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United States Bill of Rights

United States Bill of Rights

Created September 25, 1789

Ratified December 15, 1791

Location National Archives

Author(s) James Madison

Purpose To set limits on

government actions

in regard to personal

libe rties.

United States Bill of RightsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

The Bill of Rights is the colle ctive name for the first ten amendments tothe United State s Constitution. Proposed to assuage the fe ars of Anti-Federalists who had opposed Cons titutional ratification, these amendmentsguarantee a number of personal freedoms, limit the government's power inudicial and other proceedings, and reserve some powers to the states and

the public. While originally the amendments applied only to the federalgovernment, most of their provisions have since been applied to the states

by way of the Fourteenth Amendment, a process known as incorporation.

The amendments were introduced by James Madison to the 1st UnitedStates Congress as a series of legislative articles. They were adopted bythe House of Representatives on August 21, 1789, formally proposed byoint resolution of Congress on Se ptember 25, 1789, and came into effect

as Constitutional Amendments on December 15, 1791, through the process of ratification by th ree-fourths of the s tates. While t welveame ndments were propo sed by Congress, only ten were originally ratified

by the states. Of the remaining two, one was adopted 203 years later asthe Twenty-seventh Amendment, and the other technically remains pending

before the states.

The Bill of Rights enumerates freedoms not explicitly indicated in the main body of the Constitution, such as freedom of religion, freedom of speech, afree press, and free assembly; the right to keep and bear arms; freedom

from unreasonable search and seizure, security in personal effects, andfreedom from warrant s issued without probable cause; indictment by agrand jury for any capital or "infamous crime"; guarantee of a speedy ,

public t rial with an impartial jury; and prohibition of double jeopardy . Inaddit ion, the Bill of Rights reserves for the people any rights n ot spec ifically mentioned in the C onstitution andreser ves all powers not specifically granted to the federal gove rnmen t to the people or the Sta tes. The Bill wasinfluenced by G eorge Mason's 177 6 Virginia Declara tion of Rig hts, the English Bill of Rights 1 689, and earlier English political documents such as Magna Carta (1215).

The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of it s existence, but was the b asis for many

Supreme Court decisions of the 20th and 21st centuries. One of the first fourteen copies of the Bill of Rights ison p ublic display at the National Archives in Washington, D. C.

Contents

1 Background1.1 The Philadelphia Convention1.2 The Anti-Federalists

1.3 Ratification and the Massachusetts Compromise2 Proposal by Congress2.1 The First Congress2.2 Madison's proposed amendments2.3 Congressional revisions
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3 Ratification process3.1 Unratified amendments proposed with the Bill of Rights

3.1.1 Article I3.1.2 Article II

4 Application4.1 First Amendment4.2 Second Amendment

4.3 Third Amendment4.4 Fourth Amendment4.5 Fifth Amendment4.6 Sixth Amendment4.7 Seventh Amendment4.8 Eighth Amendment4.9 Ninth Amendment4.10 Tenth Amendment

5 Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights

6 See also7 References8 Further reading9 External links

Background

The Philadelphia Convention

Main article: Constitutional Convention (United States)

Prior to the acceptance and implementation of the United States Constitution, the original 13 colonies followedthe Articles of Confederation, created by the Second Continental Congress and ratified in 1781. However, thenational government that operated under the Articles of Confederation was too weak to adequately regulate thevarious conflicts that arose between the states. [1] The Philadelphia Convention set out to correct weaknesses of the Articles that had been apparent even before the American Revolutionary War had been successfullyconcluded. [1]

The convention took place from May 14 to September 17, 1787, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Although theConvention was purportedly intended only to revise the Articles, the intention of many of its proponents, chief among them James Madison of Virginia and Alexander Hamilton of New York, was to create a newgovernment rather than fix the existing one. The convention convened in the Pennsylvania State House, andGeorge Washington of Virginia was unanimously elected as president of the convention. [2] The 55 delegateswho drafted the Constitution are among the men known as the Founding Fathers of the new nation. ThomasJefferson, who was Minister to France during the convention, characterized the delegates as an assembly of "demi-gods." [1] Rhode Island refused to send delegates to the convention. [3]

