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UNIVERSITY OF ZULULAND

Communication science 1

STUDY GUIDE LECTURER: Mrs Moodley

DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNICATION SCIENCE

ACOM 111

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Table of Contents WELCOME ........................................................................................................................... 7

STUDY UNIT 1 ..................................................................................................................... 8

A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION .......................................................................... 8

1.1 Stages in the history of human communication ....................................................... 8

1.1.1 AGE OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE............................................................... 8

ACTIVITY 1.1 ................................................................................................................. 9

1.1.2 AGE OF WRITING ........................................................................................... 9

1.1.3 AGE OF PRINT. ............................................................................................ 10

1.1.4 Electronic mass media ................................................................................... 12

1.1.5 Information age .............................................................................................. 13

Activity 1.2 .......................................................................................................................... 14

STUDY UNIT 2 ................................................................................................................... 15

COMMUNICATION AND HUMAN NEEDS ......................................................................... 15

Introduction ..................................................................................................................... 15

Purposes of communication ............................................................................................ 15

Maslows theory ............................................................................................................ 15

3 Functions of communication ........................................................................................ 16

STUDY UNIT 3 ................................................................................................................... 17

The communication process ............................................................................................... 17

1 Learning outcomes ...................................................................................................... 17

2 Defining communication ............................................................................................. 17

Activity 3.1. .................................................................................................................. 18

3. Dimensions of communication .................................................................................... 18

Activity 3.2 ................................................................................................................... 19

4. Components of the communication process ............................................................... 19

4.1 People ................................................................................................................... 20

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4.2 Message ............................................................................................................... 20

4.3. Sign and Code ..................................................................................................... 21

Activity 3.3 ................................................................................................................... 21

3.3.4 Encoding and Decoding ..................................................................................... 21

3.3.5 Medium and Channel ......................................................................................... 22

3.3.6 Meaning. ............................................................................................................ 22

3.3.7 Interpretation ....................................................................................................... 22

3.3.8 Noise .................................................................................................................. 22

3.3.9 Feedback ........................................................................................................... 22

3.3.10 Context ............................................................................................................ 23

4. MODELS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS .................................................... 23

Activity 4.1 ................................................................................................................... 24

4.2 Shannon and Weavers view of communication......................................................... 24

Activity4.2 .................................................................................................................... 24

4.3 Schramms view of communication............................................................................ 24

Activity 4.3 ................................................................................................................... 24

4.4 A transactional model ............................................................................................... 25

Activity 4.4 ................................................................................................................... 25

STUDY UNIT 4 ................................................................................................................... 26

Perception, listening and feedback...................................................................................... 26

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 26

2. What is perception? .................................................................................................. 26

2.1 Perceptual inaccuracies ......................................................................................... 27

2.2. The perception process ........................................................................................ 27

3. What does it mean to listen? .................................................................................... 28

Activity 3.1 ................................................................................................................... 28

3.1. What are the differences levels at which we listen? ................................................. 30

Activity 3.2 ................................................................................................................... 30

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STUDY UNIT 5 ................................................................................................................... 31

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION ...................................................................................... 31

5.1 Overview ................................................................................................................... 31

Learning outcomes .......................................................................................................... 31

5.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 31

5.3 Functions of nonverbal communication ..................................................................... 31

5.2 Aspects of nonverbal communication ....................................................................... 33

5.3 Categories of nonverbal communication ................................................................... 33

STUDY UNIT 6 ................................................................................................................... 35

Language and communication ............................................................................................ 35

1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 35

2. Why is the study of language important? .................................................................. 35

3. Language as a system of signs ................................................................................ 35

Activity 6.1 ................................................................................................................... 36

6.3 Language as a social phenomenon .......................................................................... 38

Activity 6.2 ................................................................................................................... 38

6.4 Why do we use verbal language ............................................................................... 39

6.5 Communicative functions of language ...................................................................... 39

STUDY UNIT 7 ................................................................................................................... 42

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................................. 42

7.1 Overview .................................................................................................................. 42

7.2 Introduction ............................................................................................................... 42

Scenario and Activity 7.1. ............................................................................................. 43

7.3 The self..................................................................................................................... 43

Activity 7.2 ................................................................................................................... 43

7.4 The development of self-concept .............................................................................. 44

ACTIVITY 7.3 ............................................................................................................... 44

7.5 Intrapersonal variables ............................................................................................. 45

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7.6 Perception of others ................................................................................................. 46

7.6.2. Improving the accuracy of your perceptions ...................................................... 47

STUDY UNIT 8 ................................................................................................................... 48

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION .............................................................................. 48

Over view ............................................................................................................................ 48

8.2 Buber‟s theory of interpersonal relationships. ........................................................... 48

8.3 Interpersonal communication and self-disclosure ..................................................... 50

8.3.2 A model of self-disclosure .................................................................................. 50

8.4 Interpersonal communication and needs .................................................................. 51

8.4.1 Schutz‟s interpersonal needs theory ................................................................... 51

8.4.2 Homan‟s social-exchange theory ....................................................................... 52

8.5 Interpersonal communication and assertiveness ................................................... 52

8.5.2 Assertive styles .................................................................................................. 53

STUDY UNIT 9 ................................................................................................................... 54

SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION .................................................................................. 54

9.1 Defining a group ....................................................................................................... 55

9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of small groups ....................................................... 55

9.3 Group Characteristics ............................................................................................... 55

9.4 Communication networks in small groups ................................................................. 55

9.5 Leadership in groups ................................................................................................ 56

9.5.1 Leadership theories ............................................................................................ 56

9.5.2 Developing leadership skills ................................................................................ 57

9.6 Discussion in groups................................................................................................. 57

9.8 Differences between interpersonal and group communication .................................. 57

STUDY UNIT 10 ................................................................................................................. 58

PUBLIC SPEAKING ............................................................................................................ 58

Activity 10.1 ................................................................................................................. 59

10.1 Determine the purpose of the talk/speech ............................................................... 60

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Activity 10.2 ................................................................................................................. 61

10.2 Analyse the audience ............................................................................................. 61

Activity 10.3 ................................................................................................................. 61

10.3 Select a topic .......................................................................................................... 61

10.4 Research the topic .................................................................................................. 62

10.5 Writing the speech .................................................................................................. 62

10.6 Organisational techniques for specific purposes ..................................................... 62

10.7 Prepare the delivery................................................................................................ 62

10.8 Visuals .................................................................................................................... 62

10.9 Evaluating speeches............................................................................................... 63

10.10 Looking back ........................................................................................................ 63

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WELCOME

Thank you for registering for Communication Science ( ACOM 111) and welcome to

the course. We trust that you will find this course rewarding and enriching. The

purpose of this module is to introduce you to the basic principles of communication

and to create an awareness of the skills and competencies needed to communicate

effectively. The prescribed book for this course is - Communciation Studies: an

introduction by Shiela Steinberg. The prescribed book coupled with this study

guide cover a variety of aspects relating to communication. Each study unit within

this study guide supports the information you will find in the prescribed book. Here

you will find key questions for you to answer and activities for you to do and self

evaluation questions at the end of each study unit which will help gauge your

progress.

We trust that you will familiarise yourself with new ideas, concepts and terminology

and that these and the activities provided in this study guide will assist you in-

Enhancing your learning skills and developing a variety of learning strategies

Developing your self-responsibility skills

Working effectively with other learners in a group

Motivating yourself to make a positive contribution towards your community

Considering and improving your communicative competence

Stimulating your thoughts on communication as a science

Identifying, formulating and solving practical communication problems

experienced personally or in your community

Being sensitive to multicultural communication

Encouraging you to pursue your studies in communication science

Becoming a successful life-long learner.

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STUDY UNIT 1

A BRIEF HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION

1. Introduction

If you have to define communication, chances are that your definition will

differ from that of your friend, colleague or spouse. Your definition will

probably be something like „ Communication takes place when two or more

people talk to one another or transfer messages so that they can understand

one another‟. Have you ever wondered how and why people communicate?

Where did communication originate and how did it develop? Think about

these thoughts for a moments and discover the scientific definitions,

development and other characteristics of communication as you work through

the study material and perform the activities.

In this study unit, you will be guided to find answers to the following questions:

How did communication evolve to become the advanced tool it is

today?

What effects did each stage in the development of communication

have on modern-day society?

How does the development of communication enhance your life today?

The art of communication or communication science also has a story- a

history. Just as the growth of a baby to adulthood goes through a number

of stages, so there have been various stages in the development of the

discipline of communication science to the level that we know today.

1.1 Stages in the history of human communication

Communication as we know it today evolved over a period of time and went

through various stages. In early civilisations there was a need to

communicate and instruments such as a ram‟s horn, drumbeats and smoke

signals were used and during the Middle Ages, homing pigeons were used to

transmit messages. In modern times communication is often available by

means of pressing a button ( phoning someone, sending a message via your

cellular phone, typing a letter on computer or switching on the television)

1.1.1 AGE OF SPEECH AND LANGUAGE

As indicated in the preceding paragraph, people used various methods to

communicate. These forms of communication were used before any other

forms of communication existed and can be regarded as the forerunners of

language, speech and writing.

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The development of communication did not replace anything preceding it.

Gestures, the development of language and the need for interaction with

others merely contributed towards modern-day methods of expression.

It is not very clear how language originated. Some believe words imitated

sounds that accompanied gesture; others believe words came from

expression of emotion (crying or laughing) while another school of thought

believes that language resulted because of group activities (like working

together).

There are more or less 3,000 languages spoken worldwide today. In

South Africa we have eleven official languages and each of these

languages has been influenced by other existing languages. Many

language characteristics in your mother tongue have been taken over from

older languages.

ACTIVITY 1.1

Read section 1.1.1 in the prescribed book and fill out the detail under each

heading of the table.

Name of stage in Chronological order

Technological development

Contribution to societal development

It is evident that what happened in the age of speech and writing

contributed towards self- expression and improved the quality of life for

people. As people became more business orientated and educated, the

need arose to keep record of various interactions, agreements and other

matters. This necessitated the need and ability to write.

1.1.2 AGE OF WRITING

In prehistoric times drawings and pictures of animals and people in cave

paintings and cuneiform were used to communicate. Wedge shaped

strokes on clay tables ( known as cuneiform- pictographic writing in which

symbols represented objects) represented ideas. Sounds were later

added to identify pictures and in about 3500 BCE ( Before the common

era), the Sumerians used words that sounded similar to create meaning (

for example „bee‟ and „leaf‟ created „belief‟). A complete cuneiform system

had more than 600 signs and a cuneiform script discovered in 1929

contained an alphabet of consonants.

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How has the development of writing enriched our lives and societies over time up to

2010? The translation of cuneiform writing has enriched our knowledge of early

Assyria, Babylonia and the Middle East, provided knowledge of the ancient Egypt

and revealed and contents of the Code of Hammurabi. This code written in

cuneiform by the Babylonian King, is known as the earliest legal code since it

contains a collection of laws and edicts applicable to the Babylonians and to that

time. Although standard cuneiform could not succeed in having a sign represent a

single word, the Ugaritic and Old Persian scripts achieved this and laid the

foundation for the development of an alphabet. The first known alphabet (North

Semitic) was developed in Palestine and Syria between 1700 and 1500 BCE. It

consisted of 22 consonants and the speaker or reader had to provide the vowels.

The Hebrew, Phoenician and Arab alphabets developed from this alphabet. The

Greeks adapted the Phoenician variant of the Semitic alphabet and expanded the 22

consonant symbols to 24. They also set apart some consonant symbols that were

used as vowels. The spread of the Latin language and the Roman conquests helped

ensure that the Roman alphabet became the basic alphabet of the Western world.

Alphabetical codes ( or letters) are used for the transmission of messages when

other means of communication are impractical. The phonetic alphabet is used to

clarify individual letters in radio messages and when you book a seat on an

aeroplane, you are likely to encounter the use of this as well ( for example, Alpha,

represents the letter A, Bravo the letter B and Zulu the letter Z. Semaphore is used

in military signally while the International Code of Signals is used in maritime

communication to ensure safe navigating of the ship and communication between

people of differing languages. Specific flags can indicate a warning or relay a

distress message.

Although people in the Western world today use an alphabet comprising 26 letters,

other systems of communication also exist. . People who are hearing impaired make

use of sign language, people who are visually impaired communicate by means of

Braille, while those who are deaf and dumb use finger spelling to communicate.

