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T78,110 01176 Of %)19 by Richard B. Lee

!KUNG BUSHlMEN"B~ushman medicinze is put ginningr, but men can transfer medi- sides and semiflexed, there is a parsi-

into the body through the back- cine from one body to another; this, mony of movement, and the body isboz. tbil n ybl. n in fact, is the main reason why Bush- held stiff from the waist up. Short,

man trance dancers cure by laying; heavy footfalls describe complexboils up to my head likce beer. On of hiands oni patients or subjects irhythmnic figures built oni quarter-When- the womenz start singing and by rubbing sweat. Normally and eigrhth-notes and formed intoand I start danzcinz~g, at fIrst I feel medicine lies dormant. It is neces- five- and seven-beat phrases. Arti-quite all right. Then~ in the mid- sary to dance in order to heat it up. facts of the dance include chains of

die, the medicinze begins to rise In their view, dancing makes the rattles tied around the ankles, afrom my somac. Afer tat I body hot. When the medicine reaches walking stick to support the ~torso,frommy tomch. fte tht I the boilingr point, the vapors rise up and an indispensable fly w'hisk.

see all the people lik~e very smnall throughi the spinal coluimn, and when A dance lasts from five to ten min-birds, the whole place will be the vapors reach the brain, the utes, with a short break followed byspinznin.g aroun.d and that is why dancer enters trance. another dance of equal length. Thewue run. aroun.d. The trees will be The dance ordinarily begins in the women determine the beginning and

circlin.g also. You feel your blood evening when a handful of women end of each number and the choicelight a central fire and begin to sing. of songs. For the first two hours ofb>ecome very hot just like blood The dancingr circle has a tight, sym- dancinga the atmosphere is casual,

boiling~ on. a fire and thzen. you bolic orgranization. In ·the center is even jovial.start healing. When l am like thzis the fire, representing· medicine,[ tellin-g the story ] I am just a which must be kept burning through- Phase II-Enterin.g a trantce

personr. The thinlg comes up after out the all-night dlances. Surround- n/uim n/i n !uma

a dan-ce, then. when I lay hands ing the fire and within the circum- ("causing medicine to boil"). ference of the circle, the women sit Several of ·t'he dancers appear to

on. a sich person, the medicinLe in shoulder to shoulder facingr inward* be concentrating intently; they lookme will go into him andr cure The women are primarily sing;ers, down at their feet or stare aheadhzim." dancing only occasionally. The men without orienting· to distractions

dance in an outer, circular rut, around them. The body is tense andThe speaker, whose words I havetraslaedis Buhma. Te !ung stamping around and around hour rigid. The footfalls are heavy and the

after hour, now clockwise, now shock waves can be seen rippling;Bushmen, a non-Bantu, click-speak-counterclockwise. Beyond these two throug·h the body. The chest is heav-

ing (the exclamation point s·tands fora cicksoud) eole f te Klahri tight circles of sing·ers and dancers ing, veins are standing out on the

sit the spectators-the c;hildren and neck and forehead, and there is pro-Desert in Botswana, are one of thethose dancers who have paused and fuse sweating;. This phase lasts forlast peoples of the world to maintain

a hunting; and gatheringr way of life are temporarily resting. thirty to sixty minutes.The songs are sung without words, The actual entrance into trance-until 10,000 years ago, the univer-salmoe o hmanorranzaio. m" the form of yodeling accompanied can be

When trace dancebegins, bove, th

!ii:·iiZimoodi is more socia than sacredsomeiiii4~i.~i men wo k o er the tr nce . at r, el w, t row m re erouThey ruiiii:~ibii:'iiiii h is body11 withXllllllll their a d sm n o ewt a ia n l

and ~l~~~i~~i wih hirhed s ta te oy atlswera rov i tesadis ket wrm nd ade o sinewit

sweat.~~~iiii: Th rnc efomrisrgd

arsstf t h ide orexened

His il· bo a rmbead emon haeV-eu oa oml state

yi yIIII , ~ ~ i~~~~~and iiiiiiiiii uter sot hres.Th ctve crig hse lat

about an our, aftr which he tranc

PhseIV-Actiiii i vecrngipror e saly le dw n

n/um ("meicin") flls slee. Itis cmmonfor edi

SiiTheclination oth trnepi cinemnt aetotac episodes wqIJiii

soeocuswentepefrerrss e iht on aou idigt n

uptomoe mngth prtcpats th ohr us ate aw. hedac

handsand tter moan of isin in- ens offin te prdawn houris, andv then

ing~ ~ ~ ~~~~~mo hrksThtrnepromr urise with a a renewe rouned ogosfome peronr toperso repetn trance s.Tednecotne ni

son~~~~~~~~Ltr prsn s rae.Hemybek y1:0or, 11:0 AMs Some memior-

ofy cur ing tod dnceh fora ew minuts abl dnes, howeer wihmgcontinue

In yThi appears to renorc thetanethohut the doyIateway androv int the fol-.