On September 12, George Mason of Virginia suggested the addition of a Bill of Rights to the Constitutionmodeled on previous state declarations, and Elbridge Gerry of Massachusetts made it a formal motion. [4]

However, the motion was defeated by a unanimous vote of the state delegations after only a brief discussion.Madison, then an opponent of a Bill of Rights, later explained the vote by calling the state bills of rights"parchment barriers" that offered only an illusion of protection against tyranny. [5] Another delegate, James
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On June 5, 1788, Patrick Henryspoke before Virginia's ratificationconvention in opposition to theConstitution.

Wilson of Pennsylvania, later argued that the act of enumerating the rights of the people would have beendangerous, because it would imply that rights not explicitly mentioned did not exist; [5] Hamilton echoed this pointin Federalist No. 84. [6] Because Mason and Gerry had emerged as opponents of the proposed newConstitution, their motionintroduced five days before the end of the conventionmay also have been seen byother delegates as a delaying tactic. [7] The quick rejection of this motion, however, later endangered the entireratification process. Author David O. Stewart calls the omission of a Bill of Rights in the original Constitution as"a political blunder of the first magnitude" [7] while historian Jack N. Rakove calls it "the one seriousmiscalculation the framers made as they looked ahead to the struggle over ratification". [8]

Thirteen delegates left before the final signing of the constitution, and three of those still at the convention refusedto sign: Mason, Gerry, and Edmund Randolph of Virginia. [9] The remaining 39 delegates signed the finaldocument, and the Constitution was then submitted to the states for ratification, pursuant to its own Article VII.

The Anti-Federalists

See also: Anti-Federalism and Anti-Federalist Papers

Following the Philadelphia Convention, some leading revolutionaryfigures such as Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, and Richard HenryLee publicly opposed the Constitution, a position known as "Anti-Federalism". [10] Elbridge Gerry wrote the most popular Anti-Federalist tract, "Hon. Mr. Gerry's Objections", which went through46 printings; the essay particularly focused on the lack of a bill of rights in the proposed constitution. [11] Many were concerned that astrong national government was a threat to individual rights and thatthe President would become a king. Jefferson wrote to Madison

advocating a Bill of Rights: "Half a loaf is better than no bread. If wecannot secure all our rights, let us secure what we can." [12]

The pseudonymous Anti-Federalist "Brutus" [a] wrote,

We find they have, in the ninth section of the first articledeclared, that the writ of habeas corpus shall not besuspended, unless in cases of rebellion that no bill of attainder, or ex post facto law, shall be passed that no titleof nobility shall be granted by the United States, etc. If every

thing which is not given is reserved, what propriety is there inthese exceptions? Does this Constitution any where grant the power of suspending the habeascorpus, to make ex post facto laws, pass bills of attainder, or grant titles of nobility? It certainlydoes not in express terms. The only answer that can be given is, that these are implied in thegeneral powers granted. With equal truth it may be said, that all the powers which the bills of rightsguard against the abuse of, are contained or implied in the general ones granted by thisConstitution. [14]

Brutus continued with an implication directed against the Constitution's framers:

Ought not a government, vested with such extensive and indefinite authority, to have beenrestricted by a declaration of rights? It certainly ought. So clear a point is this, that I cannot helpsuspecting that persons who attempt to persuade people that such reservations were lessnecessary under this Constitution than under those of the States, are wilfully endeavoring todeceive, and to lead you into an absolute state of vassalage. [15]
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George Washington's 1788 letter tothe Marquis de Lafayette observed,"the Convention of Massachusettsadopted the Constitution in toto; butrecommended a number of specificalterations and quieting explanations."Source: Library of Congress

