n-6 and n-3 acids. The least valuableraw material for the production of edible oil turned out to be seeds of the spring pollinated varietyBios which characterized by the lowest content of oil and, simultaneously, the highest contentof non-hydratable phospholipids and unfavorable to health ratio of monounsaturated fatty acids.

WARTOŚĆ TECHNOLOGICZNA NASION WYBRANYCH KRAJOWYCH ODMIANRZEPAKU

Małgorzata Tańska, Daniela Rotkiewicz, Marta Ambrosewicz

Katedra Przetwórstwa i Chemii Surowców RoślinnychUniwersytet Warmińsko-Mazurski

S ł o w a k l u c z o w e: rzepak, odmiany , wartość technologiczna nasion, jakość oleju.

Address: Adress: Małgorzata Tańska, Chair of Raw Materials Processing and Chemistry, Universityof Warmia and Mazury, pl. Cieszyński 1, 10-957 Olsztyn, Poland, phone: +48 (089) 523 41 138,e-mail: [email protected]* The part of researches were supported by the European Union within the European Social Fund.

A b s t r a k t

Celem badań była ocena wartości technologicznej nasion podwójnie ulepszonych krajowychodmian rzepaku: dwóch ozimych – populacyjnej Kana i mieszańcowej Pomorzanin oraz jarejpopulacyjnej Bios. Wartość technologiczną nasion i jakość olejów oceniano, określając ważnew przetwórstwie i żywieniu cechy, takie jak: masa 1000 nasion i ich wymiary geometryczne,zawartość tłuszczu, fosforu, związków fenolowych i glukozynolanów, wydajność tłoczenia oraz składlipidowy, stopień hydrolizy i utlenienia oleju oraz zawartość fosforu ogółem i niehydratowalnego.Stwierdzono, że nasiona odmian ozimych (Kana, Pomorzanin) cechowały się wyższą wartościątechnologiczną od nasion odmiany jarej (Bios), z uwagi na większą masę 1000 nasion i zawartośćtłuszczu oraz mniejszą zawartość związków fosforu, w tym fosfolipidów niehydratowalnych.Najwyższą wartość żywieniową miał olej z nasion ozimej odmiany mieszańcowej Pomorzanin,ponieważ zawierał najbardziej optymalne proporcje kwasów n-6 i n-3. Najmniej cennym surowcem doprodukcji oleju jadalnego okazały się nasiona populacyjnej odmiany rzepaku jarego Bios. Zawierałynajmniej tłuszczu i miały równocześnie najwyższą zawartość fosfolipidów niehydratowalnych orazniekorzystną dla zdrowia proporcję kwasów wielonienasyconych.

Introduction

Double-improved rape, i.e. erucic acid-free and low-glucosinolate rape,referred to as “canola” was created in Canada in 1974 (SHAHIDI 1990).In Poland, the first double-improved variety was created in the year 1978.Since 1992, only double-improved varieties of rape have been cultivatedin Poland. Currently, the National Register of Varieties in Poland includes66 winter varieties and 19 spring varieties of rape, both pollinated and hybridones (Lista... 2008).

The agricultural value of rape is determined in post-register varietyexperiments and is determined by such indicators as: resistance to diseasesand lodging, number of seeds in silique, seed yield, mass of 1000 seeds as wellas contents of oil, protein, dietary fibre and glucosinolates in the seeds(Wyniki... 2008). The agricultural value of varieties is consistent with thetechnological standard of seeds for processing (Rośliny... PN-90/R-66151) onlyin respect of glucosinolate contents. The technological standard of rape seedsfor processing also includes the acid value of oil, content of impurities: useful,useless and mites as well as concentration of erucic acid. Scientific studies haveconfirmed the importance of all the above-mentioned indicators and haveshown that the evaluation of the technological value of rape seeds should becompleted with new indicators significant to storage, processing and nutrition,i.e. sizes of seeds, resistance to mechanical damage, lipid composition of oilwith consideration given to ratios of polar and non-polar lipids, n-6 and n-3fatty acids as well as hydratable and non-hydratable phosphorus compounds(SZWED et al. 1995, PŁATEK 1996, 1998, ROTKIEWICZ et al. 2002, ACHREMOWICZ,SZARY-SWORST 2005, TAŃSKA et al. 2008).

