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TRANSCRIPT
UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA
IMPROVEMENT OF SOILLESS MEDIA BY INCORPORATION OF TRICHODERMA INOCULANT FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
CAULIFLOWER
ISMAIL IBERAHIM
FP 2001 13
IMPROVEMENT OF SOILLESS MEDIA BY INCORPORATION OF TRICHODERMA INOCULANT FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
CAULIFLOWER
By
ISMAIL mERAHIM
Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Master of Agricultural Science in the Faculty of Agriculture
Universiti Putra Malaysia
April 2001
DEDICA TED TO:
MY PARENTS,
SISTERS,
BROTHERS,
AND FRIENDS.
II
Abstract of thesis submitted to the Senate ofUniversiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science.
IMPROVEMENT OF SOILLESS MEDIA BY INCORPORATION OF TRICHODERMA INOCULANT FOR THE PRODUCTION OF
CAULIFLOWER
By
ISMAIL mERAHIM
April 2001
Chairperson : Professor Dr. Sariah Moon
Faculty : Agriculture
Improvement of soilless media by incorporation of Trichoderma (UPM 23)
for the production of cauliflower under Protected Environment Agriculture (PEA)
system was attempted. Three soilless media� coconut dust (CD), palm oil empty fruit
bunch (EFB) and peat (P) singly and as mixtures; coconut dust + peat (CDP) and
palm oil empty fruit bunch + peat (EFBP) were used in the study. The physical,
chemical and microbiological properties of these soilless media showed that their
properties were suitable for growth of cauliflower and proliferation and survival of
Tnchoderma. They have good pore size with bulk density within the range of
mineral soil (1.0 - 1.8 gil). CD and CDP have high water availability of 15.18% and
13.99% respectIvely. However, they have low microbial populations comprising
mainly of the genera PemcTlltum, AspergIllus and Rhcopus. No beneficial microbes
were detected
III
The effect of soilless media on survival and proliferation of Trichoderma
was carried out by either adding the inoculant as an additive to the soilless media or
as bio-seed treatment. Trichoderma population in EFB, EFBP and P was reduced
more than 50% after 3 days of application. However, in CD and CDP the reduction
was only 16.7 % and 34.7% respectively throughout the 21 days of experimental
period. Trichoderma population was higher on the roots after day 10 of sampling,
suggesting that the antagonist can colonize the germinating roots and live on the root
exudates. Incorporation to soilless media was a better delivery system for the
antagonist as it gave better distribution and easy contact with the growing roots.
Therefore, CD and CDP were selected as substrates to evaluate the effect of air
dried preparation of UPM 23 on growth of cauliflower� applied as additive to
germination mixes.
Trichoderma inoculant at the rate of 30 x 106 cfu/g dry weight substrate have
a significant effect on seed germination and seedling emergence of cauliflower.
Seedling emergence was 81.3% and 86 38% in CDTV and CDPTV as compared to
40.36% and 42.63% III CD and CDP respectively. Initial establishment and growth
of the seedlings were better in Trichoderma amended media, as shown by the
stomatal conductance and net photosynthesIs rate However, there was no significant
difference III vegetatIve growth, nutrIent status and peroxidase activity between
treatments, probably due to the dilution effect of Trichoderma inoculant in the
substrate WIth time The plants were also supplied with full strength Cooper Solution
at rate of 600 mJlday
IV
Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Master Sains Pertanian.
PEMBAIKAN MEDIA TANPA TANAH DENGAN PENGGABUNGAN INOKULUM TRICHODERMA UNTUK PENGHASn.AN KOBIS BUNGA
Oleh
ISMAIL mERAHIM
April 2001
Pengerusi : Professor Dr. Sariab Meon
Fakulti : Pertanian
Pembaikan media tanpa tanah dengan penggabungan Trichoderma (UPM23)
untuk penghasilan kobis bunga di bawah Pertanian Persekitaran Terkawal telah
dijalankan. Tiga jenis media tanpa tanah; sabut kelapa (CD), tandan kosong ke1apa
sawit (EFB) dan peat (P) digunakan berasingan atau sebagai campuran; sabut kelapa
+ peat (CDP) dan tandan kosong kelapa sawit + peat (EFBP) digunakan dalam
kajian ini. Sifat-sifat fizik, kimia dan mikrobiologi media tanpa tanah menunjukkan
bahawa ia sesuai untuk pertumbuhan kobis bunga serta pembiakan dan keupayaan
hidup Trichoderma. Ia mempunyai saiz rongga yang baik dengan ketumpatan pukal
berada dalam lingkungan tanah mineral (1.0-1.8 gil). CD dan CDP mempunyai
peratus kandungan air tersedia yang tinggi iaitu 15.18% dan 13.99%.