Supporters of the Constitution, known as Federalists, opposed a bill of rights for much of the ratification period,in part due to the procedural uncertainties it would create. [16] Madison argued against such an inclusion,suggesting that state governments were sufficient guarantors of personal liberty, in No. 46 of The Federalist

Papers , a series of essays promoting the Federalist position. [17] Hamilton opposed a Bill of Rights in Federalist No. 84, stating that "the constitution is itself in every rational sense, and to every useful purpose, A BILL OFRIGHTS." [18] He stated that ratification did not mean the American people were surrendering their rights,making protections unnecessary: "Here, in strictness, the people surrender nothing, and as they retain everything,

they have no need of particular reservations." [18] Critics pointed out that earlier political documents had protected specific rights, but Hamilton argued that the Constitution was inherently different:

Bills of rights are in their origin, stipulations between kings and their subjects, abridgments of prerogative in favor of privilege, reservations of rights not surrendered to the prince. Such was"Magna Charta," obtained by the Barons, swords in hand, from King John. [18]

Patrick Henry argued, in contrast, that the legislature must be firmly informed "of the extent of the rights retained by the people ... being in a state of uncertainty, they will assume rather than give up powers by implication." [19]

Ratification and the Massachusetts Compromise

In December 1787 and January 1788, five statesDelaware,Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, and Connecticutratified theConstitution with relative ease, though the bitter minority report of thePennsylvania opposition was widely circulated. [20] In contrast to its

predecessors, the Massachusetts convention was angry andcontentious, at one point erupting into a fistfight between Federalistdelegate Francis Dana and Anti-Federalist Elbridge Gerry when the

latter was not allowed to speak.[21]

The impasse was resolved onlywhen revolutionary heroes and leading Anti-Federalists SamuelAdams and John Hancock agreed to ratification on the condition thatthe convention also propose amendments. [22] The convention's

proposed amendments included a requirement for grand juryindictment in capital cases, which would form part of the FifthAmendment, and an amendment reserving powers to the states notexpressly given to the federal government, which would later form the

basis for the Tenth Amendment. [23]

Following Massachusetts' lead, the Federalist minorities in bothVirginia and New York were able to obtain ratification in convention

by linking ratification to recommended amendments. [24] A committeeof the Virginia convention headed by law professor George Wytheforwarded forty recommended amendments to Congress, twenty of which enumerated individual rights and another twenty of whichenumerated states' rights. [25] The latter amendments includedlimitations on federal powers to levy taxes and regulate trade. [26]

A minority of the Constitution's critics, such as Maryland's Luther Martin, continued to oppose ratification. [27] However, Martin's allies,such as New York's John Lansing, Jr., dropped moves to obstruct the Convention's process. They began totake exception to the Constitution "as it was," seeking amendments. Several conventions saw supporters for "amendments before" shift to a position of "amendments after" for the sake of staying in the Union. The New
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James Madison, "Father of theConstitution" and first author of theBill of Rights

York Anti-Federalist "circular letter" was sent to each state legislature proposing a second constitutionalconvention for "amendments before", but it failed in the state legislatures. Ultimately, only North Carolina andRhode Island waited for amendments from Congress before ratifying. [24]

Article VII of the proposed constitution stipulated that only nine of the thirteen states had to ratify for the newgovernment to go into effect (for the participating states). After a year had passed in state-by-state ratification

battles, on September 13, 1788, the Articles of Confederation Congress certified that the new Constitution had

been ratified. The new government was inaugurated with eleven of the thirteen states. The Articles Congressdirected the new government to meet in New York City on the first Wednesday in March, [28] and on March 4,1789, the government began operations.