Today we take speech and writing for granted but, in previous civilisations these

forms of communication did not exist. What was of importance of the clay tablets

which were used? Archives of the ancient Roman City Mari, at a site called Tell

Hariri in Northern Syria, have revealed 23 600 clay tablets ( all covered with

Cuneiform) covering a period of 500 years between 2285- 1755 BCE.

1.1.3 AGE OF PRINT.

In medieval Europe the preservation of learning was one of the major

responsibilities of the monks. One way this task was done, was by

meticulously copying entire texts onto papyrus (paper had not been

invented yet). This activity was performed in a venue, in the monastery

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designed specifically for this purpose- known as a scriptorium. Crafts men

and manuscript copyists also participated in this activity to ensure taht

books were made available and that information was communicated to

people.

Printing – identical reproductions of an original- is done by means of a

number of processes by which designs, pictures and words are

reproduced on material such as fabric or paper. It must be remembered

that before the Chinese developed paper, nothing could be printed

because papyrus was too fragile for the printing process. M

But where did the age of print all start? In China the printing of pictures on

textiles preceded the printing of words. In the West, however, at around

1438, the German printer Johan Guttenburg invented a mould for casting

individual letters in metal and published the first book in the 1450‟s. The

Gutenberg Bible (1455) was the first work in Europe to be printed with

movable type ( about 200 copies were printed). Gutenberg teamed up

with a lawyer and goldsmith, Johann Fust and borrowed some money from

him. Because Gutenberg could not repay the loan, Fust claimed the press

and its types and teamed up with his son-in-law. Gutenberg died a poor

man at the age of about 70. Today each of the estimated 48 copies of the

Gutenberg Bible from the original printing is worth in excess of 1 million

pounds. Book printing is known as the first mass media product.

Printing in South Africa

In South Africa, the first issue of the government paper, theCape Town

Gazette and African Advertisers/Kaapsche Stad Courant and Afrikaansche

Berigter was published in 1800. Thomas Pringle and John Fairbairn were

responsible for the fist independent publication ( The South African

Commercial Advertiser) in 1824 and, although the publication was later

banned, it reappeared after numerous presentations were made tot he

authorities in London. Major press groups in South Africa today are

Independent Newspapers (Pty) Ltd, Media 24 Ltd, CTP/Caxton Publishers

and Printers Ltd, and Johnnic Publishing Ltd, while Primedia, M&G

Associated Magazines, Ramsay, Son&Parker and New Africa Investments

Limited (NAIL) are other important media players (Burger 2004/2005:140-

141).

Effects of print on society

Printed communication affects both people and society and these effects

can be interrelated. For example: if your local newspaper places a full-

page advertisement on the latest fashion trend in denim jeans it could

have an effect on the buying behaviour of readers. The owner of the

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paper uses the extra income generated ( by using the advertisement) to

print an extra page in the paper. This extra page is devoted to corruption

in a government department. Now, all of a sudden, the effects of the

advertisement go beyond influencing the reader to guy the latest denim

fashion wear, the advertisement indirectly influences society as a whole

and may touch the lives of many people. How you may ask? If the

government decides to ban the newspaper, many employees could be

without employment; if the tax payable on the paper is increased and it

becomes the most expensive newspaper on the market, fewer people

would purchase the paper with resulting reduction in worker employment

at the newspaper office.

1.1.4 Electronic mass media

Electrically powered calculating machines paved the way for computers.

Computers were initially used to perform lengthy calculations and teh

personal computer only became a household commodity in the mid-

1980‟s. In modern times personal computers have become known as

Multimedia PC‟s because various forms of media, such as cameras,

telephones, videos, compact disks and images can be integrated to

enhance the accessibility and distribution of information. With the prolific

development of computers and computer related technology, the era of

electronic mass media was born.

The phrase „ electronic mass media‟ implies the use of media that culd

make information available to the masses by electronic means ( such as

computers, fax machines, digital cameras, videos). Electronic equipment

has components, such as microchips and transistors that control and

direct electronic currents. Where one previously had to go to the library to

request an article on a specific topic, one can access the article

immediately through the use of electronic equipment. If the article, is

available on a website, a registered user may be able to download the

article to a a personal computer or print a copy of it. Mass media is the

term used to denote radio, newspapers, television and the Internet- media

that can be used to reach the masses.

Radio Guglielmo Marconi, an Italian that was familiar with the work of Samuel Morse, invented the first „wireless telegraph‟ and patented it in England in 1896. On 12 December 1901 he transmitted his first transatlantic message between Newfoundland in America and Poldu in England. Today Marconi is credited as the father of Radio. The South African Broadcasting Corporation (SABC) was established on 1 August 1936.

Film Two Frenchmen, Niepce and Daguerre invented film during the 19th

century. By the early 20th century the movie camera and projector were available and motion pictures became an important source of entertainment. By 1905 cinemas were built in Europe and United States. In South Africa film

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can make an important contribution to the democratisation and development that needs to take place.

Television Television means „to see at a distance‟. It is transmission of

images and sounds to distant screens by means of electrical or radio waves. John L. Baird showed the live television pictures in London in 1926. The first television service in South Africa was introduced on 5 January 1976. Today SABC channels broadcast in all 11 languages reaching an estimated 18 million people.

1.1.5 Information age

The rapid development of technology has provided greater access to

information, in terms of both speed and information. The explosion

brought abut by computer technology has led to the revision of many laws

regulating access to and communication of information. The integration of

technology, coupled with the role of computers and the Internet ,

contributes to the fact that people spend much more time in front of their

computers. Your workplace can now be at the office, at home or both

locations (Fielding 2006:356)

The Internet

The internet makes use of almost any kind of electronic transmission –

optical fibre, telephone lines and even radio or microwave channels and

has become an indispensable tool because it is a means of building a

universal information infrastructure, promoting the sharing of information,

enhancing business transactions in terms of reducing time to send and

access information and supporting global interaction between

organisations and people. The Internet can be regarded as a universal

library, the worlds first viable commercial democracy. The Internet is not

free and users have to register with a service provider and also pay for the

time spent on the Internet. Some websites provide information free of

charge while others rely on subscription fees.

E-mail E-mail has become an essential part of communication within and between organisations. It has replaced letters, faxes and telephone calls in both business and personal lives. E-mail is fast, cheap and reliable.

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a part of Internet in which information is

presented. Tim Berners-Lee created it in 1989 at the CERN Particle Physics Laboratories in Switzerland. The WWW combines words, graphics, video and sound, adds colours and includes advertising and downloadable texts and programmes. It is possible to search for information on almost any topic using a key word or phrase. A collection of papers belonging to the same organisation is called a „web site‟.

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Newsgroups and chatrooms newsgroups and chatrooms enable people who share the same interests from all over the world to communicate. A chatroom is an electronic gathering place for people with similar interests.

Teleconferencing is a way to hold meetings with people who are in

different distant locations and is a substitute for face-to-face communication. Videoconferencing and Audioconferencing use telephone and video technology.

Telecommuting enables people to work at home three or four times a

week. They are connected to the main office by a computer and is widespread in the United States.

Activity 1.2

1. The five major stages of the development of human communication

are distinguished according to different stages:

a) List them in historical order.

b) Write down the medium or technological development that characterised each

age.

2. Briefly describe the most important social outcome of the

development of the age of electronic mass media.

3. To which electronic mass media are you exposed daily and how has

the use of these enriched your life?

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STUDY UNIT 2

COMMUNICATION AND HUMAN NEEDS

Introduction

The information provided in study unit 1 of this study guide should have

illustrated that communication is a science and you could have deduced that

effective communication can take place by means of a number of media.

Just as people eat for various reasons, so people also communicate for

various reasons. In this study unit the focus will be on finding out the

following:

Why do people communicate?

What are the purposes and functions of communication?

Is it possible to conduct research on communication as a scientific

discipline?

What contribution does research make to a discipline such as

communication science

Purposes of communication

Imagine that you win the lotto this week. What is the first thing that you would

consider or even do? Surely you would talk to yourself ( intrapersonal

communication) and try and think of whom you would see or call to share (

interpersonal communication) the news with.

This scenario illustrates the basic purpose of communication: to satisfy a

need. Communication can help satisfy a number of needs experienced by

people- a need for warmth, shelter, clothing and interaction with others, to feel

wanted and valued, to obtain or exchange information. These and other

needs have to do with the survival, personal, social, economic, practical,

informative and playful nature of the human being and can be related to

theories developed by needs theorists who believed that human behaviour is

determined by specific needs.

Maslows theory

According to Maslow‟s theory, people are motivated to progress from the most

basic needs ( to survive) to achieving the highest level of needs (to fulfil ones

potential and to become all that one is capable of becoming). Maslow

believed that motivation deals with conscious and unconscious drives and a

primary level need has to be satisfied before the next level of needs can be

satisfied. Maslow proposed that those people who have fulfilled their need for

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self-actualisation can become aware of the fullest potential of humans at

large.

Please study read pages 22-24 of your prescribed book for a full explanation on Maslows hierarchy of needs.

Communication competence

The success of your communication with your partner will depend on a

number of factors, such as communication competence. You will, among

other things, have to formulate the words carefully in order to express yourself

clearly and concisely. You will have to understand and interpret nonverbal

communication and also display the correct and most acceptable nonverbal

behaviour.

Communication is a competence which one can learn. Communication skills

can be improved by understanding 1) the communication process; 2)

different communication categories; 3) elements of communication; 4) verbal

and nonverbal communication and by 5) developing effective listening skills.

3 Functions of communication

Before engaging in discussion with your partner, you will have to collate all

relevant information, such as determining the salary and benefits ( information

function). When discussing the job offer with your partner, you will have to

communicate purposefully after you have decided ( intrapersonal

communication) to take up the offer ( decision- making function).

Furthermore, you will have to provide enough information to persuade your

partner ( interpersonal communication) to let you start working ( persuasion

function) and express yourself in such a manner that you do not harm your

relationship ( relationship function). You may even have to persuade your

partner of the benefits ( social needs function). You will have to exert any and

all skills to persuade your partner to think the way you do and to support your

decision.

All these functions of communication help people to make sense of the world

and satisfy the different needs they experience.

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STUDY UNIT 3

The communication process

1 Learning outcomes

The overall learning outcomes of this unit is to gain an understanding of the complex

nature of communication. In other words, this unit has a cognitive learning outcome.

This means that you have to be able to understand and explain the contents of the

unit rather apply what it says in a practical way. Having said this, communication is

nevertheless an everyday activity, and we do expect you to be able to apply the

theoretical principles and ideas covered in this unit to everyday communication

experiences. We help you reach this cognitive outcome by the activities we give you

to do throughout the study guide and the test yourself questions in the prescribed

book.

2 Defining communication

Lets look at the word definition before we proceed. A definition gives a precise (

exact) and concise (short) answer to the question “ what is a...?”. If a child asks “

what is a coin?” your answer might be “ a coin is a metal disc used as money”. You

answer is a definition because it is precise and exact. It does not go into detail about

the types of metal used to make coins or the value of different coins. Had you

provided the additional information, you would have been describing a coin, rather

than defining it.

Definitions are important because many words have different meanings in different

contexts. Let us take the word mint for example. I might say that „mint is a herb

used for seasoning food‟; you might say that „a mint is a type of sweet‟, and a third

person might say that a „a mint is a place where the government prints money‟.

These examples illustrate the importance of defining the terms we use in the study of

communication ( or any other subject)- we all need to be sure that we are talking

about the same thing. One of the reasons why two people vote for different political

parties in an election is that they have different opinions about what democracy

means- how the country should be governed, and which social issues, for example,

should be given precedence- education, health, welfare, housing and so on.

We all have an opinion or point of view about most topics, ranging from topics as

diverse as why we experience drought to why some women become nuns.

In the same way, communication scholars have different opinions or points of view

about the distinguishing features of communication- what characteristics most

closely describe communication? In this section of the unit, we have provided three

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different definitions of communication. These different definitions show how different

theorists view the process these definitions also indicate that communication is too

complex to be covered by a single definition.

Speaking very generally, theorists who have a technical view of communication view

communication as a linear or one-way sequence of events from Person A to Person

B. Such theorists study the participants in the encounter and the message as three

separate elements. Their main concern is the transmission process- transmission

means: the way the message is sent and received.

