UNIVERSITI PUTRA MALAYSIA EFFECT OF PATTERN RECOGNITION ABILITY TRAINING ON JUDGING

PERFORMANCE OF MALAYSIAN RHYTHMIC GYMNASTIC JUDGES

TEH LAH HOONG

FPP 2010 34

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EFFECT OF PATTERN RECOGNITION ABILITY TRAINING ON JUDGING PERFORMANCE OF MALAYSIAN RHYTHMIC GYMNASTIC JUDGES

By

TEH LAH HOONG

Thesis Submitted to the School of Graduate Studies, Universiti Putra Malaysia, in Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of

Philosophy

January 2010

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Dedicated to

Mom (who supported me in whatever I do although sometimes grudgingly!),

Dad (who had a lot of faith in my abilities but left before I could finish this work),

Choon, Shawn, Wayne and Joy (for their unconditional love and understanding of me)

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Abstract of thesis presented to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia in fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy

EFFECT OF PATTERN RECOGNITION ABILITY TRAINING ON JUDGING PERFORMANCE OF MALAYSIAN RHYTHMIC GYMNASTIC JUDGES

By

TEH LAH HOONG

January 2010

Chairman: Dr. Mohd. Majid Bin Konting, PhD

Faculty: Educational Studies

Studies have shown that expert judges are typically very accurate in their

evaluations as compared to non-experts. Although the judging task challenges

the limited capacities of attention, memory and speed of processing of judges

that are characteristic of humans, expert judges have learned to circumvent

processing limitations encountered by novice judges by acquiring certain

cognitive structures. One possible acquisition from the repeated judging tasks

could be an improvement in the pattern recognition skills. This research

examined the significance of pattern recognition ability in the judging

performance of Malaysian rhythmic gymnastics judges who were

correspondingly classified by the Malaysian Gymnastics Federation as expert,

non-expert and novice.

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In the first study, thirty participants categorised by the Malaysian Gymnastics

Federation were subjected to a series of pattern recognition ability test (PRAT)

and judging performance evaluation tasks. The initial results of the first study

using ANOVA analyses showed that there were significant differences between

the level of expertise for the pattern recognition ability of each of the four body

movement groups (jumps, balances, pivots and flexibilities) but results of the 3 X

4 (Expertise X Movement Series) MANOVA indicated no significant main effects

[Pillai’s trace = 0.45, F (8, 50) = 1.81, p > 0.05].

However, for their judging performance, ANOVA analyses showed that there

were significant differences between the level of expertise for the pattern

recognition ability of each of the five apparatus (rope, hoop, ball, clubs and

ribbon). The results of the 3 X 5 (Expertise X Apparatus) MANOVA indicated

there were significant main effects [Pillai’s trace = 0. 79, F (10, 48) = 3.10, p <

0.05]. This finding was confirmed with a univariate ANOVA. Significant effects

were observed for all components of the evaluation exercise as well as for the

total (p < 0.05). Post-hoc comparisons revealed that there were significant

differences between the experts and non-experts with the novices but there

were no differences between the experts with the non-expert participants in their

judging performance. However, when the participants were regrouped

according to their movement pattern recognition ability; low, average and high,

the results showed that there were very significant differences in the judging

performances of the three groups classified according to their movement pattern

recognition ability [F (2, 27) = 127.55, p = 0.00, w = 0.93].

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In the second study, a selected group of non-expert judges had undergone a

series of pattern recognition training for three weeks as treatment. The results

of the main effects revealed that there were significant differences between the

two groups of treatment and non-treatment participants on the PRAT scores

[Pillai’s trace = 0. 93, F (1, 8) = 9.81, p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.93]. This finding was

confirmed with a univariate ANOVA. Significant effects were observed for all

components of the PRAT as well as for the total (p < 0.05). A post-hoc test

(Scheffe) verified that the treatment participants were improving significantly

more than the non-treatment participants. As for the judging performance, the

results of the main effects revealed that there were no significant differences

between the two groups of treatment and non-treatment participants on the

judging performance scores [Pillai’s trace = 0. 82, F (5, 4) = 3.60, p > 0.05].