Proposal by Congress

The First Congress

Main article: 1st United States Congress

The new Constitution's first Congress, which met in New York City's Federal Hall, was a triumph for theFederalists. The Senate of eleven states contained 20 Federalists with only two Anti-Federalists, both fromVirginia. The House included 48 Federalists to 11 Anti-Federalists, the latter of whom were from only four states: Massachusetts, New York, Virginia and South Carolina. [29]

Among the Virginia delegation to the House was James Madison,Patrick Henry's chief opponent in the Virginia ratification battle. Inretaliation for Madison's victory at that convention, Henry and other Anti-Federalists, who controlled the Virginia House of Delegates had

gerrymandered a hostile district for Madison's planned congressionalrun and recruited Madison's future presidential successor, JamesMonroe, to oppose him. [30] Madison defeated Monroe after offeringa campaign pledge that he would introduce constitutional amendmentscomprising a Bill of Rights at the First Congress. [31]

Though Madison had originally opposed a Bill of Rights, he hadgradually come to support one in the course of ratification debates.By taking the initiative to propose amendments himself through theCongress, he hoped to preempt a second Constitutional Convention

that might have undone the difficult compromises of 1787: a secondconvention would open the entire Constitution to reconsideration andrisk dissolving the federal Government. Writing to Jefferson, hestated, "The friends of the Constitution, some from an approbation of

particular amendments, others from a spirit of conciliation, aregenerally agreed that the System should be revised. But they wish the revisal to be carried no farther than tosupply additional guards for liberty." [32] He also felt that amendments guaranteeing personal liberties would "giveto the Government its due popularity and stability". [33] Finally, he hoped that the amendments "would acquire bydegrees the character of fundamental maxims of free government, and as they become incorporated with thenational sentiment, counteract the impulses of interest and passion". [34]

The federal government's first president, George Washington, endorsed limited amendments to the Constitutionin his first address to Congress on April 30, 1789. He urged the legislators to focus on the issue of individualrights rather than making changes to the new government's structure:
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Madison's "Notes for speech onConstitutional amendments, June 8,1789"

"For I assure myself that whilst you carefully avoid any alteration which might endanger the benefitsof an United and effective Government, or which ought to await the future lessons of experience; areverence for the characteristic rights of freemen, and a regard for public harmony, will sufficientlyinfluence your deliberations on the question." [35]

On May 4, Madison announced his intention to present amendments on May 25. [36]

Madison's proposed amendmentsMadison attempted to introduce his proposed amendments on May25 as planned, but other business forced his speech's postponementto June 8. [37] Like Washington, he urged Congress to keep therevision to the Constitution "a moderate one", limited to protectingindividual rights. [38] Historians continue to debate the degree to whichMadison considered the amendments of the Bill of Rights necessary,and to what degree he considered them politically expedient; in theoutline of his address, he wrote, "Bill of Rightsusefulnot essential

". [37]

Madison proposed twenty amendments to Congress, one of whichwas a new preamble to the Constitution with greater stress on naturalrights. [38][b] Madison was deeply read in the history of governmentand used a range of sources in composing the amendments. TheEnglish Magna Carta of 1215 inspired the right to petition and to trial

by jury, for example, while the English Bill of Rights of 1689 providedan early precedent for the right to keep and bear arms and prohibited

cruel and unusual punishment.[26]

The greatest influence on Madison's text, however, was existing stateconstitutions. [40][41] Many of his amendments, including his proposed new preamble, were based on the VirginiaDeclaration of Rights drafted by Anti-Federalist George Mason in 1776. [42] To reduce future opposition toratification, Madison also looked for recommendations shared by many states. [41]

Congressional revisions

On Madison's concluding his speech, the proposal was quickly attacked by Federalist representatives who feltthat immediately amending the new Constitution would create an appearance of instability in the government. [43]The House, unlike the Senate, was open to the public, and members such as Fisher Ames warned that a

prolonged "dissection of the constitution" before the galleries could shake public confidence. [44] A procedural battle followed, and after initially forwarding the amendments to a select committee for revision, the Houseagreed to take Madison's proposal up as a full body beginning on July 21, 1789. [45][46]