Technological Value of Selected... 123

Studies conducted on various pollinated varieties indicate significant dif-ferences in their agricultural and technological values (MIŃKOWSKI, KRYGIER

1998, NOGALA-KAŁUCKA et al. 2002, ROTKIEWICZ et al. 2002, Lista... 2008,Wyniki... 2008).

Recently, hybrid varieties, whose high yield is determined by the effectof heterosis, have also been introduced into cultivation practice (BARTKOWIAK--BRODA 1998). Due to their higher yield (by ca. 6–10%) (Wyniki... 2008), theymay be expected to predominate the pollinated varieties in the future.The agricultural value of hybrid varieties of rape has already been determined(Lista... 2008, Wyniki... 2008), yet research is lacking on their technologicalvalue. With this in mind, the objective of the reported study was to evaluate thetechnological value of a winter hybrid varieties of rape compared to that of twoselected pollinated varieties, a winter and a spring one.

Material and Methods

The experimental material were seeds of three varieties of rape: winterhybrid variety Pomorzanin, winter pollinated variety Kana and spring pollin-ated variety Bios, originating from the harvest of 2007. The seeds wereobtained from the Plant Breeding Station in Strzelce. Selection of varieties wasincidental. In these study was important the evaluation of chemical composi-tion of seeds of pollinated and hybrid rape varieties belonging to winter andspring forms.

The technological value of rape seeds was determined based on:– the mass of 1000 seeds determined by weighing of 100 seeds separated

from sample, geometric sizes of seeds assayed with the method of Digital ImageAnalysis (TAŃSKA et al. 2005),

– content of unripe seeds determined acc. to Rośliny... PN-90/R-66145,– oil content determined acc. to Nasiona... PN-EN ISO 659:1999,– phosphorus content determined with the method with ammonium

vanadium acc. to Rośliny... PN-88/A-86930,– content of phenolic compounds assayed with the spectrophotometric

method as described by RIBEREAU-GAYON (1972),– content of glucosinolates assayed with the glucose method as described

by HEANEY et al. (1988), and– contents of non-polar and polar lipids (glyco- and phospholipids) – by

means of column chromatography as described by BEKES et al. (1983) withmodifications by FENYVESI-SIMON et al. (1992).

Fraction composition was determined with the use of lipids extracted fromthe seeds according to the method of FOLCH (FOLCH et al. 1957). Pressing yield

Małgorzata Tańska et al.124

was determined as the percentage of the mass of oil pressed from seeds to themass of oil extracted with petroleum benzine in SOXHLET’S apparatus acc. toNasiona... PN-EN ISO 659:1999. Whole seeds were cold-pressed using a screwoil expeller featuring a cylindrical perforated strainer basket (Komet labora-tory CA 59 G). Mechanical impurities were removed from the pressed oil bycentrifugation at 10,000 rpm.

The quality of oils, cold-pressed as specified above, was evaluated byassaying: acid value acc. to Oleje... PN-ISO 660:1998, peroxide value acc. toOleje i tłuszcze... PN-ISO 3960:1996, anizidine value acc. to Tłuszcze... PN--93/A-86926, and fatty acid composition acc. to Analiza... PN-EN-ISO--5508:1996, in methyl esters prepared according to the method described byZADERNOWSKI and SOSULSKI (1978). The contents of total and non-hydratablephosphorus were determined in oils extracted from roasted (1 hour, 100oC)seed pulp with the above-mentioned method.