Walaubagaimana pun ia mempunyai populasi mikrob yang rendah terutamanya
terdiri dari genera PemcIlllUm, Aspergillus dan Rhr:opus. Tiada mikrob-mikrob
berguna dapat dikesan.
v
Kesan media tanpa tanah ke atas pembiakan dan keupayaan hidup
Trichoderma telah dijalankan samada sebagai tambahan kepada media tanpa tanah
atau rawatan biji benih. Populasi Trichoderma dalam EFB, EFBP dan P telah
menurun lebih dari 50%, tiga hari selepas aplikasi. Walaubagaimana pun dalam CD
dan CDP peratus penurunan hanya sebanyak 16.7% dan 34.7% masing-masing
sepanjang 21 hari tempoh ujikaji. Populasi Trichoderma adalah tinggi pada akar
selepas 10 hari persampelan, menunjukkan bahawa antagonis tersebut boleh
mengkolonisasi akar yang bercambah dan boleh hidup pada cecair rembesan akar.
Penambahan inokulum kepada media tanpa tanah memberi taburan lebih baik dan
mudah untuk bersentuh dengan akar yang tumbuh. Oleh itu CD dan CDP telah
dipilih sebagai substrat untuk menilai kesan persediaan UPM 23 secara kering udara
ke atas pertumbuhan kobis bunga; digunakan sebagai tambahan kepada campuran
cambahan.
Trichoderma pada kadar 30 x 106 cfu/g berat kering substrat mempunyai
kesan yang beerti terhadap percambahan biji benih dan kemunculan anak benih.
Peratus percambahan anak benih adalah 81.3% dan 86.38% dalam CDTV dan
CDPTV dibandingkan dengan kawalan sebanyak 40.36% dan 42.63% masing
masing dalam CD dan CDP. Pertumbuhan peringkat awal anak benih lebih baik
dalam media yang telah digabungkan dengan Trichoderma, sebagaimana
ditunjukkan oleh koduksi stomatal dan kadar fotosintesis bersih. Walaubagaimana
pun tiada perbezaan beerti pada pertumbuhan vegetatif, status nutrien dan aktiviti
peroxidase di antara rawatan yang mungkin disebabkan oleh kesan pencairan
vi
inokulum Trichoderma di dalam substrat dengan masa. Pokok juga diberi baja
Cooper Solution yang mencukupi iaitu pada kadar 600 ml/hari.
VII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First of all, I thank Allah for giving me the strength and ability to complete
this study. I also wish to express my deepest appreciation to Professor Dr. Sariah
Meon, the head of the supervisory committee, Associate Professor Dr. Mohd. Razi
Ismail and Dr. Siti Aishah Hassan as members of the supervisory committee, for
their guidance, understanding, constructive criticism, suggestions and invalueable
advice throughout the duration of this study and the preparation of this thesis.
Thanks are also extended to all staffs in the Pathology Laboratory and
Hydroponics Unit especially Mr. Khir, Mr. Nazri, Mr. Johari, Mr. Yunus, Mr.
Aliasul and Mr. Ishak for their advice and assistance. Special thanks to Hendry
Joseph, V. Ganeson, K. Ganisan, Humayun Khabir, Philip Sipen, Make Jiwan, Felix
Angkau, Gordon Jelema, Agus Susanto, Adi Wirman, Franklin Ragai and to all my
friends who had rendered their help in one way or another towards the completion of
tills study.