The eleven-member committee made some significant changes to Madison's twenty amendments, includingeliminating most of his preamble, adding the phrase "freedom of speech, and of the press", and adding whatwould become the Tenth Amendment, reserving powers to the states. [47] The House debated the amendments

for eleven days. Roger Sherman of Connecticut persuaded the House to place the amendments at theConstitution's end so that the document would "remain inviolate", rather than adding them throughout, asMadison had proposed. [48] The amendments, revised and condensed from twenty to seventeen, were approvedand forwarded to the Senate on August 24, 1789. [49]
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The Senate edited these amendments still further, making 26 changes of its own. Madison's proposal to apply parts of the Bill of Rights to the states as well as the federal government was eliminated, and the seventeenamendments were condensed to twelve. [50] The Senate also eliminated the last of Madison's proposed changesto the preamble. [51] The two versions went to the Joint Committee, and the Senate's version was adopted byoint resolution of Congress on September 25, 1789, to be forwarded to the states on September 28. [52][53]

Madison continued to be active in debate and legislative maneuvering throughout this process. Historian Gordon

S. Wood writes that "there is no question that it was Madison's personal prestige and his dogged persistencethat saw the amendments through the Congress. There might have been a federal Constitution without Madison but certainly no Bill of Rights." [54]

Ratification process

Main article: Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution

By the time the Bill of Rights was submitted to the states for ratification, opinions had shifted in both parties.

Many Federalists now supported the Bill as a means to silence the Anti-Federalists' most effective critique.Many Anti-Federalists, in contrast, now opposed it, realizing that the Bill's adoption would greatly lessen thechances of a second constitutional convention. [55] Anti-Federalists such as Richard Henry Lee also argued thatthe Bill left the most objectionable portions of the Constitution, such as the federal judiciary and direct taxation,intact. [56]

On November 20, 1789, New Jersey ratified eleven of the twelve amendments, rejecting Article II, whichregulated Congressional pay raises. On December 19 and 22, respectively, Maryland and North Carolinaratified all twelve amendments. [57] On January 19, 25, and 28, 1790, respectively, South Carolina, NewHampshire, and Delaware ratified the Bill, though New Hampshire rejected the amendment on Congressional

pay raises, and Delaware rejected Article I, which regulated the size of the House. [57] This brought the total of ratifying states to six of the required ten, but the process stalled in other states: Connecticut and Georgia found aBill of Rights unnecessary and so refused to ratify, while Massachusetts ratified most of the amendments, butfailed to send official notice to the Secretary of State that it had done so. [56][c]

In February through June of 1790, New York, Pennsylvania, and Rhode Island ratified eleven of theamendments, though all three rejected the amendment on Congressional pay raises. Virginia initially postponedits debate, but after Vermont was admitted to the Union in 1791, the total number of states needed for ratification rose to eleven. Vermont ratified on November 3, 1791, approving all twelve amendments, andVirginia finally followed on December 15, 1791. [56] Secretary of State Thomas Jefferson announced theadoption of the ten successfully ratified amendments on March 1, 1792. [58]

Unratified amendments proposed with the Bill of Rights

Article I

Main article: Article the First

After the enumeration required by the first article of the Constitution, there shall be one

Representative for every thirty thousand, until the number shall amount to one hundred, after whichthe proportion shall be so regulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than one hundredRepresentatives, nor less than one representative for every forty thousand persons, until the
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number of Representatives shall amount to two hundred; after which the proportion shall be soregulated by Congress, that there shall be not less than two hundred Representatives, nor morethan one Representative for every fifty thousand persons. [59]

Article I was ratified by ten of fourteen states, but was rejected by Delaware, which favored a small House dueto the state's small population. [60] Despite later ratification by Kentucky (bringing the total to eleven of fifteen),the article has never since received the approval of enough states for it to become part of the Constitution. [54]

Article II

Main article: Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

No law varying the compensation for the services of the Senators and Representatives, shall takeeffect, until an election of Representatives shall have intervened. [59]

Article II was initially ratified by six of fourteen states, but after 1791 did not receive another state ratification for almost a century. In 1873, Ohio's state legislature ratified it in protest of a Congressional pay raise, followedanother century later by Wyoming, which ratified in 1978. Gregory Watson, a Texas undergraduate, launched acampaign in 1982 to complete the ratification process, and by 1992, thirty-eight of the fifty states had ratified.Because of the unusual two-century delay in the process, the amendment's adoption was certified by Archivistof the United States Don W. Wilson and approved by a vote of Congress on May 20, 1992. The article then

became the Twenty-seventh Amendment. [61]

Application

The Bill of Rights had little judicial impact for the first 150 years of its existence; in the words of Gordon S.