Person A message Person B

Other theorists concentrate on the interactive aspect of communication- they ask:

what happens between the people who communicate? Communication is a

dynamic or two- way process in which people exchange messages. Their

messages contain meaning, which has to be interpreted so that the parties involved

in communication understand each other.

Person A message Person B

The diagram above does not fully illustrate the dynamic nature of communication- it

simply shows that the participants exchange messages.

The transactional definition also views communication as a dynamic process, but

focuses more specifically on how the participants negotiate differences in meaning.

As its name implies, the transactional definition of communication regards

communication as a transaction. It also focuses on the quality of the relationship

that develops between participants during the communication process.

Activity 3.1.

1. What is the main difference between the static and dynamic view of the

communication process?

2. Which definition emphasises the mutual responsibility of participants in the

communication process?

3. give your own example to illustrate that “everything that we learn, every bit of

information that we acquire changes our communication behaviour to some extent”.

4. Give an example of your own to illustrate the fact that communication is

irreversible.

3. Dimensions of communication

What do we mean by dimensions of communication? A dictionary will tell you that a

dimension may be a measurement of something ( such as the length of a table).

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Alternatively ( and this is how we use it here), dimension refers to the scope or

extent of something, or to an aspect of something. For example, “the unbanning of

the ANC added a new dimension to South African politics”, suggests that the scope

of South African politics was extended and that new political positions had to be

taken into account. Saying that communication has several different dimensions

suggests that it is a complex subject that requires in-depth understanding.

Study all the subsections in 3.2 ( page 41) that is 3.2.1 to 3.2.4. In each subsection,

we discuss two dimensions of communication: verbal and nonverbal, oral and

written, formal and informal and intentional and unintentional communication. The

information in the prescribed book is straightforward and easy to understand. We

give some additional guidelines about nonverbal communication to make it clear that

different groups of people interpret nonverbal behaviour in different ways.

Not only do we have to understand other peoples spoken messages, we also have

to understand their ‟body language‟. „body language‟is nonverbal communication.

Understanding nonverbal behaviour can often lead to misunderstandings, because

different cultures may give different meanings to nonverbal signs.

Please note that all the dimensions of communication involve nonverbal and verbal

messages. Nonverbal communication is a very broad topic which will be discussed

later.

Activity 3.2

Give an example of an occasion when you communicated a message you did not

intend to communicate because your nonverbal behaviour gave you away.

4. Components of the communication process

Study read pages 44-51 before proceeding.

Let us look at the terms system and concept. A system is a bit like baking a cake.

The „components‟ of a cake are: flour, eggs, sugar, milk and baking powder. When

you combine the ingredients and bake the, the result is a cake. However, if you

forget to add one „ component‟, the whole cake will be spoiled- in fact, it will probably

be inedible! As you study each component in the communication process, bear in

mind that each one influences and is influenced by, the others. For instance,

someone communicates with you in an unfriendly way at work and you go home in a

bad mood and scowl at your spouse when he or she come home that evening. Your

spouse was probably going to tell you about a promotion he or she received at work,

but your unfriendly greeting spoils things completely.

A concept is simply a word which has a very specific meaning. When we refer to a

concept, it should be clear that we all know what we mean when we talk about that

20

concept. When a group of doctors get together, they may use words such as

hypertension or alopecia to describe certain conditions that their patients are

suffering from. Since we do not have medical training, we may not understand what

they are talking about. But that does not matter: the important point is that they all

understand each other without going into long explanations about each condition

every time- as doctors they can use one word to describe the condition.

The same is true in communication. We often use a single word to describe an ida

that would otherwise need two or three sentences to explain. Such words are called

concepts and once, we have defined what we mean by a particular concept, we will

all know what is being discussed. Communication terms or concepts that you will

study in this unit include: encoding, context, message and feedback. We will

explain each term with the help of examples as we go along.

The only way that you will know if you understand a concept is if you are able to

provide a meaningful example of your own. So for each concept think of a suitable

example based on your own experience of communication.

4.1 People

The first two components are the communicator and the recipient. It is not difficult

to understand the roles of the communicator and the recipient in the communication

process, but do take note that, because these roles are interchangeable, they help to

make communication a dynamic process. To help you get started, we define these

two concepts and provide examples. Please read through our definitions and

explanations of all the other concepts in the prescribed book and then provide your

own examples.

The communicator is the person who initiates communication by intentionally

forming messages using verbal and nonverbal signs in order to share his or her

thoughts and feelings with someone else. An everyday example of communication

is someone who starts a conversation with someone else; another everyday

example of communication is the person who is simply the first to say „ hello‟.

The recipient refers to the person who receives the message and who participates

in the communication process by actively interpreting the message in order to

respond to the communicator. Recipients include the person listening to the

communicator and, possible, other people hearing the conversation. It is important

to be aware that the roles of communicator and recipient are interchangeable and

that this process of „role – swapping‟ occurs while the communication process

develops.

4.2 Message

The next component is the message. Your message has a content- it says

something to your partner in communication. However, even a factual statement

21

such as “ today is Monday” originates as an idea in your mind. How do you

communicate that idea to someone else? You use signs called words. Without

words, there would be no verbal communication between people because your

partner cannot guess what is going on inside your mind.

4.3. Sign and Code

You have already learned that communication is both verbal and nonverbal, and that

both work together to convey the message. You also know that nonverbal signs

such as gestures can sometimes be confusing because people from different

cultures use these gestures in different ways. But verbal signs can also be

problematic, as you will see when we discuss concrete and abstract signs. After you

have studied concrete and abstract signs, try the following activity.

Activity 3.3

Ask three or four people what the following words mean and then compare their

answers: book, key, democracy, love, mercy

Now study denotation and connotation in the prescribed book, bearing in mind the

connotative meanings that different people would ascribe to words such as the

following: communism, cancer, mother-in-law, love, AIDS. Do you think that the

connotation changed according to their gender, background and personal beliefs?

You should be able to understand what a code does by thinking about what would

happen if we did not have grammar rules, for instance, to guide the construction of

our sentences. In other words, grammar is a code. What do you make of the

following sentence? “Going I see tomorrow doctor to the? It is certainly not as easy

to understand as “ Tomorrow I am going to see the doctor”.

By social convention¸ we mean that certain societies agree on certain rules. For

instance if all South Africans did not understand the traffic code (or the „language‟ of

the road) in the same way, there would be no point in having traffic signs to tell us

what to do. It is only because traffic signs communicate the same message to all

road users ( a social convention) that we avoid chaos on the roads.

3.3.4 Encoding and Decoding

Do not be put off by the concepts encoding and decoding. They may be new

terms for you, but you will understand them if you use an example from your own

communication experience. All we have done is to give names to the process of

putting your thoughts into verbal and nonverbal signs ( this is called encoding) and

making sense of other peoples verbal and nonverbal messages ( this is called

decoding). In other words, by using the terms encoding and decoding, we do not

have to explain the whole process of how we transfer ideas into signs and vice

versa. Encoding and decoding are therefore useful concepts in communication

studies.

22

3.3.5 Medium and Channel

It is all very well for people to encode messages but in order for communication to

take place, the message has to reach the recipient. You have to speak the words, or

post the letter, or switch on the radio. In other words, something has to carry or

convey or transmit the message. The difference between a medium and

channel is that the medium is the physical or tangible link between communicator

and recipient. In other words, the radio is the medium, but the sound waves in the

atmosphere that carry the sounds t the radio in your home are the channel- they are

not tangible. „ tangible‟ means something we can see or touch.

3.3.6 Meaning.

The reason that meaning is so difficult to define is that it is an abstract concept and

almost impossible to express in concrete terms. The best way of explaining meaning

now is to define it as being the outcome or product of communication. This is

probably the easiest way for you to understand the concept at this stage of your

studies.

3.3.7 Interpretation

Interpretation is a concept which students sometimes find difficult to understand.

There is a difference between understanding the literal meaning of a message and

giving it your own personal meaning, or interpreting it. There is usually only one

correct literal meaning in a message ( content information). But there can be many

different interpretations of the same message. Think about it in this way. If we

speak the same language- Zulu for example, or English, we would probably

understand the literal meaning of a message in much the same way. This is what

we mean by the shared, social meaning of the message. We share other social

factors as well- an understanding of South African society, for instance. This would

also help us all to agree on the literal meaning of a message.

However because each of us is an individual, we all have different cultural,

educational, socio-economic, and occupational backgrounds, for example, the

personal or subjective meaning we give to a message can be different.

3.3.8 Noise

We said earlier that it is possible to misunderstand the meaning of a message. One

of the factors that contributes to misunderstanding is something called noise. Noise

is a communication concept, and means more than the usual dictionary meaning of “

a loud sound”. When we use the concept noise in communication, we mean

anything that distorts the message. In other words, noise is anything that makes the

recipient receive a message that the communicator did not intend to convey.

3.3.9 Feedback

Take note that feedback does not always have to be verbal. It is any response given

by the participants when communicating with each other. Even silence

communicates a message.

23

3.3.10 Context

Perhaps the best way to understand why circumstances are an important part of the

communication encounter is to think about the different settings in which you

communicate every day.

4. MODELS OF THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

Let us think about models for a moment. Models enable us to „observe‟ something

virtually from the outside, because models are visual diagrams of abstract ideas.

Many people do not fully understand what they have to do when for example, they

read the written instructions that tell them how to install a new washing machine, or

put kitchen cabinets together. However if a diagram is included, they often have no

problems whatsoever in following the instructions because the diagram enables

them to visualize what they have to do. Communication models work in much the

same way. Instead of having to picture in your mind what the theorist is trying to

convey, you can physically see what he or she means by studying the model. Note

that models use concepts to identify the components f the communication process

and arrows to show in which direction the process is occurring or how the concepts

relate to one another.

You should study the models one at a time and note how each one illustrates a

somewhat different view of “what happens” during the communication process. Do

not ignore the diagrams and only study the written discussion. It is important that

you learn to read the diagrammatic representations of the theorists thoughts. This is

because you will come across models throughout your communication studies. Take

note of the main focus of each model by asking yourself: on which aspect of the

communication process does the theorist concentrate? You should be able to

describe the different view of communication that each model illustrates.

4.1 Lasswells view of communication

WHO?

Communicat

or

TO WHOM?

Recipient

WHAT?

Message

CHANNEL

medium

WITH

WHAT

EFFECT?

Effect

24

After you have studied Lasswells view of communication, try to do the next activity.

To answer the questions in the activity, you will have to think about everything you

have already learned about the communication process in this study unit

Activity 4.1

1. Why does Lasswell‟s model depict a one-way process?

2. What other components of the communication process do you think should have

been added to the model to make it less simplistic?

3. What unintentional effects could a persuasive message have?

4. What else can the model describe, apart from persuasion?

4.2 Shannon and Weavers view of communication

Shannon and Weaver were mainly concerned with finding solutions to technical

problems, especially noise, which caused distortions during the transmission

process. A channel with a lot of noise makes communication between the

communicator and the recipient very difficult. If you have ever telephoned someone

and got a lot of static on the line, you will understand how annoying it is. A noisy

telephone line means you lose parts of your message because the static drowns out

he sound of the communicators voice. The same applies to noisy radio reception. A

similar problem occurs when a cellular telephone starts „breaking up” because it

needs recharging.

Activity4.2

Re- read section 3.3.8 where we describe the three types of noise. Which kind of

noise were Shannon and Weaver trying to eliminate?

4.3 Schramms view of communication

Note the progression in Schramms thoughts about communication. Schramms first

model, like the previous models we have discussed, is primarily concerned with the

path that a message follows from communicator to recipient. “ Communication”here

may be interpersonal or mass communication. When you study the quotation that

discusses Schramms fist model, note Schramms views: the communicator ( source),

the message and the medium that carries it, and the recipient ( destination) of

communication.

Activity 4.3

1. Does Schramms first model describe interpersonal or mass communication?

2. Study the quotation that discusses Schramms first model carefully. How do we

know that Schramm includes written, verbal and nonverbal messages in his

conception of the communication process?

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4.4 A transactional model

Note that the transactional model illustrates the view of the communicator and

recipient. Both participants receive and send messages at the same time. In other

words, they are simultaneously involved in negotiating meaning. The type of

relationship that develops between them is a crucial outcome of the communication

encounter.