istaete wand to d for estal a n premtur oi ngt eriai tit-i

retur stof a norma state. If etherie i or ftrte ae tre.W a

Hsic perony paresbent at thedne eoach maesthse maraui2tho da nrnce ps-

rance pterf ~ormesrwillmke. a pcal sbe is th e cha ingevr ofpersone l.effrtoftn gvin te orfifeen Altougha heure aftre aways ten toac

mnthes wumtort of tretatmen to ti thirty pe opl actvely~v prartci paingin

on idiidal the sbe wt rm ln edancre, endiiul are in a conItstantly

entering and leavingr the circle in light is better. A dance is a maj or all- intense concentration, and hyper-

four- to six-hour shifts. night affair that involves the major- ventilation. These exertions produce

Apart from a male initiation cere- ity of the adult members of the camp. symptoms of dizziness, spatial disor-

mony, called choma, which takes It is worth noting that the dance is a ientation, hallucinations, and mus-

place every four or five years during social and recreational event as well cular spasms. The Bushmen were

the winter, the Bushmen have no as an opportunity for trance per- never observed to use any drug or

ceremony that is tied to the annual formance. Many of the younger men other external chemical means of in-

cycle, such as the first fruits rituals of dance for no more profound reason ducing· these states. The social func-

the Australian aborig-ines. The Bush- than to sho·w off their fancy foot- tions of the trancers are to cure the

men dance at all seasons of the year, work. There is a juxtaposition of the sick, influence the supernatural, and

wintier and summer, with no discern- sacred and the profane in the dance, provide mystical protection for all

ible changes in frequency. There are, with the intense involvement of the members of the group.

however, marked differences between trance performers contrasting with a The key symbols and metaphors

separate Bushman camps in the fre- background of casual social chatter, that are found in the Bushman

quency of occurrence of dances. laughter, and flirtation. trance complex are the concepts of

Small camps of fewer than twenty A dance will spring up spontane- boiling·, fire, heat, and sweat.

people hold dances about once a ously if the informal organizers can Boiling (n!um--to boil) refers not

month. Large camps with forty to talk up enthusiasm for it. Three kinds only to the boiling of water on the

sixty people dance about once a of circumnstances favor its initiation: fire but also to the ripeningr of plants.

week. At one camp, which had a rep- the presence of meat in a camp, the Water, like medicine, is dormant

utation for fine music, dances arrival of visitors, and the presence when cold, but powerful when hot.

occurred as often as four nights a of sickness in a camp. Similarly plant foods are dormant

week. There is some indication that The trance phenomenon of the when youngr and unripe but become

the B)ushmen prefer to dance at the Bushmani is a culturally stereotyped nutritionally potent when ripe. Thus

time of the full moon, but I could set of behaviors that induces an al- there is a symbolic association of

discover no reason for this prefer- tered state of consciousness by means boiling water, cooked meat, ripened

ence beyond the simple fact that the of autosuggestion, rhythmic dancing, herries, and activated medicine.

Sometimes this metaphor is ex-

::: tended, in a joking manner, to nubile

iilii.iii iiiiiiiiiiiiiii i ~iii.!~b ri"ii:.::-ii4:';:maidens who have reached men-Sarche. These young women are now

considered "ripe" for intercourse

and impregnation.

Fire (da) is the source of heat

(khwi) for boiling water, cooking

meat, and for activating medicine.

"i.iibi:The central fire symbolizes medicine,

and rubbing of live coals on the

~iii~iii:ii·~iiPibody, which is often done, was in-terpreted by one informant as a

means of rapidly incorporating the

sources of medicine. Another in-

formant interpreted fire rubbingr as

a means of heating up internal medi-

cine. These two views are not neces-

-ij iiisarily contradictory. Trance per-

'' formers use the same word (da) to

describe both the central dance fire

~i:i~~8 ·~:::·: i~.-iiand the fire within their own bodies,r,:j:::::::::j:,:which heats up the medicine.

r''ii~ii~i ~ ~ i:iiSweat (cho) is the most importantof the trance symbols for it is the pal-

::~c~~:·ipable and visible expression of medi-

iiii cine on the surface of the body.