To my loving parents, sisters and brothers, I thank them for their
encouragement, love and understanding throughout the study.
VIII
I certify that an Examination Committee met on 16th April 2001 to conduct the final examination of Ismail Iberahim on his Master of Agricultural Science thesis entitled "Improvement of Soilless Media by Incorporation of Trichoderma Inoculant for the Production of Cauliflower" in accordance with Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Act 1980 and Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Higher Degree) Regulations 1981. The committee recommends that the candidate be awarded the relevant degree. Members of the Examination Committee are as follows:
TAN YEE HOW, Ph.D. Associate Professor, Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chainnan)
SARIAH MEaN, Ph.D. Professor, Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
MOHO. RAZI ISMAIL, Ph.D.
Associate Professor, Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
SITI AISHAH HASSAN, Ph.D. Lecturer, Faculty of Agriculture Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member)
Q � HAZALI MOHA YIDIN, Ph.D.
Professor / Dean of Graduate School, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 1 8 MAY 2001
IX
This thesis submitted to the senate ofUniversiti Putra Malaysia has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Master of Agricultural Science.
x
AIN1 IDERIS, Ph.D. Professor / Dean of Graduate School, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Date: 't 4 JUN WO'
DECLARATION FORM
I hereby declare that the thesis is based on my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently submitted for any other degree at UPM or other institutions.
�. Candidate. ISMAIL IBERAHIM
Date: ro ( , (rub l
XI
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE DEDICATION . . . . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ...... ... ... ... .... 11 ABSTRACT . . . ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... 111 ABSTRAK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . V ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii APPROVAL SHEETS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . IX DECLARATION FORM ... ... ... ...... ... ... .... .. ...... '" ... ... .. . ... ... ... Xl LIST OF TABLES ... . . . ...... ...... ... ...... '" ... . . ... ... .... XIV LIST OF FIGURES ... . .. . . . .. . ... ... ... ... ... . .. .. . ... . .. .. . ... . .. . .. . .. .. . ... XVI LIST OF PLATES . . . . .. ... ... . ... . .... . . . . . XVll
CHAPTER
I INTRODUCTION 1
n LITERATURE REVIEW ...... . . . ... ... ......... . .. ........ 5 Cauliflower Crops . ... . ... .................... . . ... .............. 5 Trichoderma spp . 7 Controlled Envuonment Agriculture . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Soilless Culture . .. .. .. . . .., . . .. ... .. . . ... . . . .. . .... 10 CultIvatIOn SlablBag Culture . .. . . ........ '" .. . . . ., . . .. . 11 Growing MedIa .. ... . .. ... ... ... ... ... .. ... ... ...... ... .. ... ..... 12 Types of Growing MedIa . . . . . . .. . ... ... ... . . .. ......... ......... 13 DIseases ASSOCIated WIth CultIVatIOn Slab 16 Improvement of GroWIng Medium 17
Growth and YIeld Responses to MIcrobIal Inoculants 17 Rhlzosphere Competency 21 DelIvery System for BIOcontrol Agent 23
ill MATERIALS AND METHODS Plant Matenal Seed ViabIhty Trichoderma Inoculant SOilless MedIa DetennmatlOn of the PhYSIcal, ChemIcal and MIcrobIOlogIcal
25 25 25 26 29
PropertIes of SOilless MedIa 30 PhYSIcal PropertIes 30
Bulk DenSIty 30 Water AVaIlabIlIty 31
ChemIcal PropertIes 31 Sahmty and ACIdIty 31 DetermmatlOn ofN, P, K, Ca and Mg 32 DetennmatlOn of Boron 32
MicrobIOlogIcal PropertIes 34 StatIstIcal Analysl� 34
XII
IV
v
Proliferation and SurvIval of T. wrens in Soilless MedIa . .
Statistical Analysis ... . . . . .. .. . ...... .. . ... ... . . . ... ........ .
Effect of Trichoderma Inoculants on Growth and Yield of Cauliflower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
PhYSIOlogIcal Responses ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ....... . Stomatal Conductance ... ...... ... ... ... ... ... ... .. .
Net Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . .
Chlorophyll Content . .. ... ...... ... ...... ...... ..... .
Growth Responses .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leaf Increment ...... ...... ............ ... ...... .... .
Total Leaf Area Fresh and Dry Weights of Leaves ..... .......... .
Root Length and Root Mass Prohferatlon and Survival of Trichoderma PopulatIon In SOIlless MedIa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .
Cfu in Soilless Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Cfu on Roots . . . . . . . . .
Nutnent Analysis ... .. ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . BiochemIcal Response
Peroxidase ActIVIty In Leaf Tissues ..
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS ... ... ... .. ..... .
Physical, ChemIcal and MicrobIological Properties of
PAGE 35 36
36 38 38 38 39 40 40 40 40 41
41 41 41 42 42 42
44
SOIlless MedIa 44 Bulk DenSIty 44 Water AvaIlabIhty 45 ACIdIty (pH) and SalImty (EC) 47 Nutnent Content 48 MIcrobIologIcal PropertIes 51
ProlIferatIOn and SurvIval of T. Vlrens In SOIlless Media 52 AddItIve to SoIlless Media 52 BIOseed Treatment 56
Effects of Tnchoderma Inoculants on Growth and YIeld of Cauhflower 6 1
PhYSIOlogIcal Responses 61 Growth Responses 65 ProhferatIOn and SurvIval of Trichoderma PopulatIOn m SOIlless MedIa 75 Nutnent AnalYSIS 81 BIOchemIcal Responses 85
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION 89
REFERENCES APPENDICES VITA
93 106 121
XIII
TABLE
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
LIST OF TABLES
CompoSItion of Palm Oil Empty Fruit Bunch . . . . . ..... . . ... . ,.
Bulk DensIty of Soilless Media
Percentage Moisture Content of Soilless Media at Different Pressure Levels and Available Water .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acidity and Salinity of Soilless Media
NutrIent Content of SOilless MedIa (%/g Dry WeIght)
Microbial Population in Soilless Media (cfu/g Dry Weight) . ,
Trzchoderma Population (cfu/g x 104) in Substrate Applied as AddItIve to Soilless Media .. , . . . . . . .
Tnchoderma PopulatIOn (cfu/g x 104) III Rhtzosphere of Caubflower Appbed as AdditIve to SOilless Media .......... .
Trzchoderma PopulatIOn (cfu/g x 104) III Rhizosphere of Cauhflower Applied as BIOseed Treatment
Tnchoderma PopulatIOn (cfu/g x 104) m SOIlless MedIa ApplIed as BIOseed Treatment
11 The Effect of Tnchoderma Inoculant on Percentage of Seedlmg Emergence
12
13
1 4
1 5
1 6
1 7
1 8
19
Days to Flowenng, Average Curd WeIght and DIameter of CaulIflower
Plant TIssue AnalYSIS Range Base on Good Growth and YIeld (g I Dry WeIght)
OhIO Medtum (OAES)
}<u�anum SelectIve Medtum (FSM)
Plmancln Vancomyc in PCNS Medtum (PVP)
1 ndlOdermu �elective MedIum (TME)
Cooper I ormulatlOn SolutIOn
Stomatal Conductance (mmolm \ I) XIV
PAGE
1 4
45
46
48
5 0
52
53
55
57
59
66
72
84
1 07
1 07
1 07
1 08
1 08
109
TABLE
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
3 1
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Net Photosynthesis (mmolm-2s-1)
Chlorophyll Content (mglem2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Leaf Fresh Weight (g) .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .
Leaf Dry Weight (g) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Total Leaf Area (em2) ... . .