However, univariate analyses revealed that there were significant effects to the

judging performance of the ball [F (1, 8) = 5.89, p < 0.05] and clubs routines [F

(1, 8) = 7.21, p < 0.05]. The data collected partially support the proposition that

pattern recognition ability training will bring a significant improvement particularly

in the judging performance of ball and clubs routines which have a dominance of

the balance difficulties.

These findings confirmed that pattern recognition ability was an important

characteristic of the expertise of the rhythmic gymnastics judges. Besides, the

findings gives hope that pattern recognition ability could be trained in order to

contribute further to the advancement of the expertise of rhythmic gymnastics

judges in their judging performance.

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Abstrak tesis yang dikemukakan kepada Senat Universiti Putra Malaysia sebagai memenuhi keperluan untuk Ijazah Doktor Falsafah

KESAN LATIHAN KEUPAYAAN MENGENAL PASTI CORAK TERHADAP PRESTASI PENGHAKIMAN PARA HAKIM GIMRAMA MALAYSIA

Oleh

TEH LAH HOONG

Januari 2010

Pengerusi: Dr. Mohd. Majid Bin Konting, PhD

Fakulti: Pengajian Pendidikan

Kajian-kajian lepas telah membuktikan bahawa para hakim pakar senantiasa

tepat dalam tugasan penilaian berbanding dengan hakim-hakim bukan pakar.

Walaupun tugasan penghakiman mencabar keupayaan manusia yang terhad

dari segi tumpuan, daya ingatan dan kepantasan pemprosesan dalam kalangan

hakim-hakim, para hakim pakar dapat mengatasi had-had pemprosesan yang

dihadapi oleh hakim-hakim baru dengan memperolehi struktur-struktur kognitif

tertentu. Salah satu pemerolehan daripada pengulangan tugasan penghakiman

boleh merupakan peningkatan dalam kemahiran keupayaan mengenal pasti

corak. Kajian ini memeriksa kesignifikan keupayaan mengenal pasti corak

kepada prestasi penghakiman para hakim gimrama yang diklasifikasikan oleh

pihak Persekutuan Gimnastik Malaysia sebagai pakar, bukan pakar dan novis.

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Bagi kajian pertama, tiga puluh peserta yang dikategorikan oleh Persekutuan

Gimnastik Malaysia telah melalui satu siri ujian keupayaan mengenal pasti corak

(PRAT) dan prestasi tugasan penghakiman. Keputusan awal kajian pertama

dari rekabentuk ANOVA menunjukkan bahawa terdapat perbezaan tahap

kepakaran untuk keupayaan mengenal pasti corak setiap jenis pergerakan

badan (lompatan, imbangan, pivot dan kelenturan) tetapi keputusan 3 X 4

(Tahap Kepakaran X Pergerakan Badan) MANOVA menunjukkan bahawa tiada

kesan utama yang signifikan [Pillai’s trace = 0.45, F (8, 50) = 1.81, p > 0.05].

Bagi prestasi penghakiman, analisa ANOVA telah menunjukkan bahawa

terdapat perbezaan tahap kepakaran untuk prestasi penghakiman setiap alatan

gimrama (tali, gelung, bola, belantan dan reben). Keputusan 3 X 5 (Tahap

Kepakaran X Alatan) MANOVA menunjukkan bahawa wujud kesan utama yang

signifikan [Pillai’s trace = 0. 79, F (10, 48) = 3.10, p < 0.05]. Dapatan ini

disahkan dengan ANOVA univariat untuk semua komponen penilaian prestasi

penghakiman serta untuk keseluruhan penilaian tersebut (p < 0.05).

Perbandingan post-hoc mendedahkan bahawa peserta pakar dan bukan pakar

adalah jauh lebih baik daripada peserta novis dalam prestasi penghakiman

tetapi tiada perbezaan wujud di antara peserta pakar dengan peserta bukan

pakar. Walau bagaimanapun, apabila para peserta dikumpulkan semula

mengikut keupayaan mengenal pasti corak; iaitu rendah, sederhana dan tinggi,

adalah didapati terdapat perbezaan yang signifikan dalam prestasi

penghakiman di antara ketiga-tiga kumpulan yang diklasikasikan mengikut

keupayaan mengenal pasti corak [F (2, 27) = 127.55, p = 0.00, w = 0.93].