Swieat is symbolically equiated withi

i:.·::i~~raq,:::~:~,the steam risingr from boiling water

a

sites~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~~~~-- on heboy f hesik eron n hi rtul t s otneessryfo Wy o oubohe tis one?

and can be driven out by the iii':iii;i::i ml an- heptinttoete taneinore G a ayad ont rube s

in o edcie fr h cret b efctve ftn e lov tis~ man.Ther isan mpotantconras to thre orfou cuerswillwor siul- Wha hav wedon toyou

be mad betwen Bushan swet taneusly o in sift nte oyo

sy bls n ta ftesea ikpron hsteei s ocn o etrnepromr cl im th

lodge ~~ an swa hos eiin f cp fidviulrsosblt f aiiy osedsatsee.ONot mrcnIdas ntee te uei ucsflo nucsfl ocso efr e tpe uigr.~i~iii·iiiitul waingi s interpreted:: asa Admn fpy etfrtecrr' akdt h deo h ice

meas o puifiatin o th boy. ervce s nt acom on eatre ireigh an faingnorh dscrbeThe ersiration heeorcares aon heBshe, lhog sm tescn a Bnu ilaefo

the~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ neatv or hamu susacs crr orcivepyetwe hy mlsawy naohrocso

out of the body. The Bushman belief are called iin t givetetetto promrpone ote oio

specifies~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~ th oposteth swa s nihbrn at pols noncdta rubewscn

csies onl the curer musth sw eat in or- d istanceand X-r visin o n.cssr it to y be exercised. hi o

degr mdcre for the medcie to be effective. Sprt o h da ayh espn- X-ra lveisio take hefro e

Theri acto curoitng inoveast the lay- sie for causin sckners. The itul \or iu terinig thae sex ofe inats i use

bemaediia weat\er onto and ineto the hoverin at tn he ed of the bdanc pl fteepeicin ol e

sybodymaidta of the wa sick person. Ifu theptnt ccl.Tsehaes re invsil to birth Soccutrared duringmrsc thestd

compl ain s of c heste tnouble he all bt the mostia rexperiencedit curers period) soe dIcanot jude tes O oeffc

ciurers s\;attnioin will bie foued Havaing diman os aied th source of ter' tikens tof this techiqe.o h ice

therpe spimailarly wth eother com-e illnes the c3ure hen, pleadswih thme The ushmen be alievetht ving fothe

plaic nt lcthedi sp\ecifi horgnth hstte it go away.- Thes folow paste a few ofd the very aeiaie.)Ti powerfua

cure fr will workIi on the afictdpart. n chante is usred: cu a the ability t e nmnyatiue to transfoprm

34e ob :rd nteBsmn tli hsso netr:t e ta omratog aeyosre

A! dacrwarn srin eonhs a, oksitotanein the:clockw :iiesqun cebginn a a

left.Near half-eath"in th

secod phtogrph, e isguidd b

a fellow dacer until h collapses

A :::::::;~ f o ensltrh issfo

his coaoesae n rnmt

"medicine"~~I bytelyn nohands. He trashs sitntfr

then a woman and her child.

themseves ito lins andto stlk thdeet iiiiiiiiiiiii~in~ ~h serc o hma pey Lon

orinaily~i do not attack men, andhunter occasionally drive lions offii~ C

fresh kills .Iin re osaeg h

a lion has attacked a man, the Bush- Xii

cuertune-lon Snc schinci-r ~~dens ccu prhas nc or tw·"ai%:~~~~iiiice ~in~~

liefs about trance performers assign":i·

to them a benevolent, positive, and supernatural, andl the priest, who forges bonds of affectioni betw\eeni the

socially constructive role. learns a codified body of ritual nlovice and his mentors, and between

This positive evaluation of the knowledge from older priests, is the curers as a group and the rest of

trance performer's role is most blurred in the Bushiman context. Un- the commuinity. The Biushman curers

clearlyi demonstrated in the o-ffering- like the shaman wyho contracts di- do not form an exclusive minority of

of mystical protection. It is the per- rectly with the spirit world, the unusually grifted men, nor are they

former's duty to lay hands on all who Bushman trance performer derives orgranized inito a secret society with

are present at a dance, including hiis powver from within the social special access to the mysteries. The

men, women, children, and young b-ody itself. ability to enter trance and cure is

infants. Thus one sees the curers The Siberian shaman, to take one possessed by half of the adlult men

movingr around the dance circle and example, is a lone figure whose (and by a number of the women).

through the spectators, treating each power comes from "ispirit posses- This close identification of thle

individual in turn, even though there sion." This supernat-ural contract- trance performer with the commu-

is no sickness in the camp. he has entered into a pact with the nity at large becomes evident when

The !Kung Bushman trance com- supernatural-tends to alienate the we consider the logic underlying: the

plex resembles in some ways the shaman -from his communiity, and it Bushman conception of the sources

classic shamanism of Siberia and is significant that the shamanistic of healing power and the sources of

native North America. Both the role serves as an outlet for emotion- misfor·tune. The Bushmnen regard the