Rate of Leaf Inerement (em/week)
Root Fresh WeIght (g)
Root Dry Weight (g) ... ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Root Length (em) .. .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Trzchoderma Population m Soilless Media (x 106 g-l Dry Weight)
Trzchoderma PopUlation on Root Tips (x 106 g-l Dry Weight)
Trzchoderma PopulatIon on MIddle Segment of Roots (x 106
g-l Dry WeIght)
Nltrogen (%/g Dry Welght)
Phosphorus (%/g Dry WeIght)
PotassIUm (%/g Dry WeIght)
CalCIUm (%/g Dry WeIght)
MagnesIUm (%/g Dry WeIght)
Boron (ppm/g Dry WeIght)
Soluble PeroxIdase (�abs mm 1 g I)
10m cally Bound PeroxIdase (L\abs mm-I g I )
Total Peroxidase ActIVIty (�abs mm-I g I )
xv
PAGE
109
1 10
110
III
1 1 1
1 12
1 12
1 13
1 13
1 14
114
115
115
116
116
116
1 17
117
118
118
119
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE
1 Trichoderma Population (cfu/g x 104) in Substrate Applied
PAGE
as Additive to Soilless Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2 Trichoderma Population (cfu/g x 104) in Rhizosphere of Cauliflower Applied as Additive to Soilless Media . . . ... ..... 55
3 Trichoderma Population (cfu/g x 104) in Rhizosphere of Cauliflower Applied as Bioseed Treatment . .. ... ... ... ... . . . .. 57
4 Trichoderma Population (cfu/g x 104) In SOIlless MedIa ApplIed as Bioseed Treatment ... . . . . . . ... ... ... ... . . . .. . . . .. . 58
5 Stomatal Conductance of the Cauliflower Leaf . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
6 Net Photosynthesis of Cauliflower Leaf . .. .. . ... ... . ... .. ... 63
7 Chlorophyll Content in Cauliflower Leaf . . . . . . 64
8 Effect of Tnchoderma Inoculants (UPM 23) on the Growth of Cauliflower In CultivatIOn Slabs .. ... .. ... 68-69
9 Trichoderma PopulatIOn in Soilless Media (cfu/g Dry
�� %
10 Tnchoderma PopulatIOn on Root TIpS (cfu/g Dry WeIght) 79
11 Tnchoderma PopulatIon on MIddle Segment of Roots (cfulg Dry WeIght) 79
12 NutrIent AnalysIs III Leaf TIssues 82-83
13 PeroXIdase ActIVIty III the Leaf TIssues 87
1 4 Standard Curve of Boron 1 20
15 Standard Curve of Chlorophyll Content 120
XVI
PLATES
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
LIST OF PLATES
Plate Culture and SEM Micrograph of T. virens (UPM 23) ...
T. v irens Inoculant Raised on Paddy ............. , . . . . . . . .. . .. . .
Air-dried Preparation of T. virens . .. .. . .. . ... . . . ... ... . .. . . . . .. .
Colony Forming Units (cfu) of T. virens on Trichoderma Selective Medium, 7 Days After Incubation ...... ...... ... ... .
Soilless Substrates ...... ......... ... ...... ... ............ ... ...... .
Layout of Experimental Units ......... ....... ... ... ... . , . . . . . .. . .
Development of Cauliflower Seedlings in Trichoderma Amended Soilless Media, 14 Days After Sowing ... ... ... ... .
The Growth of Cauliflower Plant in Cultivation Slab on Week6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. .
Root Mass at Week 8 of Assessment ... ... .. . ... ... . .. ' " ..... .
The Yield of Cauliflower ........................ ......... ....... .
Cauliflower 2 weeks After Curd Initiation in Coconut Dust ..
Cultural Appearance of Non-introduced Trichoderma spp Isolated from Cauliflower Root and Substrate in Control Treatment as Compared to Introduced UPM 23 ......... .. ... .
XVII
PAGE
27
27
28
28
29
37
60
70
71
73
73
77
CHAPTERl
INTRODUCTION
As Malaysia becomes more aftluent and industrialised, the per capita
consumption of vegetables will automatically increase. The current per capita
consumption of vegetables in Malaysia is only 36 kg compared to 70 kg and 136 kg
respectively for Singapore and Japan (Leong et ai., 1994). There is a great potential
for higher vegetable consumption in the future. However, the production of
vegetables, particularly high value crops such as cabbage and cauliflower has shown
marginal increase.
In 1995, total area planted with cauliflower was only 80 ha with total
production of about 48Ot. Import of this vegetable alone was estimated as 13,598t
which amounted to RM 60 millions (Kementerian Pertanian Malaysia, 1996).