Activity 4.4

1. Explain what we mean when we say that the participants negotiate the meaning

of a message?

2. Please fill in the blank spaces by writing down the name of the model or models in

the spaces provided.

a) Which model views communication as a linear process?

…………………………………………………………………………………..

b) What is the name of the model which claims that external, internal and semantic

noise can prevent meaningful communication from taking place?

…………………………………………………………………………………..

c) Which model views communication as a process in which the outcome is

determined by the mutual involvement of the participants?

…………………………………………………………………………………..

d) Which model views communication as a process in which the clarity of the

message is the most important factor?

…………………………………………………………………………………..

e) What is the name of the model which claims that there is a dynamic interaction in

communication?

…………………………………………………………………………………..

5. Contextual approaches to communication

In units 3 to 7 of the prescribed book, we examine different contexts of

communication in an attempt to answer the question: How do we study

communication? We shall conclude this study unit with a brief introduction to the

contexts of communication in order to introduce you to the concepts you need to

understand in order to study the various contexts of communication. At the same

time, bear in mind, that the existence of different communication contexts once again

points to the complex nature of communication. Please study read pages 61-65 for

a full explanation of the contexts of communication.

26

STUDY UNIT 4

PERCEPTION, LISTENING AND FEEDBACK

1. Introduction

Husbands and wives separate, friends become estranged, and co-workers refuse to

cooperate. What causes these sad developments? More often than not they are

caused by miscommunication.

In this study unit we emphasize the importance of perception, listening and feedback

in the communication process. To develop a better understanding of these concepts,

we need to find answers to the following key questions:

What is perception?

How does the perception process work?

What does it mean to listen?

What are the different levels at which we listen?

What are the different barriers to listening?

How can we improve the feedback we give in communication situations?

2. What is perception?

When we talk about perception, we are referring to your five senses. That is

hearing, sight, touch, taste and smell. These five senses provide you with a great

deal of information about the world and the people around you. Note that the

definition in the prescribed book explains that we store perceptual information ( ie

information we get through our five senses) in our memory. Because we remember

information , our perception of new experiences is to a certain extent, determined by

our past experiences. The simple example of touching a hot stove illustrates this

point. Once we‟ve burned ourselves on a stove, we will be far more careful in future.

Think about any past experiences involving your senses- taste perhaps- that

influences the way you approach new experiences.

A child who is born deaf and blind will grow up with a different perception of the

world from a child with normal sight and hearing. A child who is born deaf and blind

will also have a different perception of people. But even those of us who are not

handicapped often have different perceptions about what is happening around us.

Two people can witness the same incident and yet when they discuss the incident, it

27

is difficult to believe that they were in the same place at the same time. The same

sort of thing happens when two people describe their impressions of a conversation

they have heard- one person might say “ John‟s attitude was aggressive” while

another might say “ John dealt with the matter in a very reasonable way”. The world

would be a very dull place indeed if we all experienced the same things in the same

way.

However the point we are making is that our perceptions of what has happened and

what is happening are sometimes so inaccurate that they give us the wrong

impression of people and events around us, and even of ourselves and how others

see us. We can all have the wrong perception of something; in factl this happens

very often. But understanding how it occurs and the consequences it could have can

help us to improve our communication with ourselves and with the people whom we

meet.

The two major causes of this sort of distortion are perceptual inaccuracies and the

fact that any perception process is always subjective ( subjective means that we

interpret things from our own point of view).

2.1 Perceptual inaccuracies

The two examples of perceptual inaccuracies in the prescribed book have

been included to show you how easy it is to be deceived by the evidence of

your own eyes.

2.2. The perception process

Let us look at three stages of perception in more detail, and remember that

perception does not just happen because we are equipped with sensory

organs. We all play an active role in the process of perception. The stages in

the process of perception are not difficult to follow if you constantly think about

examples from your own experience to illustrate what we discuss in the

prescribed book. Let us take selection as an example. Look at the following

two factors which influence the selection process: selective exposure and

selective attention.

Selective exposure: a key factor in the way we view the world is how far we

are open to information and experiences. From all the information that

competes for our attention, we tend to select only that which supports what

we believe already, that is, our existing attitudes, values and beliefs. We tend

to ignore those experiences that contradict our existing attitudes, values and

beliefs. That is why for example, most people buy newspapers who editorial

policy supports their existing political views. This means that they only read

viewpoints they already agree with. They ignore information that contradicts

their political views. When we communicate with others we make a similar

choice. We allow ourselves to be open to some new information and we

28

exclude other new information. Excluding some messages or parts of

messages may create inaccurate perceptions of what is happening around us.

Selective attention: selective attention is related to selective exposure.

Selective attention refers to the fact that we see what we want to see and

hear what we want to hear. The concept of selective attention also describes

how we do this. Apart from the physical limitations of our senses, our

interests and needs also influence selective attention. If you are interested in

soccer for instance, you will hear all the statistics that are presented during a

radio sports broadcast. But someone who is not interested may hear only the

sound of the broadcasters voice. The drive of the buss that you board has a

need to pay attention to traffic lights, pedestrians and other vehicles, but you,

the passenger may not notice any of these things because you do not need to

notice them.

a similar process occurs during communication. In a meeting, for example

you may selectively attend only to those points of discussion that directly

concern your work. And you may lose concentration when the people in the

meeting discuss matters that are less important to you.

3. What does it mean to listen?

Listening takes up more waking hours than any other communication activity, yet the

typical person receives very little explicit listening instruction. In addition, people

tend to think of listening as a passive rather than active behavior and as a result, fail

to recognize the amount of effort and skill it takes to be a good listener.

Activity 3.1

Get a pen and paper, and find a place where you can sit quietly and listen to

everything around you. Write a scenario similar to the one below where you

identify everything you can hear in your environment.

Suddenly Palesa awoke. Still scared from the nightmare she was

having, she listened intently. She could hear nothing. After a while, she

could only make out the soft noise of someone watching soccer on TV.

Then suddenly her cellphone buzzed and beeped with an incoming SMS.

The sudden noise gave her such a fright that she screamed at the top of

her lungs.

Linda next door, who had not be able to sleep all night, was sitting

outside humming softly along to the music playing on her earphones.

Her younger brother William was also having trouble sleeping, but

finally dozed off to the soft comforting sound of Linda’s voice. On

hearing the scream, close by, she stopped at once. She listened

carefully, but could not hear any more noises, so she decided to walk by

Palesa’s to investigate. The sudden absence of Linda’s humming

29

caused William to wake up again. He could hear the security gate open

and close.

Concerned about his sister being alone outside, William got up carefully

to prevent his squeaky bed from waking up the rest of their family. On

tiptoe, on tiptoe, he followed Linda into the darkness outside. He did

not see the empty cola can lying in the street until he stepped on it. The

cracking sound of the cola can crushing against the tar was very loud in

contrast to the otherwise quiet night. Linda, standing right next to

Palesa’s window, shrieked in fright while she swung around. Seeing

William running back to their home, she followed suit. For the second

time that night, Palesa woke up, but this time there was only quiet unit

the noises of her early-rising neighbours announced the arrival of the

morning. Sitting in bed listening to the morning news on the radio,

Palesa contemplated what to wear to work. As the weather report on the

radio indicated that it was going to be a scorching hot day, she opted for

something light and comfortable. On her way to work she listened to

two people sitting behind her on the bus, discussing their political

viewpoints. As she did not agree with them, she carefully listened to

their arguments and quietly mulled over the discussion.

After a long day at work Palesa decided to visit Linda next door before

returning home. She remembered the strange happenings of the night

before and discussed it with Linda. Palesa told Linda about the terrible

nightmare she had, and Linda sympathetically listened to her while she

attempted to get it off her mind. As the evening drew closer, Palesa

decided to return home and made it an early night.

After doing this activity, you most likely realised how much information we are able to

get from our environment through listening. Another aspect regarding listening that

also became clear in the scenario above is that it occurs at different levels. In

section 4.4 of this unit, we deal with the different levels at which we listen. But

before we move on to this section it is important to highlight the difference between

hearing and listening. Hearing is a passive process. When sound waves vibrate

against the eardrum and the brain registers these sounds, we hear. Listening on the

other hand is a dynamic, active process involving both the communicator and the

recipient.

You are probably also familiar with the situation of listening to a boring lecture.

While you are sitting in the classroom you hear the lecturer talking, but because you

are tired and bored you do not really listen. It often happens that we hear but we do

not listen. Think for example of times when you are listening to the radio or watching

television while being busy with something else. You hear people talking, but you do

not pay attention and are therefore not able to recall what you have just heard.

Listening occurs when the signals or sounds sent to the brain are processed and

used. That is when we attend to what is being said, select what is relevant and then

30

understand and interpret it for ourselves. Efficient listening also requires us to

remember what has been conveyed to us and that we respond to the communicator.

The listening process becomes more complex when we communicate with others

rather than listen to sounds. Interactive listening entails listening or paying attention

both to what is said and to the manner in which it is conveyed. We have to listen to

the words that are being spoken and at the same time pay attention to the non verbal

cues that accompany the words. The reason is that the nonverbal part of the

message carries the feelings and emotions of the speaker, and often communicates

more than the words that are used.

Active listening therefore helps us to interpret messages and responses more

accurately and thereby to gain a better understanding of the people with whom we

come into contact. In fact, poor listening is one of the major roots of

misunderstanding in both our personal and professional relationships.

3.1. What are the differences levels at which we listen?

Your level of involvement in a given interaction and the amount of energy you

expend in listening distinguish at what level you are listening. In this section we deal

with four levels of listening namely: listening for enjoyment; comprehensive or

discriminative listening; critical listening as well as conversational and reflective

listening.

Activity 3.2

Study the four different types of listening as described in section 4.2.2 of your

prescribed book and do the following activities:

Refer back to the scenario in section 4.3 of this unit, carefully read through the

scenario again and write down examples of:

- Listening for enjoyment

- Comprehensive or discriminative listening

- Critical listening

- Conversational and reflective listening.

31

STUDY UNIT 5

NONVERBAL COMMUNICATION

5.1 Overview

We have already stressed the importance of nonverbal communication . Nonverbal

behavior plays such a key role in all our communication experiences that we have

decided to use this study unit too explain this type of communication to you in detail.

If you want to improve your communication skills, you need to understand the role

and impact of nonverbal communication.

Many of us do not realize how much our nonverbal behavior influences other

peoples perception of us, both in our personal and professional lives. In fact, the

business and professional world considers nonverbal communication so important

that many companies hire professional consultants to teach their employees how to

project the „right „ image. In this study unit we will not focus on business and

professional contexts; instead we shall try to provide you with some insight into the

whole area of nonverbal communication to help you improve your communication

skills in the contexts or settings in which you communicate everyday.

Learning outcomes

The overall learning outcomes of this unit is to understand and explain the theoretical

principles on which nonverbal communication is based. We would also like you to

be able to recognize the theoretical principles you have learned about your own and

other peoples nonverbal behavior; this will improve your own nonverbal

communication.

5.2 Introduction

The introduction in the prescribed book introduces the range of nonverbal behaviors

we use in our everyday communication. You may not have been aware that our use

of time, touch and space, for example, is regarded as nonverbal communication. But

they do in fact send messages about ourselves. For example, if you are constantly

late for appointments with friends, what sort of message are you communicating

about the importance of their friendship? Your answer to this question will vary

depending on your cultural and regional background.

5.3 Functions of nonverbal communication

We cannot study nonverbal messages in isolation. We always study them in relation

to the verbal part of the message because, together, they make up the total

message. What do we mean when we say that a nonverbal message functions in

one of five ways? A function describes the purpose for which something is intended.

In this study unit, we shall discuss the questions; what does nonverbal

communication do? What is the purpose of nonverbal communication?

32

Our answer to these questions is that nonverbal communication does the following:

Reinforces the verbal message

Adds to ( or complements) the verbal message

Replaces the verbal message

Contradicts the verbal message

Regulates the flow of messages.

The five functions of nonverbal communication are not difficult to understand. As

you study the five functions, you should be able to think of your own examples.

We discuss one aspect of nonverbal communication in more detail because you

might find it somewhat puzzling- that is the role of the voice in nonverbal

communication.

We have already said that nonverbal communication is neither spoken nor

written. And yet we know that the speakers tone of voice is an example of

nonverbal communication. At first this may seem to be a contradiction but it is

not. There is a difference between what is being said and how it is being said.