Values of the mass of 1000 seeds determined for the investigated varietiesof rape were found to differ. The highest mass of 1000 seeds (6.76 g)was recorded for the hybrid variety Pomorzanin (Table 1). It was higherby 1.68 g than that assayed for the winter pollinated variety Kana andby 2.53 g than that assayed for the spring pollinated variety Bios. Resultsof post-register variety studies (Wyniki... 2008) indicate that the meanmass of 1000 seeds of rape variety Pomorzanin from the harvest of 2007accounted for 6.2 g, whereas that of the other hybrid varieties – for 3.8–7.6 g.

Table 1Discriminates of rapeseed technological value

Winter varieties Spring variety

Kana Pomorzanin BiosDiscriminate

Diameter of seeds (mm) 2.147 ± 0.09 2.359 ± 0.16 2.09 ± 0.11Area of seeds (mm2) 3.63 ± 0.31 4.39 ± 0.58 3.44 ± 0.36Circularity (–) 0.98 ± 0.01 0.96 ± 0.02 0.96 ± 0.03Mass of 1000 seeds (g) 5.08 ± 0.14 6.76 ± 0.21 4.23 ± 0.12Oil content (% s.m.) 43.55 ± 0.39 42.10 ± 0.04 39.02 ± 0.08Glucosinolates (µmol/g smb) 11.31 ± 0.015 11.58 ± 0.020 8.66 ± 0.017Phenolic compounds (% s.m.) 6.35 ± 0.017 5.60 ± 0.019 4.96 ± 0.021Yield of pressing (%) 75.4 ± 0.83 73.2 ± 0.76 72.8 ± 0.66Phosphorus content (mg/kg) 5617 ± 66.5 6261 ± 60.4 6429 ± 58.7Seed lipids composition (%):

non-polar lipids 96.94 ± 2.3 97.08 ± 2.8 96.09 ± 2.8glicolipids 1.15 ± 0.082 0.73 ± 0.043 1.26 ± 0.059phospholipids 1.91 ± 0.106 2.19 ± 0.113 2.65 ± 0.141


In the case of seeds of the winter pollinated varieties harvested in the sameyear, the mass of 1000 seeds ranged from 3.7 to 5.6 g, whereas in those of thespring pollinated varieties it ranged from 2.6 to 5.4 g (Wyniki... 2008). Thesevalues indicate that the mass of 1000 seeds is mainly determined by the formof variety (pollinated, hybrid, winter, spring), and within the variety– by its type. Apart from the variety-specific factor, variability in the massof 1000 seeds is a result of agroclimatic conditions of the crop (NIEWIADOMSKI

1983, JENSEN et al. 1995, MIŃKOWSKI 1998).The values of the mass of 1000 seeds displayed a simple correlation with

sizes of seeds, i.e. with their diameter and surface area, but were not correlatedwith the value of a circularity index (Table 1) which distinguished seedsof Kana variety whose plane projection most resembled a circle.

The analyzed samples of seeds did not contain any useless impurities,whereas out of the useful impurities – only unripe seeds that were specified inTable 1. A sample of the hybrid variety Pomorzanin was demonstrated not tocontain any unripe seeds, whereas samples of rape of the pollinated varietiesBios (spring) and Kana (winter) were characterized by a high content of unripeseeds, accounting for 2.21 and 1.9%, respectively (Table 1). The technologicalstandard (Rośliny... PN-90/R-66151) stipulates that seed bulk of rape designedfor purchase and delivery for processing should not contain more than 2%of unripe and sprouted seeds in total.