Biushman and the shaman complexes ally unstable individuals. In Ameri- healing power as being derived from

emphasize individual trance as a can Indian societies, such as the other living men. Illness and misfor-

means of activating; extraordinary Pawnee, the shamans as a group are tune, however, are br·ought mainly

healingr powers. In addition the set off from the community in a for- by the spirits of the dead and other

trance complex as a system of ex- rnal fraternity of medicine men. In a forces external to the living. In other

planation of misfortune has some niumber of African societies the sha- words they seek within the sociall

correspondence to the institution of man may assume the role of an body for benevolent powers, but pro-

witchcraft found in many non-Euro- authoritarian prophet figure and ject the blame for malevolence to

pean societies. Howvever, the Bush- may giather a considerable following forces outside of the social body.

man case differs from shamanism around him. In all these cases the Such a conception of health and dis-

and witchcraft in critical areas. medic.ine men are collectively and ease serves to bind together the living

The well-known distinction be- individually reg;arded by the laity as ini a common front against hostile

tw\een the shaman, w-hose powers de- awesome and potentially dangerous. external forces.

rive from direct contact with the The Bushman trance performer, Societies in which sorcery, sha-

by contrast, maintains strongr social manism, and w2itchcraft are preva-

ties with the community. Indeed, re- lent divide good and evil into a radi-

Dawn breaks on. an intensive cruitment and training of performers cally different projective systemn. In

round of trance curing~, which

has lasted the entire nzig·ht.

these societies, malevolence springs that all the problems of social living away and let this man live in

from w'ithin the social body as well are resolved by the Bushmen in the peace. .. . Because of my words

as from w·ithout. Witches, sorcerers, trance performance and its associ- the ghosts are trying .to kill

and wizards are all conceived of as ated system of explanation. Althougrh Kumsa. Now I say-Kumsa is my

livingr humans who (willfully or not) the role of "Lwitch" is not an institu- child. Ghosts! Go away!

cause harm. To combat this malevo- tion of Bushman society, there is a However, this incident was an iso-

lence, the individual may resort to prevalent belief that a living man can lated occurrence; by far the more

the services of another sorcerer (wiillfully or unknowingly) cause common attribution of malevolence

sympathetic to his cause. It is true harm to others by neglecting to pro- was to a ghost who was acting en-

that in witch-oriented societies not pitiate his ancestors. tirely of its own volition-uninflu-

all evil is defined as coming from the I cite a case in which two old men, enced by human manipulation.

li;vilng However, the logic of the sys- Kumsa and Neysi, had been feuding In conclusion, the attainment of a

tem leads inevitably to such features with each other over a period of trance is a co-operative enterprise

as good and bad shamans, good and years. Once, when Kumsa became ill, involving both women and men. The

had sorcerers, and a spiral of magi- he complained that Neysi was indi- trance performance itself is charac-

cal attack and counterattack. rectly the source of his difficulty. terized by a lack of secrecy and a

Wihen misfortune strikes a mem- This accusation of witchcraft took high degree of mutual aid. The psy-

ber of a witc~h-oriented culture, he is the following form. chologrical rewards of the trance

likely to seek its source among the experience are available to a highNeysi has spoken ill of me. His an-

living members of the community. cestors have overheard these words percentage of the adult men of the

In many cases the prime suspects are and now they have come to bother community. All members including

the individual's close relatives. The me. Why can't Neysi control his women and children enjoy the bene-

hostility that is an inevitable by- ancestors? fits offered by the mystical protection

product of interpersonal relations is of the curer. The socially positive

thustraslaed rom he rofne nto In order to clear himself of the evaluation of the trance performer's

the realm of the sacred. Nevertheless charg·e, Neysi was required to come role in society is congrruent with the

the hostility must be absorbed to Kumsa's bedside and to plead pub- Bushman belief that misfortune

largely by the social body. The Bush- licly with his offending ancestors to springs largely from the dead, and

men, simply by attributing misfor- leave Kumsa in peace. In this ritual not from the agency of living· men.

tune to an external source, have of reconciliation Neysi used an in- The !Kung Bushman trance perform-

evoveda pojetie sste tht ds- cantation that is similar to that used ance can be regarded as a drama in

sipates, rather than intensifies, inter- by a trance performer when he sees which the stresses and tensions of

personal hostility. a g-host hovering at a dance. social life are transformed into a

It would be misleading to allow This territory here is ours to share. common struggle against the ex-

the reader to draw the conclusion Now the ghosts should just go ternal sources of malevolence.

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