Nonverbal communication describes communication that does not use actual

words. In other words nonverbal communication is not concerned with what we

say. However, nonverbal communication is most certainly concerned with how

we speak. In other words, how we speak is an example of nonverbal

communication.

The importance of how we speak is emphasized by the fact that four of the five

functions of nonverbal communication are actually fulfilled when we give verbal

messages. These four functions are:

To reinforce the verbal message

To complement the verbal message

To contradict the verbal message

To regulate the verbal flow.

Can one reinforce the verbal message?

Yes. For example, by speaking forcefully when using certain words. An example

here would be “ I insist that you do so immediately”.

Can one add to the verbal message?

33

Yes, by using a relaxed tone of voice when wishing someone a happy birthday.

Can one contradict the verbal message?

Yes by telling someone in a very sad tone of voice that you are fine.

Can one regulate the flow of verbal interaction?

Yes, by threatening or sarcastic tone of voice can certainly be a conversation

stopper.

Can one replace the verbal message?

Yes by the sound of laughter in place of words to express your emotions.

5.2 Aspects of nonverbal communication

In this section we shall discuss why nonverbal messages are sometimes

misunderstood. The three reasons discussed in the prescribed book are leakage,

context and culture. You need to understand these reasons because they

influence your understanding of other peoples nonverbal communication. Also if you

understand these factors and how they work, this should make you realize that your

own nonverbal messages could be misunderstood by other people.

Do you agree with the axiom, that you cannot not communicate? You may decide

not to utter a single word in a group discussion, for example, because you know that

our opinion on the topic is controversial and anything you say will upset the group.

But your silence will probably communicate some message to the other participants.

For example, they might interpret it as displaying hostility, apathy, agreement,

disagreement, embarrassment, awe or any number of meanings. At the same time,

something about your „ body language‟ ( perhaps your facial expression or the way

you are sitting) might confirm the impression that your silence gives. That is why we

say that nonverbal communication is often beyond our control- we leak information

about ourselves to others, whether we realize it or not.

The examples of context in the prescribed book should help you become more

aware of the importance of the setting or circumstances of nonverbal communication.

5.3 Categories of nonverbal communication

When you began reading this guide, you no doubt came across words which you did

not recognize, even if English is your home language. So let us suggest how to

memorize the meanings of these words.

Kinesics: „Kine‟ means motion or movement. Movement of ones body, arms, legs,

face or eyes are therefore included in the word kinesics.

Proxemics: comes from the word „ proximity‟ which refers to closeness or nearness

in space.

34

Haptics: has also been described as „ tacesics‟ which refers to our tactile sense (

our sense of touch)

Chronemics: comes from the word „ chronological‟ which means arranging events

according to dates or a time sequence.

Paralanguage: „Para‟ can mean beside or by the side of something; the something

in this case is language. That is way the word paralanguage includes the quality of

the speakers voice, hesitations between words, and other sounds, as well as the

speed or rate or the volume and pitch of the speakers voice.

35

STUDY UNIT 6

LANGUAGE AND COMMUNICATION

1. INTRODUCTION

People take language for granted and hardly ever consider how language influences

thoughts and perceptions. Only when you have to interact with someone who is

familiar with a language other than your own, do you realise the primary role that

language plays in your ability to perform, achieve and successfully interact with

others.

The sections in the study unit is not in synch with the prescribed book. The guidance

provided here should assist you in becoming familiar with issues such as the

following:

Why do we need to study verbal language?

What does language consist of to ensure that people understand one another

when communicating?

Is there an interrelation between language and thought?

Does language determine our views of the world? Why? Why and why not?

What are functions of language?

What are the different purposes of language?

What role does language as a social phenomenon play in our lives?

2. Why is the study of language important?

Language denotes different things to different people, but language consists of signs

( arbitrary and symbolic) , has different levels of meaning ( denotative and

connotative) and has various function, uses and purposes.

Language is needed for people to interpret their social world, to think about

experiences and to share information with others because language is the tool by

means of which communication processes are mediated. None of the intrapersonal

or interpersonal communication processes would be possible without the use of

verbal language. Objects- pen, book, designer wear clothes or films become

meaningful when they are given names. We hear, see, think and experience the

world via words. Imagine how you would describe an aeroplane if you had no idea

or word assigning meaning to that object.

3. Language as a system of signs

We present language as pictures and signs ( the alphabet). Whenever we want to

express ourselves verbally, we make use of language. Human language comprises

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not only a system of signs ( known as lexemes) but also the grammars by which

these are manipulated. Grammar refers to the rules governing the language and

each language has its own grammar.

Effective communication implies a sound knowledge of vocabulary, the rules of the

language, the grammatical construction of the language and an understanding of the

pictures in our minds. The five components of language ( phonology, morphology,

semantics, syntactic and pragmatics) are interrelated and are used to create verbal

codes of language and a basic understanding of these aspects is required to ensure

that effective communication takes place.

For communication to be effective, and have the intended outcome, the recipient

has to create meaning similar to that in the mind of the communicator. This is

attained through words which are the basic elements of language and which are

verbal signs. Signs are the smallest units of meaning and make communication

possible because they are the vehicles allowing for the transfer of meaning.

A sign can be regarded as the representation of an idea, concept, object or quality.

A wink is a symbolic sign and at a formal meeting, it could be a sign indicating a form

of recognition saying hello, or a sign indicating that you agree with the other person.

Signs are not universal in all languages and can have different meanings to different

people. The same sign can have more than one meaning and a sign does not

indicate meaning. Although there are a number of different signs, this study guide

focuses on natural, arbitrary and symbolic signs.

Activity 6.1

1. Study section 6.4 in the prescribed book with a view to distinguishing

between natural, arbitrary and symbolic signs.

2. Read the passage below aloud and consider the following:

- Can you pronounce the words as you read them?

- Did you understand what each word meant?

- Did the contents of the paragraph make sense to you?

- What does this exercise prove or demonstrate with regard to arbitrary

signs, meaning and understanding.

Mind boggling

I cdnuolt blveiee that i cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd what i was rdgnieg. The

phaomnneal power of the human mind. Aoccdrnig to rscheearch it deos not mttaer

inwaht order ltteers are in a word, the only ipromoatnt thing is taht the firist and lsat

ltter be in the rghit pclae. The rset can be a mses and you will sitll be albe to raed it.

37

This is bcuseae the human mind deos not raed ervey ltter by istlef, but the word as a

wlohe. And you thought slpeling was ipmorant?

Natural signs

Natural signs are the result of cause and effect. Irrespective of your culture, natural

signs should be understood by all people, such as television images of East Asia

indicating that the area was subject to disaster; if someone coughs continuously, the

cough is associated with illness of a kind.

Arbitrary signs

Which represent agreed-upon meanings, are used in effective communicative

exchanges. The letters of the alphabet are the most basic arbitrary signs and re

used to make up words. These arbitrary signs have to be learnt since they do not

resemble what you visually read or physically hear or say. In other words, letters of

the alphabet do not as such represent any object or thought. For example, the

arbitrary signs F-L-O-O-R when read or heard, do not in any manner represent or

resemble the lower surface of a room, the bottom of the sea, part of the House of

Parliament where members sit and speak or a set of rooms on the same level in a

house. The arbitrary signs C-O-W when read or heard , do not visually represent or

resemble the farm animal which can produce milk. If you have not learnt that B-O-A-

B-A-B refers to a very large African tree with a thick trunk, you will find the arbitrary

signs meaningless.

Triangle of meaning

This triangle illustrates the relationship between words, thoughts and meaning

assigned to these words. There is no direct relationship between a specific word

and a specific thing.

Symbolic signs

Language is used to make sounds, structure sentences and to assign meaning to

words or a combination thereof in order to communicate . the meanings conveyed

by words as symbolic signs are abstract and are tooted in our social, cultural and

language past. Words as symbols therefore also have to be leant and usually

represent stronger emotional connections than arbitrary signs.

From the information provided thus far, the following can be deduced:

- Language refers to a unified system of signs that enable humans to share meaning

- A word can be an arbitrary sign which can represent something else or a spoken

sound or it can be a written representation of a sound.

- The arbitrary nature of words means that there is no direct resemblance or relation

between the word and that which it represents.

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6.3 Language as a social phenomenon Verbal language is used when people interact (communicate) with one another and to build

relationships between people. Verbal communication is conveyed either orally or in printed

form and can be found in different settings, such as face-to-face communication, mass

media or when using the Internet.

Before people can effectively communicate with one another by means of a language, they

need to acquire an understanding of what words actually mean and a mutual understanding

of connotations attached to words.

Activity 6.2

1 read section 6.2 in the prescribed book to familiarise yourself with the different

purposes of language.

2 Study sections 6.5.1 and 6.5.2 in the prescribed book to familiarise yourself

between connotative and denotative meanings of words.

3. With this information in mind, consider the following language issues:

- What connotative meanings come to mind when you think of the word „ dog‟? write

down the meaning you attach to this word.

- Use a dictionary, Internet, Thesaurus or another resource to determine what the

denotative meaning of the word is.

- Compare your connotative meaning to the denotative meaning and highlight the

differences.

Levels of the meaning of words

The three possible levels of meaning of words which can be distinguished are the

- Denotative level of meaning

- Connotative level of meaning

- Mythological or ideological level of meaning

Denotative level of meaning

The denotative meaning of a word refers to the explicit and literal meaning as

described in a dictionary. According to a number of dictionaries, a dog is a four-

legged animal from the genus canis. It is also a pet of many breeds or ca be a wild

animal. „ Dog‟ also refers to the male of a dog or fox.

Connotative level of meaning

The connotative meaning of a word refers to the connotation that you, the

communicator or recipient attach to the word- your emotions, feelings and the

associations that you attach to a word. These meanings are often determined by

past personal experiences and or by meanings constructed by society. The

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connotative meaning that you assign to the word „ dog‟ could for instance, be that of

a protector watching over you and your property, or that of a vicious, fighting animal

or that of a companion for life.

Mythological or ideological level of meaning

The mythological or ideological meaning of words illustrates or refers to a deeper

meaning of the word and ideology can in some instances be related to culture or

traditional beliefs.

6.4 Why do we use verbal language

Language is used for specific purposes, such as for 1) entertainment (sending

pictures and stories to friends via the Internet or watching a television programme);

2. Becoming acquainted with issues outside our immediate experience ( being

informed about the incident involving the Twin Towers either by reading about it or

by viewing images of it); 3 labelling or identifying ( baptising a newborn baby or

calling someone by his or her name) and 4 for evaluation purposes ( commenting on

an assignment) . When the purpose of language is to evaluate, a positive, neutral or

negative judgement can be uttered.

Whenever people communicate, more than one communication purpose can be

fulfilled at the same time. You could tell someone a story he or she is eager to hear

but at the same time also convey unknown information and illustrate your knowledge

o f the topic or subject.

Effective communicators demonstrate sensitivity to multicultural communication and

variations in language. Most importantly, effective communicators use language as

a tool and know that understanding the interaction means language must be used

and interpreted in context.

Language is used to express oneself, verbally or nonverbally, to exchange

information ( give or receive information); to build, establish, or maintain

relationships; to assist with decision making; to gain or exert power over others; to

persuade others to change their thoughts and actions; to help us make sense of the

world and the way we understand it and to simply express our imagination and

ourselves to other people. When you communicate, there is intent behind what you

communicate. In other words, people use verbal language to communicate

purposefully to fulfil various human needs. Communication serves various purposes

but also fulfils specific communicative functions.

6.5 Communicative functions of language

When people speak, they use language not only to convey particular messages but

to fulfil particular communicative functions. When people discuss a particular aspect

or topic, they share information and interact for a purpose. Depending on the

language used, and the purpose of the communication , the communicative

functions of language can differ from one communicative interaction to another.

40

The following communicative functions of language can generally be distinguished:

Referential Function

The referential function indicates that concrete, factual information is conveyed. For

instance, if you tell someone in the household that the school starts at 8:00 daily,

your communication serves the referential function. With this function the main focus

is ont he contents of the information or on the relationship between a sign and its

referent or object.