Wood, "After ratification, most Americans promptly forgot about the first ten amendments to theConstitution." [62] The Court made no important decisions protecting free speech rights, for example, until1931. [63] Historian Richard Labunski attributes the Bill's long legal dormancy to three factors: first, it took timefor a "culture of tolerance" to develop that would support the Bill's provisions with judicial and popular will;second, the Supreme Court spent much of the 19th century focused on issues relating to intergovernmental

balances of power; and third, the Bill initially only applied to the federal government, a restriction affirmed by Barron v. Baltimore (1833). [64][65][66] In the twentieth century, however, most of the Bill's provisions wereapplied to the states via the Fourteenth Amendmenta process known as incorporationbeginning with thefreedom of speech clause, in Gitlow v. New York (1925). [67] In Talton v. Mayes (1896), the Court ruled that

Constitutional protections, including the provisions of the Bill of Rights, do not apply to the actions of AmericanIndian tribal governments. [68]

First Amendment

Main article: First Amendment to the United States Constitution

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercisethereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably toassemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. [69]

The First Amendment prohibits the making of any law respecting an establishment of religion, impeding the freeexercise of religion, abridging the freedom of speech, infringing on the freedom of the press, interfering with theright to peaceably assemble or prohibiting the petitioning for a governmental redress of grievances. Initially, the
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First Amendment applied only to laws enacted by Congress, and many of its provisions were interpreted morenarrowly than they are today. [70]

In Everson v. Board of Education (1947), the Court drew on Thomas Jefferson's correspondence to call for "a wall of separation between church and State", though the precise boundary of this separation remains indispute. [70] Speech rights were expanded significantly in a series of 20th- and 21st-century court decisions that

protected various forms of political speech, anonymous speech, campaign financing, pornography, and school

speech; these rulings also defined a series of exceptions to First Amendment protections. The Supreme Courtoverturned English common law precedent to increase the burden of proof for defamation and libel suits, mostnotably in New York Times Co. v. Sullivan (1964). [71] Commercial speech is less protected by the FirstAmendment than political speech, and is therefore subject to greater regulation. [70]

The Free Press Clause protects publication of information and opinions, and applies to a wide variety of media.In Near v. Minnesota (1931) [72] and New York Times v. United States (1971), [73] the Supreme Court ruledthat the First Amendment protected against prior restraintpre-publication censorshipin almost all cases. ThePetition Clause protects the right to petition all branches and agencies of government for action. In addition tothe right of assembly guaranteed by this clause, the Court has also ruled that the amendment implicitly protects

freedom of association. [70]

Second Amendment

Main article: Second Amendment to the United States Constitution

A well regulated Militia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people tokeep and bear Arms, shall not be infringed. [69]

The Second Amendment protects the right to keep and bear arms. The right to bear arms predates the Bill of Rights; the Second Amendment was based partially on the right to bear arms in English common law, and wasinfluenced by the English Bill of Rights of 1689. This right was described by Sir William Blackstone as anauxiliary right, supporting the natural rights of self-defense, resistance to oppression, and the civic duty to act inconcert in defense of the state. [citation needed ] Academic inquiry into the purpose, scope, and effect of theamendment has been controversial and subject to numerous interpretations. [74]

In United States v. Cruikshank (1875), the Supreme Court ruled that "[t]he right to bear arms is not granted by the Constitution; neither is it in any manner dependent upon that instrument for its existence. The SecondAmendment means no more than that it shall not be infringed by Congress, and has no other effect than to

restrict the powers of the National Government."[75]