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Dalam kajian kedua, sebilangan hakim bukan pakar adalah terpilih untuk melalui

satu siri latihan keupayaan mengenal pasti corak selama tiga minggu sebagai

rawatan kajian. Keputusan tentang kesan utama telah menunjukkan bahawa

terdapat perbezaan skor PRAT yang signifikan di antara peserta rawatan dan

bukan rawatan [Pillai’s trace = 0. 93, F (1, 8) = 9.81, p < 0.05, ηp2 = 0.93].

Dapatan ini disokong dengan ANOVA univariate yang mencatatkan kesan

signifikan untuk semua komponen PRAT serta keseluruhan keupayaan ini (p <

0.05). Ujian post-hoc (Scheffe) mengesahkan bahawa peserta kumpulan

rawatan meningkat prestasi mereka dengan signifikan berbanding dengan

kumpulan bukan rawatan. Bagi prestasi penghakiman, keputusan kesan utama

menunjukkan bahawa tiada perbezaan di antara peserta rawatan dan bukan

rawatan [Pillai’s trace = 0. 82, F (5, 4) = 3.60, p > 0.05]. Walau bagaimanapun,

analisa univariat menunjukkan bahawa terdapat kesan signifikan kepada

prestasi penghakiman alatan bola [F (1, 8) = 5.89, p < 0.05] dan belantan [F (1,

8) = 7.21, p < 0.05]. Data yang dikumpulkan separa menyokong usul bahawa

latihan keupayaan mengenal pasti corak akan membawa peningkatan dalam

prestasi penghakiman para hakim gimrama terutamanya kepada rutin-rutin yang

mempunyai lebih banyak kemahiran imbangan.

Dapatan kajian mengesahkan bahawa keupayaan mengenal pasti corak adalah

ciri yang penting dalam kepakaran hakim gimrama. Keputusan kajian ini juga

memberi harapan bahawa keupayaan mengenal pasti corak boleh dilatih

supaya memberi sumbangan kepada peningkatan kepakaran para hakim dalam

prestasi penghakiman mereka.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my most heartfelt appreciation to my thesis supervisor,

Associate Professor Dr. Mohd. Majid bin Konting for his invaluable supervision,

interest and support in my thesis research. I am also most grateful to Associate

Professor Dr. Mohd Khairi bin Zawi, my previous supervisor for inspiring me to

pursue this direction of studies as well as his thorough contribution and continual

support for this research. This thesis represents great time and effort not only

on my part but also on the part of these two key persons.

I extend my gratitude to Dr. Tengku Fadillah binti Tengku Kamalden for her

constructive input to enable me to complete this thesis successfully. I am also

grateful to the National Sports Institute of Malaysia and the Malaysian

Gymnastics Federation for their assistance in the construction of the testing

instruments used in this research.

I would also like to thank the rhythmic gymnastics judges from Malaysia and the

Philippines for their participation in my research as well as Dr Katja Kleinveldt

and Dr Kok Lian Yee for their encouragement and input.

Lastly, I would like to thank the Ministry of Education for providing me the

opportunity to engage in this enlightening world of research.

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I certify that a Thesis Examination Committee has met on 8 January 2010 to conduct the final examination of Teh Lah Hoong on her thesis entitled “Effect of Pattern Recognition Ability Training on Judging Performance of Malaysian Rhythmic Gymnastics Judges” in accordance with the Universities and University Colleges Act 1971 and the Constitution of the Universiti Putra Malaysia [P.U.(A) 106] 15 March 1998. The Committee recommends that the student be awarded the Doctor of Philosophy. Members of the Thesis Examination Committee were as follows: HABIBAH ELIAS, PhD Professor Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) CHEE CHEN SOON, PhD Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) SAIDON AMRI, PhD Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Internal Examiner) ANDREW MARK WILLIAMS, PhD Professor School of Sport and Exercise Sciences Faculty of Science Liverpool John Moores University England (External Examiner)

