UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA

FROM SUBSISTENCE TO SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION: ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN TWO SEMAI SETTLEMENTS

COLIN G. NICHOLAS

FEP 1995 1

I t is hereby certified that we have read this thesis entitled 'Fran Subsistance to Simple Comrodity Production: Econanic Relations in TWo Senoi Settlerrents' by Colin George Nicholas, and in our opinion it is satisfactory in tenns of scope, quality and presentation as partial fulfi1nent of the requirerrents for the degree of Master of Science

"c2- -(l�Iv\"\\ �(llJ �l\� . /---- -------��--�-----, UL sADFf ABDUUAH, Ph.D.

Associate Professor/Deputy Dean, Faculty of Veterinary �dicine and Animal Science

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (iliainnan Board of Examiners)

-�------------------------

reM) KWAME SUNDARAM, Ph.D. Associate Professor

Division of Analytical Eeonanics Faculty of Economics and Administration

University of Malaya (External Examiner)

l

-------------- ��--­ABDUL AZIZ AB�.�-

Th .D. lecturer

Depart::rrent of Economics Faculty of Resource Economics and Agribusiness

Universiti Pertanian Malaysia (Internal Examiner)

---t�rb--tOID . MIFF HUSSE� ', Ph.D. Associate Professor/Dean

Faculty of Resource Economics and Agribusiness Universiti Pertaian Malaysia

(Supervisor)

This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Pertanian Malaysia and was accepted as partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science.

Date: 'Ii {} APR 1986 • P. ZAINUDDIN, Ph.D. late Professor/

Dean of Graduate Studies

FROM SUBSISTENCE TO SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION:

E CONOMIC RELATIONS IN TWO SEMA I SETTLEMENTS

Colin G . N icholas

A thes is submit t ed in part ial ful f il ment of th e r equ ir ements f or t h e d egr ee of Mas t er of Science in t h e

Fa culty of R esour ce Economics and Agr ibusiness Univer s it i P ertanian Malays ia

Nov emb er 1 985

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Whatever credit that can be attributed to this thesis

is rightfully the result of the collective contributions of

a number of individuals and organizations. It would have

been impossible to complete the project had it not been for

this collaborative effort.

Firstly, I must express my gratitude to Dr. Mohd. Ariff

Hussein for agreeing to be my thesis supervisor in spite of

his rather busy schedule as Dean of the faculty. I am

particularly appreciative of the fact that he permitted me

to pursue a topic of my own choosing, despite it being a

rather unorthodox one as far as the norm in the faculty was

concerned. The thesis has also been greatly improved as a

result of the keen interest shown by Prof. E.T. Gibbons

whose editing skills helped remove many of the inconsisten­

cies in logic and form. His guidance and assistance (as

well as his hospitality) often went beyond my normal

expectations.

The Department for Orang Asli Affairs (JHEOA) in the

person of Dr. Baharom Raffie'i, En. Jailani Mohd. Tap and

Puan Sarinan -- was very cooperative in acceding to my

request to do fieldwork among the Orang Asli. The JHEOA

ii

field staff at Raub (particularly En. Rahim Endut ) and at

the Betau Regroupment Scheme (especially Sazali, Sembunyi

and Bakar), were also very hospitable and obliging.

Being a novice to the field of Social Anthropology, I

benefitted from discussions with anthropologists Dr. Peter

Laird, then of the University of Malaya, and Alberto Gomes,

doctoral candidate at the Australian National University. I

am especially indebted to the latter for initiating me to

the method of participation-observation and for leading me

to the many useful references on topics related to the Semai

and other Orang As1i. Albert's willingness to share his

knowledge and experience -- within the general philosophy of

being of service to the Semai and other Orang Asli is

admired and appreciated.