The oil content of the seeds of the varieties analyzed was relativelydiversified, reaching from 39.02% in seeds of the spring pollinated variety Biosto 43.55% in seeds of the winter pollinated variety Kana. In seeds of Pomo-rzanin variety, the content of oil was average and reached 42.10% (Table 1).In turn, the mean content of oil determined in nation-wide variety investiga-tions for rapeseeds of Pomorzanin and Bios variety harvested in 2007 account-ed for 44.0 and 42.3%, respectively (Wyniki... 2008), i.e. was higher by ca. 2%.Seeds of winter pollinated and hybrid varieties of rape originating fromharvests of 2004–2007 and cultivated under conditions of variety-specificexperiments, contained 44–46% of oil on average, whereas in seeds of thespring varieties the oil content was lower by ca. 2–3% (Wyniki... 2006, Wyniki...2008). The above-cited results, as well as research conducted on seeds of Polishvarieties of winter rape cultivated in the years 1998–2008, point to a little--diversified range of oil content not exceeding 2% (MIŃKOWSKI 1998,MIŃKOWSKI, KRYGIER 1998, BANASZKIEWICZ et al. 2006, Wyniki... 2006,Wyniki... 2008).

Seeds of the winter rape varieties Pomorzanin and Kana were shown to becharacterized by a similar content of glucosinolates, i.e. 11.5 µmol g-1 defattedd.m. on average. In turn, in seeds of the spring rape variety Bios the contentof glucosinolates was lower by 25% (Table 1). These values confirm data


obtained in the post-register studies, indicating that the seeds of springvarieties exhibit a lower content of glucosinolates (Wyniki... 2008). The totalcontent of glucosinolates demonstrated in seeds of the analyzed rape varietiesis very low, as it constitutes barely 50% of the admissible level of alkenylglucosinolates stipulated in the standard (Rośliny... PN-90/R-66151), reaching25 µmol g-1 defatted d.m. Alkenyl glucosinolates constitute on average half thetotal glucosinolates and products of their hydrolysis are detrimental constitu-ents of meal/pomace and oil (SØRENSEN 1990). Isothiocyanates occurring in oilsgive them an unpleasant aroma and are toxic to hydrogenation catalysts(NIEWIADOMSKI 1993).

In seeds of the investigated rape varieties, the total content of phenoliccompounds ranged from 4.96% d.m. (Bios) to 6.35% d.m. (Kana) – Table 1.Phenolic compounds of rapeseeds are perceived as anti-nutrients. Their pre-dominating compound is sinapin (an ester of choline and sinapic acid) thatconstitutes ca. 90% of all phenolic compounds occurring in rapeseeds (ROT-

KIEWICZ et al. 1976, ZADERNOWSKI 1987). Sinapin is a bitter compound thatdiminished palatability of rape fodder and the biological value of protein(ZADERNOWSKI 1987, KOZŁOWSKA et al. 1990).

The oil pressing yield of the seeds of the investigated rape varieties rangedfrom 72.8% (Bios) to 75.4% (Kana) – Table 1. Pressing yield, especially thatof cold-pressing, is an important indicator of the technological value of rapeseeds. A higher pressing yield is typical of greater seeds that are characterizedby a higher contribution of endosperm (cotyledons + radicle), containing moreoil than the seed coat (ZADERNOWSKI et al. 1993, ROTKIEWICZ et al. 2002).Cotyledons of seeds of greater sizes are more susceptible to disintegration asthey require less work input necessary to damage their cellular structure(TAŃSKA et al. 2008).

In seeds of the analyzed rape varieties, the total content of phosphorusfollowed the order: Bios > Pomorzanin > Kana (Table 1). In ripe rape seeds, thepredominating form of phosphorus compounds were phytins, constituting60–90% of total phosphorus acknowledged as anti-nutritional constituentsof the non-lipid fraction of seeds (THOMPSON 1990, ROTKIEWICZ et al. 1999,TROSZYŃSKA 2004).

The composition of the lipid fraction of rape seeds was predominated bynon-polar lipids which in seeds of the winter rape varieties, i.e. Pomorzaninand Kana, constituted ca. 97% of total lipids, whereas in seeds of the springvariety Bios – 96% (Table 1). In seeds of the later varieties, the highestpercentage was noted for polar lipids, glyco and phospho-lipids, which togetherconstituted 3.91% of total lipids. The lowest percentage of polar lipids (2.82%)was determined in seeds of the hybrid variety Pomorzanin. This was mainlydue to the lowest content of glycolipids in respect of all varieties examined.