Expressive Function

The expressive function of communication applies mostly to the communicator since

it reflects affective meaning that is it conveys a communicators feelings, emotions

and opinions. Whenever communication is used to reprimand, condemn, apologise

or praise, language focuses on the communicator and the expressive function of

communication is used. An example is that of someone who apologies for making a

mistake: such individuals may cry or give you a gift to demonstrate their sincerity.

Examples include the use of swear words or the trembling of your lip while you are

telling someone of a recent death in the family. In these instances both verbal and

nonverbal communication are used.

The form of a message can also fulfil an expressive function. In speech the tone of

voice, pitch, volume, hesitations and speed of speech add an expressive meaning to

the referential content of what is being said. In printed or written language the

expressive function is conveyed by the actual words, but by the size and colour of

letters used and by punctuation marks. When you type in capital letters in an e-mail,

it is regarded as shouting at the recipient.

Conative function

Messages that have conative ( regular or directive) functions are concerned with the

relationship between the sign and the recipients. Language is used to influence the

belief, emotion, attitude, actions or behaviour of the recipient of a message to follow

the communication wishes or orders of the communicator. The message can

contain instruction, commands, warnings or threats.

Phatic function

The phatic or ( interactional) function of communication has to do with keeping the

lines of communication open and maintaining social relationships. In other words, to

make and maintain contact with others. That is why we regularly ask people “ how

are you?” another example is when we talk about the weather simply to keep the

conversation going, since it is considered inappropriate to keep quiet. Through this

kind of communication we take notice of people and invite or welcome

communication.

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Poetic function

The poetic function of communication has to do with the messages concern with

itself and the function is not confined to poetry: it is also found in slogans. The

essence of this function is in the use of language aspects such as alliteration,

assonance, rhyme, diction and syntax to serve the purpose. This is applicable when

people use language for pleasure. They may enjoy the sounds of wods in poetry

that rhyme, they may use expressions, such as „ a bee in your bonnet‟, or „ go well,

go Shell‟. Metaphors such as “ you are a star” also serve this function of

communication.

Metalinguistic function

The core of this function is its comment on language- if you talk about the language

used to make sure that what has been said is understood in exactly the same way by

all parties. Phrases such as „ is my understanding correct that ..?‟ or „Do you mean

...?‟ are examples. Advertisements for products such as cars can provide further

technical detail ( speed over a distance, power output or fuel consumption) while

advertisements for medical products could explain the message conveyed in the

advertisement by telling you what ingredients each tablet contains.

Improving language skills

Despite knowledge of all the phenomena discussed in this study unit, it may still be

necessary to improve language skills. This can be done by making sure that you

express yourself clearly; that you use correct words which will convey the meaning

exactly as you intend. It may even be necessary to elaborate on a specific

statement to ensure understanding on the part of both communicator and recipient.

It is of critical importance to remember that if English is used as the language of

communication, it may be the third language of other people.

Communicative competence will also improve if appropriate language is used.

Language used should be suitable to the people and the context in which it is used.

You will not, for instance, use the same terminology with a six year old child as with

an adult to explain what studying at a university entails. Slang and jargon have

become acceptable in many communication contexts. When some teenagers

communicate with one another, they often make use of slang. If you go to a

pharmacy and the pharmacist uses jargon, you may not understand what is being

conveyed.

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STUDY UNIT 7

INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

7.1 Overview

Intrapersonal communication is communication within the self, from the self and with

the self. To understand this type of communication, we need to have a good

understanding of how the self is and what influences it. The purpose of this study

unit is to make this clear to you. What you must remember at all times when

studying this unit is that intrapersonal communication forms the basis of all our

communication with other people.

To understand intrapersonal communication, you must be able to answer at least the

following questions:

Who or what is the self?

What does the self-concept have to do with communication?

How does the intrapersonal communication process works?

What is the role of perception in intrapersonal communication?

What are perceptual inaccuracies?

You will need to know a lot about the following concepts:

The self

Self –concept

Intrapersonal processing

Intrapersonal variables

Perceptions

Perceptual inaccuracies.

7.2 Introduction

You are now aware that intrapersonal communication is communication within the

self. In this context of communication, only one person is involved, and that is the

individual communicating with himself or herself. Just as in other contexts of

communication, there is also feedback in intrapersonal communication. This study

unit must be ready together with Chapter 7 of your prescribed book to make you

more familiar with the concept of intrapersonal communication and with other

concepts and theories affecting this type of communication.

43

Scenario and Activity 7.1.

Read the scenario below and then explain what you can deduce from Simons

intrapersonal communication . Try to refer to concepts such as his self- concept,

self- disclosure and certain intrapersonal variables.

Simon has been asked to make himself available for election as member of the

Student Council. He is very flattered by the request, but does not know if he should

do it. He is worried about how he will feel if he is not elected. He decides to make a

list of things that could affect his answer. His list looks like this:

Why would other students want to elect me?

What do I say during the question and answer session before the election?

What image do I want to portray to the students?

Will I have to tell the students about my poor academic performance in certain

modules?

Will I meet other people’s expectations?

7.3 The self

In this section of your prescribed book, you will learn more about the definition,

dimensions and importance of the self in intrapersonal communication. The

concept of the self refers to what we are and how we see ourselves. The image we

have of ourselves, however is also influenced by how other people see us and

through their communication with us.

Activity 7.2

Write down ten words about yourself

Write down ten words describing how you think other people see you.

The chances are good that you described yourself differently from how you

think other people see you. If you study your prescribed book, you will realise

that there are several dimensions of the self and that this is not unusual. The

fact, though, is that we cannot see the different parts of the self separately;

they all work together to form a whole. This is the whole that influences our

communication. Our perceptions of who we are and how other people see us

( our self- concept) emerge in communication, but that does not mean that

these perceptions cannot change. Depending on the situation and

circumstances, we can change our self-concept and this will affect our

behaviour and communication.

Our private self and public self is therefore not always the same. For

example, you may think that you are an extrovert, but when you are in the

work environment, you may suppress this part of yourself to appear more

professional. Your public self- that part of your personality that you choose to

reveal to other people when communicating with them, differs from your

private self.

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Your prescribed book, describes different aspects of the self that all combine

to form a unique, individual self-concept or self-image. Make sure that you

understand all these different parts of the self.

I f you think back to activity 1.1, you will realise that Simon thought about his

public self. He thought about reasons why other students would elect him as

a member of the Student Council. This means that he wondered about how

other students saw him. He also thought about what image he wanted to

portray to the other students before and during the elections. In other words,

he realised that he could adapt his public self in certain respects to garner

more support. He also doubted within his private self, because he wondered

whether he could meet all the students‟ expectations.

7.4 The development of self-concept

If you have understood the above section, you should realise that we all have an

image of ourselves that influences our communication and behaviour. This self-

image or self-concept has to do with all the characteristics that make us individuals,

i.e. our physical features, our intellectual ability, all our values, attitudes, etc. This is

the overall image of how we feel about ourselves.

Look at activity 1.1 again. You will realise that Simon also looked at his own self-

concept. He thought of reasons why the students would want to elect him as a

member of the Student Council. He may have thought about his intellectual ability,

his previous performances, his perception of his personal appearance and his

principles and values, among other things. All these are intrapersonal variables

affecting how we see ourselves and how other people see us. It is important to

remember that Simon‟s self-concept is not something he as born with, but something

that has developed over the years.

ACTIVITY 7.3

Think of a relationship that you have had with someone. Did you ever try to change

something about yourself to make this relationship better?

Suppose you realised during your teenage years that your parents were not happy

with your school performance that your marks were not as good as those of your

best friend. You first felt bad and inferior, but then made the intrapersonal decision

that you would have to pull up your socks. If you did not want to disappoint your

parents or if you wanted to compare favourably with your friend. You therefore spent

less time on sport and social obligations and started working harder on your

academic qualifications.

This shows that your self-concept is influenced by other people and that you can do

something about it. If you saw yourself as someone who was a disappointment to

45

your parents, you decided to change this image of yourself. You did not want to

appear inferior to your friend, so you started working hard and changed from an

underachiever to a performers. You would have seen yourself in another light then,

in other words, your self-concept would have been more positive.

The above example shows that theories on the self-concept and the development of

the self-concept such as the looking glass self and social comparison, can be

useful. These theories are discussed in section 7.2.1. of your prescribed book.

Make sure you understand them and can explain how and why a person‟s self-

concept can be influenced by feedback from other people and comparisons with

others.

Self-fulfilling prophecies, discussed in section 7.2.2 of your prescribed book, can

also affect a person‟s self-concept. When you get encouraging comments and

positive feedback on your actions, communication or behaviour, the chances are

good that you will continue this behaviour and develop a more positive self-concept.

However if you only get negative feedback from others, you will start believing that

you are a failure and the chances are good that you will be less inclined to do

everything possible to prove that you can be successful.

If you are aware of the different elements in intrapersonal processing, it will also

be easier to improve your self – concept. ( How to improve your self-concept is

discussed in detail in section 7.2.3. of your prescribed book, and intrapersonal

processing is discussed in section 7.2.4.)

It is important to remember the following about intrapersonal processing: after you

have decoded a message from someone, you must integrate the message with the

aid of perceptual sets, with the information you have stored in your memory.

Perceptual inaccuracies that you have of yourself or others can however, affect this

process and also the encoding of new messages.

7.5 Intrapersonal variables

We all have intrapersonal variables. Whether or not we realise it. Intrapersonal

variables are our attitudes, values, beliefs, opinion and prejudices. And of course,

the people with whom we interact also have attitudes, values, beliefs, opinions and

prejudices which do not always coincide with ours. In this section we shall try to

make you more aware of how these variables influence your communication and

relationships

Values

Values are the moral and ethical judgements we make about things that are

important to us. If you value honesty very highly, you are going to find it difficult to

communicate , or establish a relationship, with someone who tells you that, when the

sales assistant gave them too much change, they simply put the extra money in their

pocket and walked away. Their value system has created a barrier between you.

46

The conflict mentioned in the example in the prescribed book refers to what happens

when your own value systems clash. If you decided not to give your friend your

honest opinion about the matter, then you value friendship more than honesty. The

opposite is also true. But it is sometimes difficult to resolve such inner conflicts

without damaging the relationship.

Attitudes

An attitude is your favourable ( positive ) or unfavourable ( negative) response to

something- food, people, objects. Have you ever thought about why your positive or

negative attitude about something can have such a powerful effect on your

judgement of someone? Part of that answer lies in the fact that attitudes are

learned. For example, if you grew up in a home where you parents constantly made

critical remarks about women who went out to work, instead of looking after the

home and children, your reaction to the working women you meet as an adult could

well be influenced by the attitude you learned from your parents. You will tend to

have a negative attitude to working women. Because attitudes are formed

subjectively- there is rarely any evidence to support them- they are often difficult to

change and can damage your communication and relationships.

Beliefs, opinions and prejudices: When you study the differences between

beliefs, opinions and prejudices, you will notice that beliefs, opinions and prejudices

are related to our values and attitudes. Beliefs and opinions give us the opportunity

to discuss ideas with others, but prejudices are usually so deeply entrenched that

they give us a totally wrong perspective of people and events. Let us take the

example of working women a little further. Whether you are a man or a woman, you

could express the opinion that mothers should be occupied at home. When talking

about working mothers, you would probably give them stereotyped characteristics.

But supposing a man is afraid that his own role in society may be threatened if

women gain more power in business or politics. This man may well show

considerable prejudice against working wives, or any women in prominent positions.

In fact, he may become very emotional if anyone challenges his views. In this case,

his opinion has become a prejudice.

7.6 Perception of others

We often judge others by their appearance. We use the way someone

dresses, walks, speaks and even the car they drive to label him or her. It is

only after closer investigation that we realise that the older man who drives a

battered car is in fact a professor, or that the blonde woman who always

wears daring mini-dresses is in fact a computer whizz. However as you know

by now, we cannot always rely on the evidence of our senses.

7.6.1Perceptual inaccuracies. [ it is important that you read through pages

154- 155 of your prescribed book to gauge a better understanding of this

concept].

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7.6.2. Improving the accuracy of your perceptions

The prescribed book gives you guidelines for improving the accuracy of your view

of other people. These guidelines have been developed by experts in the field of

perception and we hope that you find them useful.