My association and discussions (though not always on

topics directly related to the thesis) with Dr. Tan Chee

Beng, Dr. Chandra Muzaffar, Geoff Harris, Chew Geok Luan and

Anthony Williams-Hunt have also been both beneficial and

stimulating. The tete-a-tetes with Cecilia Ng, particularly

in the area involving the analysis of class and surplus

appropriation, were most helpful. However, while it is

acknowledged that the opinions of the above-mentioned

individuals and many others have largely been incorporated

into the thesis, the normal disclaimer still applies.

iii

I am grateful to Dr . Kirk Endicott for including me in

his U . S . -based Oran g Asl i Studies Group , whose newsletter

provided a useful u pdate on resear c h being conducted in

areas related to the Orang Asli . I am also apprec iative of

t he invitation of Dr . Hood Salleh of t he National Uni versity

o f Malaysia , to a s ymposium on t he ' Development o f t he Orang

Asl i ' -- whi c h was per haps t he first-ever occasion when the

Orang Asl i themselves were members of t he pane l .

A number o f o t her individuals have also contri buted in

a variety of way s : Tutu Dutta (who kept m e informed o f the

many enlightening seminars at t he Institute of Higher

Studies , University of Malaya ), Andrew Lee ( for assistance

conc �rning the use of l ibrary fac i l i t ies at t he Uni versity

of Malaya ), V . Kuperan and Siow Kiat Foo ( for arranging the

use of t he faculty ' s computer faci li ties ) , Abdullah Naib

( for assistance with the topographi cal maps ), Dr . Lim Boo

Liat ( for introductions to Muzium Negara officials),

Francis Ryan ( for the loan o f his motorcyle during the wet

season ) , Yii Tan ( for the use of his s hare o f the personal

computer ) and Carol Yong ( for retrieving materials from The

Star and Univer siti Kebangsaan libraries ).

Anthony Rogers , George Villegas , Fr . Nipot and Chr i s

Tremewan provided o pportunities to v i s i t and l earn f rom the

ex perience of tribal groups in Northern Thailand and Sout h

India ; while Francis Otigil and Madius Tangau provided the

iv

same f o r the inte rio r parts of Sabah . These v is its were

helpful in b roaden ing my understand ing of the pl ight of

ind igenous peoples on a wider perspec t ive.

General financial support was provided by my employers ,

Malayan Banking Berhad . I am part icularly grateful t o

En . Kamarulzaman Johari , Mr . Yeah Lian Khoon and Ms . Eunice

Lee and for their effort s and also for the ir pat ience in

dea l ing w ith an admittedly d i f ficult member of the i r staf f .

The support and encou ragement o f my mother and that of

Betty Teo i s also acknowledged .

However, despite all the Qel p and assistance received

f rom the above-mentioned and others , I a m conscious o f the

fact that the whole p roject would not have been successful l y

completed had i t not been for the warm hospitality and

f riendsh ip extended by the Semai of Kampung Kuala Tual and

Kampung Sungei Buntu . In particular , I wish to acknowledge

the f riendship of Y ak Lang , Bati n Pak Langsai , Pak Charak ,

Yak Bud iq and Yak Met of Kampung Kuala Tual and Tataq Tahir,

Batin Lat and Yak Tap of Kampung Sungei Buntu . Working and

living with them had been a persona lly-en riching experience

for me . The quest ion now r emains : How wil l they bene f i t

f r o m a l l o f this?

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGE MENTS

TABLE OF CONTENTS · .

LIST OF TABLES •

LIST OF MAPS · .

ABSTRACT . .

ABSTRAK . . · .

GLOSSARY OF S EMAI TERMS

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

· .

. . · . · .

· . · .

. .

· . · .

. . . .

· .

The Problem in Historical Perspective

Statement o f the Problem

Obj ective of the Study · . . . . .

Research Questions and Working Hypotheses

· .

· .

· .

· .

CHAPTER 2 REVIEW OF LITERATURE AND THEORETICAL

FRAME OF REFERENCE •

The Orang Asl i and Change

The Developmen t Debate • • · . · .

· .

· .

· .

ii

v i

x

xi

xii

xiv

xvi i

1

1

9

10

10

13

13

20

Economic Growth and Modernization Theories . 20

vi

Structuralist Theor ies . . . . . .

Underdevelopment and Dependency Theor ies

Mode of Produc t ion and Art iculat ion Theories

Theoretical Fra me o f Reference • • · .

CHAPTER 3 RESEARCH DESIGN AND DATA COLLECTION

Why the Sema i ? • •

Select ion of Settlement s . . . .

Ti ming and Durat ion o f Fieldwork

Data Collection • · .