Hence, the government has embarked on an aggressive campaign to increase the
production locally.
Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var botrytis) is one of the popular cruciferous
vegetables in Malaysia and commonly confined to the highlands. The rapid
development towards industralization, housing, and other activities such as golf
course and recreation has put pressure on the availability of agricultural land. Due to
this reason, cauliflower is grown in the lowlands, near to highly populated areas.
2 Research has been carried out to produce this vegetable crop in the lowlands
with the adoption of the protected environment production system using netted and
rain shelters. An important factor for the success of this system is the selection of
the varieties for production. Heat resistant and short maturity period had been
identified as important criteria in selecting suitable varieties for planting. Maturity
period of less than 70 days for cauliflower was ideal for this purposes (Syed Abdul
Rahman et ai., 1987; Fadelah et al., 1990). The varieties Hybrid F1 451, Chia Tai,
Snow Top and Summer Crown were recommended for planting under rain shelters
in the lowland. Research conducted by MARDI also recorded higher yield when
cauliflowers were planted in soil with high peat content.
The major pest associated with cauliflower is diamondback moth (Plutella
xyiostella) which also attack other cruciferous crops. The unlimited and
indiscriminate use of chemicals cause high level of resistance detected to melathion,
DDT, chlorpyrifos-methyl, lindane and dichlorvos (Syed, 1990). Diseases of
cauliflower are mainly caused by soil-borne pathogens such as clubroot
(Plasmodiophora brassicae), basal rot (Rhizoctonia solani) and seedling damping
off (Pythium and P hytophthora spp) (Dixon, 1984; Ahmad, 1994). The diseases are
prevalent in areas of high humidity and dense planting especially during the rainy
season. Drip irrigation system can reduce disease incidences. However, the non
availability of good topsoils have promoted utilization of non-soil materials as
media for production in Protected Environmental Agriculture (PEA).
The problem can be overcome by planting cauliflower under netted
structures or rain shelters using soil less media, which could also promote the
3 utilization of agro-industrial product such as coconut coir, palm oil mill effluent
(POME) or peat for the cultivation of high value crops (Yahya and Razi, 1997).
Fertilization is well regulated by the drip irrigation to ensure uniform growth of
plants. This system also enables the production of vegetables in a short period of
time compared to the conventional method of soil cultivation. The vegetables are
high in quality with minimum or none pesticide residue, which is considered to be
harmful to the environment and consumers. In addition, consumers generally want
cheap food produced by a system that used less chemicals.
The movement from soil-based growing system to soilless culture such as
sawdust and peat and the recirculating nutrient film technique meant that plants
grown under these soilless media will have lower population of microorganisms in
the rhizosphere, including those beneficial for plant growth or disease suppression.
Opportunity exists, then, to introduce beneficial microbes into this soilless media.
Research has been carried out with biological preparations (products) in soil
and artificial substrates to stimulate plant growth such as the use of commercial
preparations of effective microorganisms. Trichoderma spp have been shown to
have a growth stimulating effect as well as good bioprotectants against many soil
borne diseases (Baker, 1 989; Lewis and Larkin, 1 997). Previous studies have shown
that Trichoderma enhance seed germination, root and vegetative growth and flower
production (Chet, 1987). It also enhanced rooting of cuttings, promote growth as
measured by increase in weight, height and branch, and flower production as
compared with control s for chrysanthemums and petunias (Chang el af., 1986;
Pauhtz, 1 997). Cellulose granules containing isolates of Trichoderma and
4
Gliocladium reduced root diseases of eggplants by Rhizoctonia so/ani and resulted
in higher stands comparable to that in the non-infested soilless mix (Lewis et a/.,
1998).