BUJANG BIN KIM HUAT, PhD Professor and Deputy Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia Date: 23 July 2010

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This thesis was submitted to the Senate of Universiti Putra Malaysia and has been accepted as fulfilment of the requirement for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. The members of the Supervisory Committee were as follows: Mohd. Majid Konting, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Chairman) Tengku Fadillah Tengku Kamalden, PhD Senior Lecturer Faculty of Educational Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia (Member) Mohd. Khairi Zawi, PhD Associate Professor Faculty of Sports Science and Recreation Universiti Teknologi MARA (Member)

HASANAH MOHD GHAZALI, PhD Professor and Dean School of Graduate Studies Universiti Putra Malaysia

Date: 12 August 2010

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DECLARATION

I declare that the thesis is my original work except for quotations and citations which have been duly acknowledged. I also declare that it has not been previously, and is not concurrently, submitted for any other degree at Universiti Putra Malaysia or at any other institution.

____________________

TEH LAH HOONG

Date: 8 January 2010

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page DEDICATION ii ABSTRACT iii ABSTRAK vi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ix APPROVAL x DECLARATION xi LIST OF TABLES xvi LIST OF FIGURES xix CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 1 Research Background 1 Problem Statement 8 Research Significance 10 Research Objectives 12 Research Hypothesis 14 Operational Definition 18 Research Delimitations 21 Research Limitations 22 2 LITERATURE REVIEW 24 Background on Judging 24 Judging As a Cognitive Process 31 Knowledge-Based Paradigm 38

Expertise Paradigm 42 Expert Performance 43 Postulation of 10-year Rule 56 Advance Cue Utilisation 59 Pattern Recognition Paradigm 64

3 METHOD 73 Research Participants 73 Experimental Design 75 Procedure 76 Instrument 78 Pattern Recognition Test 78 Evaluation Exercises 83 Training Modules 84 Data Analyses 85

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4 RESULTS 89 Tests of Normality 90 Tests of Differences 91

Pattern Recognition Ability Test Results 94 Descriptive Statistics 94

Multivariate Analysis of Variance of PRAT 96 Findings 97 Jump Movements in Pattern Recognition Ability Test 98 Descriptive Statistics 98 ANOVA of Jump Movement Series 100 Post-Hoc Comparison of Significant Main Effects 101 Findings 102 Balance Movements in Pattern Recognition Ability Test 103 Descriptive Statistics 104 ANOVA of the Balance Movement Series 105 Findings 106 Pivot Movements in Pattern Recognition Ability Test 107 Descriptive Statistics 107 ANOVA of Pivot Movement Series 109 Post-Hoc Comparison of Significant Main Effects 110 Findings 111 Flexibility Movements in Pattern Recognition Ability Test 112 Descriptive Statistics 112 ANOVA of the Balance Movement Series 114 Findings 114

Overall Judging Performance 115 Descriptive Statistics 116 Multivariate Analysis of Variance 119 Univariate Analysis of Variance 120 Post-Hoc Comparison of Significant Main Effects 122 Findings 125 Correlation Analyses 126

After-Treatment PRAT Score Analyses 129 Descriptive 129 Multivariate Analysis of Variance 132 Univariate Analysis of Variance 133 Post-Hoc Comparison of Significant Main Effects 135 Findings 137 After-Treatment Judging Performance 138 Descriptive 138 Multivariate Analysis of Variance 143 Univariate Analysis of Variance 144 Findings 146

Ad Hoc Analyses after Regrouping of Participants 146 Descriptive 147 ANOVA 149

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Post-Hoc Comparison of Significant Main Effects 150 Findings 150

Summary of All Findings 151

5 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 156 Comparison of Judging Performance with Pattern Recognition Ability of the Three Groups of Participants 157

Comparison of the Judging Performance after Pattern Recognition Training 158

Interpretation 160 Implications 164

Future Directions 166 Conclusion 168 REFERENCES 169 APPENDICES 181 BIODATA OF STUDENT 189