In United States v. Miller (1939), the Court ruled that theamendment "[protects arms that had a] reasonable relationship to the preservation or efficiency of a wellregulated militia". [76]

In District of Columbia v. Heller (2008), the Court ruled that the Second Amendment "codified a pre-existingright" and that it "protects an individual right to possess a firearm unconnected with service in a militia, and to usethat arm for traditionally lawful purposes, such as self-defense within the home" but also stated that "the right isnot unlimited. It is not a right to keep and carry any weapon whatsoever in any manner whatsoever and for whatever purpose". [77] In McDonald v. Chicago (2010), [78] the Court ruled that the Second Amendment limitsstate and local governments to the same extent that it limits the federal government. [79]

Third Amendment

Main article: Third Amendment to the United States Constitution
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No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the Owner,nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. [69]

The Third Amendment restricts the quartering of soldiers in private homes, in response to Quartering Acts passed by the British parliament during the Revolutionary War. The amendment is one of the least controversialof the Constitution, and, as of 2009, has never been the primary basis of a Supreme Court decision. [80][81]

Fourth Amendment Main article: Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, againstunreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon

probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to besearched, and the persons or things to be seized. [69]

The Fourth Amendment guards against unreasonable searches and seizures, along with requiring any warrant to

be judicially sanctioned and supported by probable cause. It was adopted as a response to the abuse of the writof assistance, which is a type of general search warrant, in the American Revolution. Search and seizure(including arrest) must be limited in scope according to specific information supplied to the issuing court, usually

by a law enforcement officer who has sworn by it. The amendment is the basis for the exclusionary rule, whichmandates that evidence obtained illegally cannot be introduced into a criminal trial. [82] The amendment'sinterpretation has varied over time; its protections expanded under left-leaning courts such as that headed byEarl Warren and contracted under right-leaning courts such as that of William Rehnquist. [83]

Fifth Amendment

Main article: Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution

No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or inthe Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subjectfor the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in anycriminal case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, withoutdue process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without justcompensation. [69]

The Fifth Amendment protects against double jeopardy and self-incrimination and guarantees the rights to due process, grand jury screening of criminal indictments, and compensation for the seizure of private property under eminent domain. The amendment was the basis for the court's decision in Miranda v. Arizona (1966), whichestablished that defendants must be informed of their rights to an attorney and against self-incrimination prior tointerrogation by police. [84]

Sixth Amendment

Main article: Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution

In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by animpartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which districtshall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the
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accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. [69]

The Sixth Amendment establishes a number of rights of the defendant in a criminal trial:

The right to a speedy and public trialThe right to trial by an impartial juryThe right to be informed of criminal chargesThe right to confront witnessesThe right to compel witnesses to appear in courtThe right to assistance of counsel [85]

In Gideon v. Wainwright (1963), the Court ruled that the amendment guaranteed the right to legalrepresentation in all felony prosecutions in both state and federal courts. [85]

Seventh Amendment

Main article: Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury, shall be otherwise re-examined in any courtof the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. [69]

The Seventh Amendment guarantees jury trials in federal civil cases that deal with claims of more than twentydollars. It also prohibits judges from overruling findings of fact by juries in federal civil trials. In Colgrove v.

Battin (1973), the Court ruled that the amendment's requirements could be fulfilled by a jury with a minimum of six members. The Seventh is one of the only parts of the Bill of Rights not to be incorporated (applied to thestates). [86]

Eighth Amendment

Main article: Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. [69]

The Eighth Amendment forbids the imposition of excessive bails or fines, though it leaves the term "excessive"open to interpretation. [87]