In view of this, the present study was undertaken with the aim of improving
the organic-based media for the production of caUliflower by incorporation of air
dried preparation of Trichoderma inoculant
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
Cauliflower Crops
Cauliflower (Brassica oleracea var botrytis) belongs to the family of
Cruciferae. This crop was known to originate from the Mediterranean and growing
well in the temperate region (Syed Abdul Rahman et al., 1987). Cauliflower was
first planted in Cameron Highlands in the 1950's. However, in 1995, the total area
planted has increased to 80 ha with total production of about 480 t (Kementerian
Pertanian Malaysia, 1996). Maximum temperature for curd initiation is in range of
20 - 25°C and the optimum temperature is 18°C. Soil with high content of peat, well
drained and pH 6.0 - 6.5 are good for planting cauliflower (Syed, 1990).
Among the Brassica crops, cauliflower has the most exacting climatic and
cultural requirement. Cauliflower is much more intolerant to frost and high
temperature. Cultivars known as "tropical types" having better warm-temperature
adaptation are grown in large volume in many warmer temperate regions, namely
India and China (Hartmann et al., 1988). The edible product called the head or curd
is mistakenly considered to be floral tissue, but is instead prefloral fleshy apical
meristem tissues. The curd consist of the repeatedly branched terminal portion of
the main axis of the plant, comprised of a shoot system with short internodes,
5
6 branch apices and bracts. High temperature result in poor head formation and
quality with accompanying market defects such as bract development within the
curd, loss of compactness and ricy curds. Direct exposure of the curds to sunlight
tends to disc()lour the otherwise white curd surfaces to a creamy yellow, which is a
market defect but does not otherwise affect its edible quality. To protect and blanch
the enlarging curd, the long outer leaves are normally gathered together over the top
of the curd and tied together to keep out the light (Hartmann et al., 1988;
http://www.orst.edulDeptlNWREC/cauli.html, 2000).
The low production and quality of cruciferous vegetables in Malaysia are
due to the hot and wet climate, pest and diseases, and inefficient agronomic
management (Illias and Ramli, 1994). Cruciferous grown in the Cameron Highlands
are often damage in the field by a number of diseases such as basal rot (Rhizoctonia
solam), Altenana leaf spot (Altenana brasslCae), black rot (Xantomonas
campestrls) and clubroot (PlasmodlOphora brasslcae). Of the four diseases
mentioned, clubroot IS the most important disease of cruciferous In the Cameron
Highlands (Ahmad, 1994) . The major pest of crucifers is Plutella xylostella. Loss
from the damage caused by Plutella was very high and up to 100% has been
reported (Fauzlah et aI., 1997). Minor pests include Hellula undalrs, Spodoptera
laura, CroCldolomta bmotalrs, Agrotls ypstlon, Phyllotreta spp and Llpephls
eryslml.
The vanatIOn In pH and temperature, and sometImes nutrient factors can
cause phYSIOlogIcal dIsorder Buttonmg IS common in curd before maturatIOn ThIS
IS due to lack of nItTogen, dense plantmg or delay m transplantmg. Water-soaked
7 lesions on the curd and stem called browning are usually associated with boron
deficiency. Bracts or small leaf are formed on the curd because of high temperature
during and after curd initiation (Syed Abdul Rahman et ai., 1987).
Trichoderma spp
Trichoderma spp belongs to the Mitosporic fungi (Hawksworth et aI., 1995).
The colony grew well on Potato Dextrose Agar (PDA) with smooth, white and clear
surface at first, later turning into greenish colour. It is classified as an imperfect
fungi that produced one-celled conidia or chlamydospore on branched conidiophore.
The phialides were produced at the end of the conidiophore with phialospore at the
end of each phialide (Rifai, 1969; Koh, 1990). Most Trichoderma spp are not
encountered in association with sexual stages and are considered to be strictly
mitotic clonal fungi.
As expected with saprophytic soil fungi, Trichoderma use a wide range of
compounds as sole carbon and nitrogen sources. The carbon and energy
requirements of Trichoderma can be satisfied by monosaccharides and disaccarides;
complex polysaccharides, purines, pyrimidines and amino acids, particularly long
chain fatty acids and even methanol, methylamine and formate (Papavizas, 1985).
Most species of Trichoderma are photosensitive, sporulating readily on many
natural and artificial substrates in a concentric pattern of alternating rings in
response to diurnal alternation of light and darkness, with conidia being produced