· . . . . .

. .

· .

25

27

30

34

38

38

40

43

44

CHAPTER 4 THE SETTLEMENTS AND THEIR POPULATION 47

. . . . Ka mpung Sunge i Buntu

Ka mpung Kuala Tua 1 • •

Comparative Observat ions . . . . . . . . . .

CHAPTER 5 THE NATURAL ECONOMY: CONTENT AND

CHARACTER • • · . . . . .

Production and Reproduc t ion in the

Na tural Economy • · . . . . .

For ms o f S ubsistence Production •

Gathering •

Fishing

Trapping

Hunting

The Selai Bag Cycle

vii

· .

· .

. .

· .

· .

47

52

57

59

65

67

68

69

71

72

74

Ot her Food Crop Product ion · . · . · .

Material Culture · . · .

Relations wit h Non-Semai · . · .

Condi tions for Social Reproduction · .

Kins hip and Social Organization · . · . · .

Leaders hi p and Aut hority · . · . · .

Religio-spirituality and Ideology .

Hoin . . . . · . · . · . · .

N ggern-hag · . · . · .

Produc tion and Reproduct ion: A Summary · .

Nature of Production · . · . · .

The Level o f t he Product ive For ces · . · .

Relations o f Product ion · .

CHAPTER 6 COMMODITY RELATIONS AND THE DISSOLUTION

OF THE NATURAL ECONOMY • · .

Products , Commodities and Commodity Relations :

Conceptual Definitions • •

The Stat e , t he Sema i and National Security

The State and t he Genesis o f Commodity

Relations · . . .

Policy of Sedentarization •

Policy of I ntegration • · .

Merchant Capital and t he Develo p ment o f

Commodity Relations • · .

viii

· .

· . . .

· . . .

80

82

83

84

85

89

92

93

95

97

97

99

102

105

106

109

115

116

123

127

The Internalizing of Simple Commodity Production.

Consumption o f Commodities o • o • · .

Uti l ization o f Labour

Other Mani festations o • · .

The Dissolution o f the Natural Economy

CHAPTER 7 ORGANI ZATION AND REGULATION OF SEMAI

PRODU CTION 0

Organization o f Produc tion

The State and Semai Production · .

o •

. .

. . Merchant Cap i tal and Semai Production •

Mechani sms for Surplus Appropriation · . . .

142

143

147

151

154

162

163

163

167

174

Unequal Exchange and Surplus Appropriation 175

The Semai as Wage-Labour Equivalents . 0 178

The Simple Reproduction Squeeze and Surplus

Appropriation

Resp onse o f the Semai • 0

The Semai and Exp ropriation •

CHAPTER 8 CON CLUSION 0

. .

Summary o f Fin di ngs •

Impl icat ions and Recommendations

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ix

· .. . .

· . . .

180

186

190

195

195

198

205

Table

1

2

3

4

5

LIST OF TABLES

Population distribution of the Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia ( 1 983 ) . . . .

Kampung Sungei Buntu : Population composition as at 25th August 1 983 •

Kampung Kuala Tual : Population composition as at 1 9th November 1 983 • •

Stages of Semai Development

The Selai Bag Cycle . .

2

5 1

56

62

76

6 Post-harvest padi-processing activities 79

7 Comparison of subsistence and population density before and after regroupment in 1979 • • 1 1 8

8a Mercantile interests in Kampung Sungei Buntu • • 1 30

8b Mercantile interests in Kampung Kuala Tual • • . • 131

9 Comparison of prices of selected commodit­ies in Kampung Kuala Tual and Kampung Sungei Buntu 1 33

lOa Kampung Kuala Tual: Income received by 1 6 male adults, September-December 1 983 135

lOb Kampung Sungei Buntu: Income received by 18 male adults, September-December 1983 1 36

x

l la Consumption of commodities by 7 male household heads during January 2-1 1 , 1 984 in Kampung Kuala Tual • • 144

lIb Consumption of commodities by 8 male household heads during August 22-31 , 1 983 in Kampung Sungei Buntu • • • • • • 145

1 2a Kampung Kuala Tual : Utilization of labour by 7 male household head s , from November 19 to December 18, 1 983 (mandays ) • 148