48

STUDY UNIT 8

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Over view

This unit is mainly concerned with one-to –one, face- to – face relationships- in other

words, relationships between two people, who are in each other‟s physical presence,

who can watch each other during the communication process, and who can give

each other immediate feedback. Think about the variety of interpersonal encounters

you have in a single day. For example, with the members of your family, colleagues

at work, fellow students, sales assistants, clients and competitors. The list is

endless. Interpersonal communication is one of the most important types of

communication in our relationships with other people.

Learning outcomes

The overall learning outcome of this unit is to gain deeper insight into the role that

communication plays in determining the quality of your interpersonal relationships.

We shall be explaining the theoretical principles that you need to study, and we shall

try to help you apply what you learn to practical examples of interpersonal

communication . we shall focus on your personal experiences so that you can

understand why some of your relationships are more successful than others. You

will only be able to achieve these learning outcomes if you make the effort to

understand the material in this unit and do the activities. In many of the activities, we

ask you to use your own experiences to illustrate a theory or to test an assumption.

Introduction

Would you agree that, as our society becomes increasingly technological and

impersonal, people seem to place a greater value than ever on meaningful

relationships in their everyday lives? Researchers maintain that being liked and

having friends can influence our whole personality. But why do we choose certain

people as friends and not others? Is it because we share similar values or attitudes?

Or because we live or work together and therefore have more opportunity to interact

with these people? Or do we choose our friends because they are friendly to us? Or

is it because sharing these peoples company satisfies certain needs? As you think

about these questions, it will probably become clear that many factors influence our

interpersonal relationships. W e shall be studying more of these factors in this study

unit. Lets begin by discussing the views of Martin Buber.

8.2 Buber’s theory of interpersonal relationships.

Buber‟s theory of interpersonal relationships is regarded as highly philosophical.

Nevertheless, it is not difficult to relate what he says to our everyday experiences.

He obviously had real people and real life in mind when he expressed his thoughts in

49

writing. As you read the guidelines that follow and as you study the prescribed book,

you need to relate what you learn to real experiences- either your own or other

peoples. Unless you make this effort, you will find it difficult to follow main ideas of

Bubers theory.

The prescribed book discusses Buber‟s theory and refers to the two types of

interpersonal relationships that Buber focussed on: I- YOU relationships and I-IT

relationships. These relationships are directly linked to our mode of existence. In

other words, the way we communicate with other people determines the type of

relationship we have with other people. And our relationships with other people give

our lives a certain meaning. Think about this. What have your own experiences and

relationships with other people been like in your life? Do you agree that these

relationships have influenced the way you see life?

As you relate the two interpersonal relationships to the idea of dialogue and

monologue, think about people who fit the two descriptions or situations where you

have been the recipient in a „ dialogue‟ or „ monologue‟.

If you have already done so, you should underline the key words as you study this

section, that is, the words that most clearly describe the characteristics of the I-you

relationship.

Do you understand the idea of distance in the interhuman domain? In the

interhuman domain- where two people form a close relationship- they also maintain

a certain distance. We do this because we do not want to lose our identity and

individuality by totally merging ourselves with another person. Even in the closest

relationship, participants remain themselves. Think about two balloons tied to the

same string floating in the air. As they float, they constantly touch one another, but

then, as the wind blows, they separate for a while and then come together and touch

again.

Another concept that you have not come across before is intersubjectivity. Think

about this word in terms of the way we explained interpretation. The „inter‟ part of

the word „ intersubjectivity‟ refers to shared meanings and „ subjectivity‟ refers to the

individuals interpretations. So the word „ intersubjectivity‟ means that , although we

will all agree on the meaning of a word, as individuals we will also interpret that word

in our own unique way.

The comparison of the recipient with an object in the I-it relationship is, we believe,

very appropriate. The attitude of the communicator is that he regards the recipient

as no different from an object- that is, something without feelings or opinions. The

communicator wants to, and will, impose his views on the recipient. He does not

consider her as an equal subject in the relationship. In this relationship, the

communicator uses the recipient for his own ends. He will „ throw her away‟ when he

cannot use her any longer.

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Make sure that you can relate the two types of relationship to the two modes of

existence described in the prescribed book – authentic and inauthentic modes of

existence. We very much support Bubers view. It is true that we cannot avoid i-it

relationships in our lives but the choice to i-it or i-you relationships to dominate in our

lives is our choice. And we are also responsible for our mode of existence.

8.3 Interpersonal communication and self-disclosure

Look at the definition of self-disclosure in the prescribed book. Another way of

explaining this term is to say that self-disclosure means to reveal personal

information such as inner experiences and private thoughts. We usually hide this

type of information from others. We can understand self-disclosure by thinking about

he difference between public information (small talk) and personal information.

Small talk may be conversation about your job or your hobbies, your thoughts about

the weather or the soccer game you attended. But in close relationships we have to

share more than small talk. We have to communicate to others who we are and

what we are feeling. We do this by proving them with verbal and nonverbal

information of a more personal nature.

Please note that while self-disclosure is essential to the growth of meaningful

interpersonal relationships, it is in intrapersonal communication that we decide how

much information about our private self we are willing to reveal to other people. Stop

here for a moment and think about your interpersonal relationships. What sort of

information about yourself do you reveal to people who are close to you, and what

sort of information do you reveal to casual acquaintances?

If you are the sort of person who does not reveal a great deal of information to

anybody at all, do the factors described in your prescribed book help you to

understand why? We believe that one of the most important factors in how much we

self- disclose is our cultural background.

8.3.2 A model of self-disclosure

The window represents yourself. The self includes everything about you, including

things you do not even know about. Do you agree that, as a relationship becomes

closer, the open pane grows larger? And that the hidden quadrant in the window is

usually fairly large at the beginning of a relationship, but becomes smaller as the

open pane grows larger? As you learn and disclose more about yourself to others,

the unknown quadrant becomes smaller and smaller.

Because we can never know ourselves completely, the unknown pane will always

exist. But, as people get to know us better, they may tell us thinks about ourselves

that we did not know about- in other words, information that comes from the

unknown pane. As this happens, the blind pane- that is, the pane that contains

information about ourselves that we do not know – will become smaller. This is how

our close relationships help us to gain self-knowledge. Too see how the size of the

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panes changes as we self-disclose, look at the two Johari windows drawn below.

Start your analysis by looking at the biggest pane.

Open pane Blind pane

Unknown

pane

Hidden pane

Window A Window B

Window A has a large hidden pane and a small open pane. Window A represents

someone who is not prepared to share his or her self with others. It is usually very

difficult for this sort of person to form close relationships. This statement is

supported by people who are experts on interpersonal relationships.

Window B has an extremely large open pane and a very small hidden pane.

Window B is regarded as being the ideal window for an intimate relationship. Why

do you think this is so? To answer this question, look at all four panes what they

represent. Why would window B be inappropriate in a business relationship?

8.4 Interpersonal communication and needs

We shall study two theories in this section: Schutz‟s theory of interpersonal needs

and Homans social- exchange theory. Schutz said that people who share similar

needs are more likely to establish and maintain a relationship than people whose

needs are very difficult. You will find examples to illustrate his view as you study

Schutz‟s theory.

8.4.1 Schutz’s interpersonal needs theory

Schutz describes interpersonal behaviour in terms of three general classifications

A need for inclusion

A need for affection

A need for control

Our desire for social contact is a learned motive or need ( unlike our physical

need for food and water). However, people from different cultures express their

need for social contact in different ways. And even individual people from the

same culture experience or express this motive or need for inclusion in different

ways.

A need for affection is based on an emotional experience. And emotions, once

aroused, often lead to action. Emotions, and their intensity, are often caused by

Open pane Blind pane

Unknown

pane

Hidden pane

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other people and external circumstances. For example. People do no normally

display rage or grief without some reason.

A need for control can lead to a situation in which one person wants to dominate

or dictate to another. The person who has a need to control others expects other

people to be submissive. However, this need to dominate or control is not

necessarily a bad thing; a need to dominate or control others may also be linked

to a need to lead others.

8.4.2 Homan’s social-exchange theory

Homan‟s social-exchange theory suggests that, when we enter into communication,

we look at what we get from the encounter. The exchange is two-way: each partner

has something the other desires or values, so , for Homans, communication is

similar to a commercial exchange between a buyer and a seller. In the same way

that we do not go into business with the expectation of losing money, we do not put

time or effort into a relationship we feel we are getting nothing or little out of it.

Homan‟s theory uses economic terms such as „ profit‟ and „ loss‟ to describe an

interpersonal outcome or „ exchange‟. If, for example, an interaction between two

people, is positive, the outcome of the relationship is regarded as a profit. If the

interaction is negative, the outcome of the relationship is regarded as a loss. A profit

or reward means that you gain something for yourself; it does not have to be money.

In addition to the examples in the prescribed book, think about the following:

1. Supervisors have learned that, in some circumstances it is a praise, rather

than more money, that encourages some employees to work harder.

2. If you have been rewarded for participating in class discussions by receiving

high marks, you will probably continue to participate in class. In other words,

you want to continue being rewarded.

Cost , on the other hand, has a negative meaning, and can be regarded as a kind

of punishment. Cost resulting from the relationship might be fatigue, anxiety, or a

constant fear of being embarrassed. Humans maintains that no relationship is

„free‟. All relationships have costs associated with them, even if this means

spending time with someone. A good example here might be going out with a

new friend the night before an examination because you want to establish a

closer relationship with your new friend. In this case, the time you spend with

your new friends is time you have lost to study and perhaps obtain a higher mark

in the exams.

8.5 Interpersonal communication and assertiveness

Assertiveness training has become common practice in the past twenty years in

Britain and America. More recently, assertive behaviour as s communication skill

has begun to be valued in South Africa. Please do not immediately think that it is

only women who need assertiveness training- that women are submissive and men

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are assertive. Or that black people in South Africa need assertiveness training more

than whites. And please do not confuse aggression with assertiveness. Everyone

needs to learn assertiveness as a communication skill. If you have ever felt nervous

about making a complaint which was justified or saying „no‟ to your partner or

manager, then you need to learn more about assertiveness. And you also need to

understand what assertiveness means if you lose your temper every time something

upsets you.

In this study unit, we shall concentrate on the role of assertiveness in interpersonal

relationships. But assertiveness is important in almost any communication situation

you can think of, both at work and at home. The most successful relationships are

those where both partners are assertive. In these relationships both partners feel

free to express themselves honestly and both expect to be accepted as themselves.

What exactly is assertiveness? The first point to remember is that being assertive

is not the same as being aggressive. Being assertive enables you to express

yourself clearly and confidently without putting down yourself and without putting

other people down.

8.5.2 Assertive styles

You should not find it difficult to understand the three styles in communication

behaviour described in the prescribed book: passive, aggressive and assertive styles

of communication. As you study each communication style, relate what you are

reading to your own behaviour or to that of someone you know fairly well. Think

about your own relationships. How are your own relationships influenced by your

communication style and that of your partner?

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STUDY UNIT 9

SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION

Overview

This study unit is about the groups we belong to. As a student you might belong to a

study group. You will know that sometimes the group works very well and everybody

helps to achieve the group‟s goal of understanding the study material. At other

times, you may have discovered that the group does not achieve its goals because

too much time is wasted in arguing about who should lead the group, or because

personality differences get in the way of serious study. In this unit, we shall be

focussing on „what happens‟ when groups get together. We shall be paying

particular attention to the way communication influences the way the group

functions.

As you study, you need to remember that small group communication shares certain

characteristics with interpersonal communication. Small-group communication is a

form of interpersonal communication, because each member of the group has an

opportunity to express their view, to give immediate and direct feedback and to

correct misunderstandings. When we study interpersonal and group communication

we need to study the use of verbal and nonverbal messages in interpersonal

relationships. However, small group communication is not exactly the same as

interpersonal communication. It has an additional component: achieving the group‟s

goal.

Learning outcomes

The overall learning outcome of this unit is that you gain an understanding of the

theoretical foundations of small-group communication. We also aim to help you to

apply what you learn to practical examples of small-group communication so that

you can participate fully in small groups.

Introduction

The introduction in the prescribed book makes us realise how important groups are

in society, and how many groups there are in society. In fact, society could not

function without groups. However, if groups are to perform their tasks efficiently, the

people who belong to them must understand something about group processes, that

is, about how group members communicate and interact with each other.

Discussion is the way groups solve problems and reach decisions. Understanding

group processes could also help you participate more effectively in the different

groups to which you belong.