The ratios of non-polar to polar lipids are an important indicator, but have notyet been applied in the evaluation of the technological value of seeds. A highertechnological value is attributed to seeds with the highest possible content ofthe non-polar fraction constituted by triacylglycerols. In turn, the non-triacyl-glycerol constituents of oil, predominated by polar phospholipids, have to beremoved in refining processes as they deteriorate the quality and shelf life of oil(NIEWIADOMSKI 1993, PŁATEK 1996, 1998, ROTKIEWICZ et al. 1998).

The degree of hydrolysis and oxidation of oils pressed from seeds of theinvestigated varieties of rape was low. The acid value of oils pressed fromrape seeds of Pomorzanin and Bios varieties did not exceed 0.50 mg KOH/goil, and that of oils prepared from Kana variety was 0.70 mg KOH/g oil(Table 2). Such a low of degree of oil hydrolysis in the analyzed seeds resultsfrom both the high quality of the seeds (fresh, ripe, pure) and cold-pressingof oil. Industrial seed bulk of rape is usually characterized by a higher degreeof oil hydrolysis. According to the Polish quality standard (Rośliny... PN--90/R-66145), the acid value of rape seeds designed for processing should notexceed 3 mg KOH/g oil. In edible cold-pressed oil, the admissible level of theacid value is higher and accounts for 4 mg KOH/g oil (Tłuszcze... ZN-94/SGO-01), whereas in refined edible oils it accounts for 0.3 mg KOH/g oil (Oleje...PN-86908:2000).

The peroxide value of oils pressed from seeds of the investigated varietiesof rape ranged from 0.80 to 0.92 mEq O2/kg oils, thus indicating a very lowdegree of oil oxidation (Table 2). In cold-pressed oils, the admissible level of theperoxide value reaches 10 mEq O2/kg oil (Tłuszcze... ZN-94/SGO-01), whereasin refined oils it reaches 5 mEq O2/kg oil (Rośliny... PN-90/R-66145).

Table 2The chemical characteristic of rapeseeds oil

Winter varieties Spring variety

Kana Pomorzanin BiosDiscriminate

Acid value (mg KOH/g oil) 0.67 ± 0.00 0.50 ±0.08 0.45 ± 0.00Peroxide value (mEq O2/kg oil) 0.92 ± 0.01 0.80 ± 0.09 0.88 ± 0.01Anisidine value 0.1 ± 0.0 0.1 ± 0.0 0.7 ± 0.0Total phosphour content (mg/kg oil) 434 ± 31.1 441 ± 29.1 476 ± 26.8

non-hydratable (mg/kg oil) 183 ± 16.1 218 ± 20.3 214 ± 10.6The share of fatty acid (%)

palmitic acid 4.88 5.06 4.65stearic acid 1.89 1.91 1.92oleic acid 62.32 65.05 59.94linoleic acid 19.17 18.47 19.87linolenic acid 9.40 7.10 10.83eicosanoic acid 1.26 1.17 1.46erucic acid ślady ślady ślady

Relation between acids n-6 : n-3 2.04:1 2.60:1 1.83:1


In turn, the anisidine value – determining the content of secondaryproducts of oxidation (JEŻEWSKA 1991) – of the analyzed oils fluctuatedbetween 0.1 (Pomorzanin and Kana) and 0.7 (Bios), which points to barelyinitiation of the oxidation processes (Table 2). The significance of that indi-cator in the evaluation of an oxidation degree of lipids has recently beenappreciated, thereby it has been introduced into the qualitative standardof refined oils. The highest admissible value of this indicator has beenstipulated at a level of 8 (Rośliny... PN-90/R-66145).