1 2b Kampung Sungei Buntu : Utilization of labour by 8 male household heads for the month of December , 1 983 (manday s ) • • • • 149

13 Kampung Kuala Tual : Sources and quantum of loans received during September 1 983 to January 1 984 • • 171

1 4 Petai production in Kampung Sungei Buntu :

Map

1

2

3

Quantity produced and labour-time utilized by 4 selected individuals , August-December 1 983 • • 1 84

LIST OF MAPS

Page

Perspective map of the research settlements . . 4 1

Kampung Sungei Buntu 48

Kampung Kuala Tual . 53

xi

An abstract of the thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Pertanian Malaysia in partial fulfilment of the

requirements for the Degree of Master of Science

FROM SUBSISTENCE TO SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION :

ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN TWO SEMAI SETTLEMENTS

by

Col in G . N icholas

November 1 985

Supervisor Faculty

Dr . Mohd Ariff Hussein Resource economics and Agribusiness

Thi s study documents and analyzes the changes occurring

in the Semai settlements of Kampung Kuala Tual and Kampung

Sungei Buntu since the early 1 950s . In particular , the

focus is on the transformation of their economies from one

which was subsistence-oriented to

dominated by production for exchange .

another which was

Information and data pertaining to the change in the

form of Semai production -- gathered by the participant-

observation method -- are analyzed within a theoretical

framework which emphasizes the struggle for the effective

control of their production .

xii

The contention is that the changes in Semai production

were primarily effected by two parties : the state , on the

one hand and merchant capital on the other , who were

interested in the Semai for their own respective needs .

More spec if ically , the state was preoccupied with the

preservation of national security while merchant capital was

interested in the gains which could be made from unequal

exchange . In order to realize their objectives , both

part ies sought to establish and reinforce the necessary

cond itions for the introduction of commodity relat ions -- a

prelude to their effective regulation and re-organization of

Semai production along the l ines of s imple

production .

commodity

For the Semai , this resulted in a gradual erosion of

the humanizing features of their natural economy , including

that of a loss of their autonomy . Much of their investible

surplus were also appropriated through the operat ion of the

' Simple reproduction squeeze ' . This resulted in the Semai

being reduced to a position of dependency and relative

impoverishment .

In its conclusion , the thesis calls for a radical

re-conceptualization of the development paradigm ; one in

which minority groups such as the Semai would be given their

right to self-determination and which would allow the

rightful development of their full potential .

xiii

Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Pertanian Malaysia sebagai memenuhi sebahagian

dari pada syarat keperluan untuk Ijazah Sarjana Sains

FROM SUBSISTENCE TO SIMPLE COMMODITY PRODUCTION :

ECONOMIC RELATIONS IN TWO SEMAI SETTLEMENTS

olih

Colin G. Nicholas

Nobember 1 985

Penyelia Dr . Mohd . Ariff Hussein

Fakulti Ekonomi Sumber dan Perniagaantani

Kajian ini mendokumentasikan dan menganalisakan

perubahan-perubahan yang telah berlaku di dua perkampungan

Semai -- iaitu , Kampung Kuala Tual dan Kampung Sungei Buntu

-- sejak awal 1950an . Fokus , terutamanya , adalah pada

perubahan sistem ekonomi mereka daripada suatu sistem d i

mana pengeluaran bercorak ' subsistence-oriented ' kepada

sistem di mana pengeluaran untuk pertukaran , ataupun

' production for exchange ' diutamakan .

Maklumat dan data tentang perubahan dalam sistem

pengeluaran Semai dikumpulkan dengan menggunakan kaedah

' participation-observation ' . Rangka teori yang digunakan

xiv

meni tikberatkan faktor persaingan antara beberapa pihak

untuk mengawal pengeluaran Semai .

Cadangan d i sini adalah bahawa perubahan-perubahan yang

berlaku dalam sistem pengeluaran Semai terutamanya

diakibatkan oleh dua pihak : pihak kerajaan ( ' the state ' ) dan

pihak kapitali� dagangan ( ' merchant capital ' ) . Kedua-dua

pihak ini berminat terhadap golongan Semai untuk membela

kepentingan mereka diri sendir i . Khususnya, pihak

asyik menjaga keselamatan negara . Pihak kapitalis

kerajaan

dagangan

pula berrninat untuk rnendapatkan keuntungan daripada

pertukaran ( dengan golongan Sema i ) yang t idak seimbang itu .