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9.1 Defining a group

Your purpose in studying this section is to make sure that you can define a group

scientifically. As we point out in the prescribed book, a group is not merely a random

collection of individuals who happen to occupy a particular space at the same time.

The words printed in bold in the prescribed book explain the difference between a

collection of people and a group. A small group is a group which contains twelve

people at the most.

9.2 Advantages and disadvantages of small groups

You should not find it difficult to understand the advantages and disadvantages of

small groups .

9.3 Group Characteristics

In this section, we shall examine the characteristics that help make a group effective.

An effective group is a group in which people communicate in a way that enables the

work to get done. In other words, an effective group achieves its goals with the

minimum amount of argument between the members. In this section, we shall

discuss the following characteristics of an effective group:

Best number of members

A good working environment

Cohesiveness

Commitment to the task

Norms

Key role requirements

9.4 Communication networks in small groups

The flow of information within a small group is about who talks to whom. The flow of

information also relates to any communication problems in the group, and the roles

played by the different members. When we ask the question „who talks to who?‟ we

are really asking about the direction of information flow.

The prescribed book distinguishes between two groups of networks:

Centralised and decentralised networks. The wheel network, the chain network ad

the y-network are networks which have a centralised leader, but the circle network

and the all-channel network tend to be leaderless. In the prescribed book we

discuss which types of problem (simple or complex) are solved more easily and

quickly in which types of network. We also discuss the fact that group members

prefer certain networks. We believe you will find this discussion interesting and

informative. In our discussion we make it clear that we cannot tell other people what

sort of network they should use. Sometimes a certain type of communication

network leads to better results, and at other times, a different type of network is

required. The best network depends largely on the group‟s task, and also on the

individual members of the group.

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9.5 Leadership in groups

Section 9.5 deals with people who become group leaders- their particular qualities,

their style of communication and the skills they need to be effective leaders. When

thinking of famous leaders of the past, names such as Lenin, Gandhi, Hitler,

Kennedy and Luther King come to mind.

A person who fulfils a leadership role has two demands, placed on him or her:

1. The first demand is to conform to the attitudes, opinions and behaviour of the

group. This is particularly true when the leader has to present group opinion

and act as spokesperson

2. The second demand is that the leader has to be different from the group,

because it is the leader‟s task to introduce changes in activities and goals in

order to improve the way the group functions.

These two demands indicate that leadership involves a complex pattern of roles.

The word „ leadership‟ suggests someone who possesses certain personal

qualities. The word „ leadership‟ also implies that the leader acts out these

qualities. And of course, those who follow a leader must recognise these

qualities as leadership abilities.

9.5.1 Leadership theories

Leadership traits

As you study the traits or qualities that contribute to good leadership, think about

some of the group leaders you know. Do the leaders that you know show these

qualities ( ie. Ability, social ability, motivation, and communication skills)? We expect

that the people who you think are good leaders do show some of these qualities.

What about the people who you think are poor leaders? Do they lack some of these

qualities or do they display some of the behaviours listed in your prescribed book as

deterrents to good leadership? Remember that not all good leaders possess all the

qualities described in the prescribed book.

Please note that research has shown that most people can be trained to fulfil a

leadership role. Under experienced people who could become leaders can benefit

from training programmes.

At the beginning of this study unit, we said there was a difference between socially-

oriented and task – oriented groups. We can therefore expect that the leaders of

these two groups will have different qualities. A leader who fulfils a social and

emotional role will need to be able to maintain a groups morale. But a leader who

leads a task group will need to be able to direct the group‟s discussion and activities

and make decisions.

Leadership styles

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The second theory that investigates leadership is called the theory of leadership

styles. A group members reactions to the leader can be influenced by the leaders

age, gender, educational qualifications and even marital status. However, apart from

these characteristics, the leaders actual style of leadership may have an equally

important influence on group members and on whether effective communication

takes place within the small group.

9.5.2 Developing leadership skills

Please study this according to the information offered in your prescribed book.

9.6 Discussion in groups

Section 9.6 deals with problem solving in a small group. The ideal situation is that

everyone in the group agrees on how to tackle the problem and then arrives at a

solution which everyone finds satisfactory. In other words, the group reaches

consensus. But please note that consensus does not mean that all members of the

group agree with the decision. One or two people may have preferred to follow

different route. When we use the word „consensus‟ we mean that after participating

in the discussion about ways of solving the problem, everyone in the group

understands the decision, accepts it, and is willing to carry out their part in making

sure the decision is turned into action.

The prescribed book discusses a problem solving process. The problem solving

process has five stages:

1. identifying and defining the problem

2. analysing and researching the problem

3. deciding what the solution should accomplish

4. finding and evaluating solutions

5. implementing the solution

9.8 Differences between interpersonal and group communication

Do you understand the difference between interpersonal and small-group

communication in the quotation provided in the prescribed book? You may not find

the quotation easy to understand. We can rephrase it like this: „ in small group

communication, fulfilling your role is more important than presenting your self-

concept.‟ Another way of rephrasing the quotation is this: „in a one-to – one situation,

you are mainly concerned with the impression that you as an individual are making

on your partner, whereas in small-group communication, you are more aware of the

role you are expected to play in the group and how you interact with the group as a

whole.

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STUDY UNIT 10

PUBLIC SPEAKING

Overview

In the previous three units we concentrated on intrapersonal, interpersonal and

small-group communication. Although each of these contexts have their own

challenges, none of them are as feared by some people as public speaking.

Giving speeches is part of our lives. For some people it is the most natural and easy

thing to do, but for others it is a major challenge and even a nightmare. In this study

unit we explore a few principles of preparing and presenting speeches that should

help you to approach public speaking with more confidence, or even to be better at

tit than you were before.

The main questions you need to ask yourself while working through this unit are:

Why is it important for me to know about and acquire skills in public speaking?

What steps can I take to prepare a speech?

What are the central elements of a speech?

How can I order the content of the speech so that my audience can easily

follow my thought patterns and arguments?

What roles does non-verbal communication play in public speaking?

How do I evaluate a speech and what is the value of evaluating speeches?

Key concepts include the following:

Informative, persuasive and entertaining speeches

Audience analysis

Demographics, psychographics and sociographics

Occasion and setting of speech

Subject area

Topic

General purpose

Specific purpose

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Topic statement

Research on the topic

Introduction, body and conclusion

Sequential, topical and logical patterns

Monroe‟s motivated sequence

Preparation of presentation

Volume, pace, pauses, pitch, articulation, pronunciation and vocal

interference

Non-verbal behaviour

Visual aids

Speech evaluation

Introduction

How would you react if someone asked you to give a speech at some occasion?

“Sure, any time!” or “Me, give a speech? Forget it!”

Public speaking is seen as a context of communication science- something that

takes place in the public domain. It can also be seen as a skill that a person

acquires and practises.. there are people who have a natural talent for giving

speeches, but with a few basic principles under the belt, anyone can give a

speech. This study unit deals with six basic steps in preparing speeches, the use

of visual aids and the principles of evaluating a speech. It is based on chapter 10

of your prescribed book. Remember that the prescribed book is the primary

source for your exam preparation and that the study guide is merely an aid for

working through the prescribed book.

Activity 10.1

Choose one of the scenarios below that you can best identify with and then

answer the questions that follow:

Scenario 1

You a e a principal that has to convince all the learners in the school on the first

day of the school year that regular school attendance is absolutely vital.

Or

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Scenario 2

You are the marketing manager of a company making a presentation on a new

product range to the board of directors.

Or

Scenario 3

You are the chairperson of a student organisation that has to address members

at the annual general meeting on the activities planned for the year.

Or

Scenario 4

You are a member of a book club and have to address the other members on the

book you have been reading for the past month.

Or

Scenario 5

You are the manager of a car service centre and have to address new employees

on the different service procedures.

Or

Scenario 6

Your brother/sister/friend/son/ daughter is getting married in a week‟s time and

has asked you to make a toast to the bridal couple

1. Where will you begin in your preparation for the speech in selecting a topic?

Do you think you have enough information on the situation to decide on a

topic immediately?

2. Why is it important for you to acquire public speaking skills?

Read the introduction of chapter 10 in the prescribed book. It should help you

answer these two questions to some extent. Think about the community where

you live and /or your career. How will public speaking skills help you make a

difference in your community or workplace?

10.1 Determine the purpose of the talk/speech

Think back to your answer to question 1 of activity 10.1. Then read section 10.1 in

the prescribed book and revise your answer if necessary.

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Activity 10.2

In the scenarios in activity 10.1 the topic of each speech is given. However, there is

no indication of whether the speeches must be informative, persuasive or

entertaining. What do you think the purpose of each speech should be?

10.2 Analyse the audience

Imagine the following situation:

A traffic officer is invited to talk to a group of nursery school children about road

safety. In his talk he emphasises the advantages of a defensive style of driving in

which observation plays a major role.

Or just the opposite: the same traffic officer must talk to a group of adults about

road safety. This time he explains in detail what each colour in the traffic lights

means and how a person can cross a road or street safely.

Do you think the traffic officer has achieved anything with either of the two talks? He

is an expert in the field of road safety. What did he do wrong?

Keep the question in mind while reading the whole of section 10.2 ( Analysing the

audience)in the prescribed book.

Activity 10.3

Take another look at scenario 6 in activity 10.1. when you give a toast at a wedding,

you usually know quite a large section of the audience. Therefore it is easy to think

that it is not necessary to consider any demographic, psychographic or sociographic

information about the audience. This could be a bid mistake.

Think a bit about everyone who will be at your relatives wedding. Then do a

demographic, psychographic and sociographic analysis of this audience. In other

words, write down how the audience members will be similar to or different from

each other in terms of their demographic, psychographic and sociographic

characteristics. Refer to section 10.2.1 again in the prescribed book if you are

uncertain about the type of information you need to write down.

10.3 Select a topic

Finally we come to the step which many people regard as the first step in preparing

for a speech- selecting a topic. If you think back on what you have learnt so far,

does it make sense to you that selecting a topic is only the third step in preparing a

speech?

How does that work though? You are after all, given a specific topic to talk about

right at the start...

It is not always so simple. For example, you may be invited to give a speech on

something like domestic violence, globalisation or democracy. Do you agree that

these topics can still be narrowed down quite a lot? Will you be able to give exactly

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the same speech about domestic violence to an audience consisting of experts in the

field ( eg psychologists) and an audience consisting of laypeople? Do you think that

men and women think exactly the same way about the topic? Wht about different

cultures‟ perceptions about domestic violence?

10.4 Research the topic

By now, you know how to create the „skeleton‟ of a speech. The next step is to give

this skeleton a body. In other words, after taking all the steps to refine the topic of

the speech, you must do research to find suitable content for the speech. Read the

whole of section 10.4 ( researching the topic) in the prescribed book to get more

information on this. Take particular note of the functions of supporting material, the

two types of material you usually need, the most common sources of supporting

material and the importance of citing the sources and acknowledging them in your

speech.

10.5 Writing the speech

Lets take the image of the skeleton that gets a body one step further. Just like a

person consists of an upper body, waist and lower body, a speech also usually

consists of three parts- an introduction, a body and a conclusion. Each part has a

unique function and must be approached in a certain way.

10.6 Organisational techniques for specific purposes

Organisational techniques unique to informative, instructional and persuasive

speeches are discussed in section 10.6. Please read page 235 of your prescribed

book.

10.7 Prepare the delivery

“She spoke so slowwwwly, we all just wanted to sleep!”

“ I couldn‟t understand a word the speaker was trying to say- all the strange

terms confused me totally!”

“What on earth possessed the speaker to wear jeans and takkies? It was

completely inappropriate for the occasion!”

Have you ever made or heard similar comments about a speech? These

comments are symptoms of poor preparation for delivering a speech. Even if

the content is excellent, the delivery can make or break the speech.

The various aspects relating to preparing the delivery are covered in section

10.7.

10.8 Visuals

Think of speeches that you have heard in the past. Which ones were especially

interesting and easy to understand? What role did visuals play in the success of

these speeches?

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10.9 Evaluating speeches

One of the best ways of sharpening your public speaking skills is to evaluate your

own and other speaker‟s speeches.

10.10 Looking back

So, how will you react now if someone were to ask you to give a speech? Hopefully

very enthusiastically and self-confidently! I hope that the content of this study unit

helped you to improve your public speaking skills. There is still the exam though...

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