The total content of phosphorus compounds in oils, extracted fromrapeseed comminuted and roasted under laboratory conditions, ranged from434 to 476 mg/kg oil. Literature data indicate that industrial pressed oilscontain 125–277 mg/kg, whereas the extracted oils contain from 300 to1190 mg of phosphorus/kg oil (NIEWIADOMSKI 1993, PŁATEK 1998, ROTKIEWICZ

et al. 1998).In oils, the major phosphorus compounds are phospholipids, being struc-

tural lipids. They are the main constituents of biological membranes in a seedcell, in which they constitute the membranes of all cellular organelles, includ-ing spherosomes (ROTKIEWICZ et al. 2000a). During seed processing, as a resultof mechanical and/or thermal degradation of membranes, phospholipids re-leased from them are dissolved in oil (NIEWIADOMSKI 1993, ROTKIEWICZ et al.2002). They are the cause of turbidity and sediments appearing in oil whichimpair the course of some refining and modifying processes, hydrogenationand esterification in particular (NIEWIADOMSKI 1993, SHAHIDI 1990).

From the technological point of view, phospholipids are divided intohydratable and non-hydratable ones (PRZYBYLSKI, ESKIN 1991). The first areeasily-removable in the hydration process, whereas the latter require theapplication of acids, thus forming sparingly-utilizable sewage (NIEWIADOMSKI

1993). The non-hydratable phospholipids are likely to constitute 30–40%of total phospholipids, depending on the quality of raw material, technologyof production and storage of crude oil (ROTKIEWICZ et al. 1999). In oils pressedfrom seeds of the analyzed varieties of rape, the percentage of non-hydratablephosphorus ranged from 30% in oil from rape seeds of Pomorzanin variety to36% in oil from rape seeds of Bios variety, which corresponded to phosphoruscontents of 132 and 171 mg/kg oil, respectively (Table 2).

In terms of the contribution of fatty acids, the pollinated varieties (Kanaand Bios) were similar, whereas the variety Pomorzanin was found to bedifferent. In oil pressed from seeds of this variety, the concentration of oleicacid was the highest (65.05%), whereas concentrations of linoleic and linolenicacids were the lowest (18.47% and 7.10%, respectively), (Table 2).Oils produced from the pollinated varieties, i.e. winter Kana and spring Bios,were characterized by a similar concentration of linoleic oil, and by various


concentrations of oleic and linolenic acids. Oil from seeds of the spring varietywas characterized by the highest concentration of linolenic acid (higher by3.73% than oil from seeds of variety Pomorzanin) and the lowest concentrationof oleic acid (lower by 5.11% than oil from variety Pomorzanin). All theanalyzed oils were found to contain trace amounts of erucic acid (Table 2).

The nutritive value of lipids is determined by the linoleic:linolenic acidratio. According to literature data, the ratio should range from 3:1 to 5:1(ACHREMOWICZ, SZARY-SWORST 2005). All the oils of the varieties examined, themost similar value to the optimal ratio of those acids reaching 2.6:1 was foundfor oil from rape seeds of variety Pomorzanin (Table 2).

Conclusions

1. The three analyzed varieties of rape, higher technological values werereported for the winter varieties: pollinated Kana and hybrid Pomorzanin.Their seeds were riper than the seeds of spring variety Bios, contained fewerphosphorus compounds and were more oil-susceptible to pressing than a lowerconcentration of non-hydratable phospholipids.

2. The lowest technological value was found for seeds of the pollinatedspring variety Bios. They were the smallest, contained the highest concentra-tion of phosphorus compounds and had the lowest concentration of oil with thehighest contribution of non-hydratable phospholipids.

3. Owing to the optimal ratio of n-6 to n-3 acids, the highest nutritive valuewas ascribed to oil pressed from rape seeds of hybrid variety Pomorzanin.

4. In a breeding of new varieties of rape one should take into considerationsuch discriminates as: content and proportions of hydratable and nonhydrat-able phospholipids and proportions of n-6 and n-3 acids.

Translated by JOANNA JENSEN


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