Untuk mencapai matlamat rnasing-rnasing , kedua-dua pihak itu

berusaha supaya rnembent ukkan dan mernperkukuhkan suatu

keadaan yang sesuai untuk rnengujudkan perhubungan barangan

' commodity relations ' ataupun

Langkah ini merupakan langkah

dalam masyarakat

pertarna dalarn

Semai .

proses

pengawalan dan organisasi semula sis tern pengeluaran Sernai

mengikut corak pengeluaran barangan utama ( ' simple commodity

production ' ) .

Kesannya , c ir i-ciri kemanusiaan dalam sistern ekonomi

semulajadi ( ' natural economy ' ) Sernai terkikis , termasuknya

kehilangan otonomi . Lebihan ('surplus ' ) mereka yang boleh

dilabur itu pun telah diamb il oleh pihak lain melalui proses

' simple reproduction squeeze ' . Akhirnya , posisi golongan

xv

Semai telah pun meruntuh .

pergantungan dan kepaparan .

Mereka jatuh ke l embah

Sebagai kesimpulan , tesis ini menyeru supaya paradigma

pembangunan dicipta semula secara radikal . Golongan

minoriti seperti golongan Semai harus diberi balik hak asasi

mereka untuk menentukan masa hadapan diri sendiri dan

digalakkan supaya membela potensi mereka dengan seluas­

luasnya .

xvi

bat in

bawur

bicaraq

chin-haq

dah-gi t

darq

ee choq

ee cuci

ee den

ee gerrm

ee rorb

ee seh

ee seloit

ee sukat

embong

gerrnsang

gob

gu

guniq

halaq

hee-ling

hii

GLOSSARY OF SEMAI TERMS

headman of a village/settlement

f i shing with hook and l ine

village court-in-council

belief that all non-Semai always out to do harm to the Semai

felling of large trees for new swiddens

spear spring trap

f ishing by spearing

post-firing cleaning of the swiddens

threshing

- winnowing ( verticall y )

f ishing with bare hands

husking

- winnowing ( sideways )

- measuring of padi ( quantity )

rattan back-basket

night long ' sings '

- Malay

population in a particular river basin , under a common batin

spirit-famil iar

shaman

frying ( to dry damp pad i )

kinsmen , fellow villagers (we , u s )

xv i i

hoin

kedeq

ker-kohl

ketua baq

kit keiq

mai

maq

meriang

nenggirik

nggern-haq

nyoq

pehunan

roke ee baq

ruai baq

selai

selai chagol

ser

tort

tuai

tugal

tugal eek

yuit

behavioural concept concerning the satisfying of wants and needs

spring-trap for tree-dwelling rodents

clearing of undergrowth of new swiddens

head of a swidden group

harvesting

outsiders , non-Semai ( they )

food taboo

large bamboo weir for trapping fish

customary land ( usually representing a particular river basin )

system of ( food ) sharing

weeding

food taboo

sowing of padi seeds

padi spirit

swidden I dry padi field

small swidden I garden

f ishing with bamboo cage traps

burning I firing

rice-knive ( for harvesting )

dibble-stick

dibbling, making holes for the deposit of padi seeds

machete

xviii

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

THE PROBLEM IN HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE

The indigenous peoples of Peninsular Malaysia belong to

at least nineteen distinct tribal groups and although they

are usually categorized for administrative purposes as

"Negrito", "Senoi" and "Proto-Malays" , each tribal group is

unique in that it has a language and a mode of living quite

different from the other . Numbering 63 , 648 in 1 983 ( see

Table 1 ) , the Orang Aslil

, as they are now collectively

referred to , are among the most economically backward and

politically isolated peoples in the country ( Government of

Malaysia 1 984 : 81 ) .

1--------------The term "Orang Asli" , which is Malay for "original

people", officially came into use in 1966. Prior to thi s , derogatory terms such as "savages", "sakai" (meaning slave) and "orang liar" ( wild man ) were used in general conversation as well as in the literature . Even the word "aborigine" was later abandoned as it was thought to be discriminatory . Significantl y , it was the communist insurgents who were the first to use the word "asal" ( which has the same Arabic root word as "Asli" ) to refer to the Orang Asli , as in their "Asal Groups" which were established to win the Orang Asli over to their side .

1

TABLE 1

POPULATION DISTRIBUTION OF THE ORANG ASLI IN PENINSULAR MALAYSIA ( 1 983 )

==========================================================

1 . Negrito

1 . 1 Kintaq 1 03 1 . 2 Kensiu 101 1 . 3 Jahai 882 1 . 4 Mendriq 1 44 1 . 5 Bateq 785 1 . 6 Lanoh 224 2 , 239

2 . Senoi

2 . 1 Semai 1 8 , 327 2 . 2 Temiar 1 2 , 7 1 2 2 . 3 Che Wong 203 2 . 4 Jah Hut 2 , 442 2 . 5 Semoq Beri 1 , 785 2 . 6 Mah Meri 1 , 355 36 , 824

3 . Proto-Malay

3 . 1 Temuan 9 , 312 3 . 2 Semelai 2 , 923 3 . 3 Jakun/Temoq 9 , 853 3 . 4 Orang Kanaq 34 3 . 5 Orang Seletar 541 3 . 6 Orang Kuala 1 , 922 24 , 585

Total 63 , 648

=========================================================

Sourc e : Jimin ( 1983 : 3-4 , 1 6 )

2

Prior to the arrival of the later Malaysians , however ,

the Orang Asli were l iving an autonomous l ifestyle based on

subsistence production . In any case , they did not , at any

time , live in complete isolation as there are documented

accounts of varying levels of inter-tribal and tribal-alien

contacts . For example , Noone (1954 ) found evidence of trade

in blowpipes and blowpipe- bamboo among certain tribes in

the states of Kedah , Perak , Kelantan and Pahang where the

Department of Aborigines was in constant contact . Evidence

has also been provided by Dunn ( 1975 : 1 09 ) to show that the

Orang As1i have played a significant role in the Malay

Peninsula ' s economic history as collectors and primary

traders as far back as the 5th century A . D . Also , Walker

( 1 983 : 460-1 ) , citing an early 1 9th century report , writes of

Negritos providing forest products as tribute to the Malay

chiefs of the river basins they resided in .

There seemed , therefore , to be a certain amount of

interaction between the Orang As1i and the other ethnic

groups , particularly the Malays who resided along the j ungle

fringes . Jungle products such as rattan , resin and bamboo

were exchanged for bush-knives , cooking pots , salt and c loth

which were highly valued by the Orang Asl i . Some of the

initial contacts , however , were unfortunately characterized

by cruelty and mutual hostility as when the Orang Asl i ,

particularly the young children , were sought after and

brought into slavery . A considerable trade in slaves soon

3

developed -- and even continued into the present century

despite the official abolition of all forms of slavery in

1884 ( Skeat and Blagden 1 906 , 1 : 533 ; Jones 1968 : 289-90 ; Carey

1 976b : 52-3 ; Sullivan 1 982 : 68 ) . As bartering was the major

mode of exchange during this period , the role played by

capital ( particularly merchant capita l ) was nevertheless

insignificant .

Since the late 1 940 ' s , however , the Orang Asli have

been subjected to new forces which not only threatened their

traditional mode of l iving but which also plunged them into

an era of rapid social change , over which they had virtuall y

n o control . The Emergency during 1 948-60 , a n d in particular

the resettlement policy of the colonial government , was one

such factor which was to radically transform the social and

economic fabric of the Orang Asl i . In particular , the

Brigg ' s Plan , which involved relocating much of the rural

population into "new villages" , successfully prevented the

insurgents from getting material help from their

sympathisers there . Consequentl y , they were forced to

operate from areas in deep jungle , where they sought the

help of the Orang Asl i . I n a n attempt to prevent the Orang

Asli from giving food and information to the communist

insurgents , the colonial authorities uprooted whole villages

and moved the inhabitants to hastily-prepared resettlement

camps . Carey ( 1 976a : 306-7 ) described this act as one which

"showed both lack of imagination and great stupidity" . In

4