The most frequently litigated clause of the amendment is the last, which forbids cruel and unusual punishment. [88][89] This clause was only occasionally applied by the Supreme Court prior to the 1970s,generally in cases dealing with means of execution. In Furman v. Georgia (1972), some members of the Courtfound capital punishment itself in violation of the amendment, arguing that the clause could reflect "evolvingstandards of decency" as public opinion changed; others found certain practices in capital trials to beunacceptably arbitrary, resulting in a majority decision that effectively halted executions in the United States for several years. [90] Executions resumed following Gregg v. Georgia (1976), which found capital punishment to

be constitutional if the jury was directed by concrete sentencing guidelines. [90] The Court has also found thatsome poor prison conditions constitute cruel and unusual punishment, as in Estelle v. Gamble (1976). [88]

Ninth Amendment
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Main article: Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution

The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparageothers retained by the people. [69]

The Ninth Amendment protects rights not specifically enumerated by the Constitution. It was rarely cited beforethe second half of the 20th century, when it was used as a partial foundation for the right to privacy in severallandmark cases: Griswold v. Connecticut (1965), which struck down a law banning contraceptives, and Roev. Wade (1973), which established a woman's right to an abortion. In Planned Parenthood v. Casey (1992),the Court used the amendment to strike down part of another abortion law, a case the Encyclopedia of the

merican Constitution describes as "the high-water mark, to date, of judicial willingness to use the NinthAmendment"; between 1992 and 2000, the Court did not refer to the amendment a single time. [91]

Tenth Amendment

Main article: Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution

The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to theStates, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. [69]

The Tenth Amendment states the Constitution's principle of federalism by providing that powers not granted tothe federal government by the Constitution, nor prohibited to the states, are reserved to the states or the people.The amendment provides no new powers or rights to the states, but rather preserves their authority in all mattersnot specifically granted to the federal government. [92]

Display and honoring of the Bill of Rights

George Washington had fourteen handwritten copies of the Bill of Rights made, one for Congress and one for each of the original thirteen states. [93] The copies for Georgia, Maryland, New York, and Pennsylvania wentmissing. The New York copy is thought to have been destroyed in a fire, [94] whereas the Pennsylvania copywas taken by a soldier sometime in April 1865. [95] Two unidentified copies of the missing four (thought to bethe Georgia and Maryland copies) survive; one is in the National Archives, [96][97] and the other is in the NewYork Public Library. [98] North Carolina's copy was stolen by a Union soldier in April 1865 and returned to

North Carolina in 2005 by FBI Special Agent Robert King Wittman. [98][99]

The National Archives and Records Administration copy of the Bill of Rights is on display in the Rotunda for theCharters of Freedom. The Rotunda itself was constructed in the 1950s and dedicated in 1952 by PresidentHarry S. Truman, who said, "Only as these documents are reflected in the thoughts and acts of Americans, canthey remain symbols of power that can move the world. That power is our faith in human liberty". [100]

After fifty years, signs of deterioration in the casing were noted, while the documents themselves appeared to bewell preserved. [101] Accordingly, the casing was updated and the Rotunda rededicated on September 17,2003. In his dedicatory remarks, President George W. Bush stated, "The true [American] revolution was not todefy one earthly power, but to declare principles that stand above every earthly powerthe equality of each

person before God, and the responsibility of government to secure the rights of all." [102] In 1941, President

Franklin D. Roosevelt declared December 15 to be Bill of Rights Day, commemorating the 150th anniversary othe ratification of the Bill of Rights. [103] In 1991, the Virginia copy of the Bill of Rights toured the country inhonor of its bicentennial, visiting the capitals of all fifty states. [104]
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en.wikipedi a.org/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights 13/19

See al so

Bill of Rights InstituteFour FreedomsInst itute of Bill of Rights LawSec ond Bill of RightsTax payer Bill of RightsU.S . Patients' Bill of RightsVir ginia Statute for Religious Freedom

Refer ences

Notes

a. ^ P r obably Robert Yates [13]

b. ^ T he complete text of Madison's proposed amendments is as follows:

First. That there be prefixed to the constitution a declaration That all power is originally vested in,and consequently derived from the people.

That government is instituted, and ought to be exercised for the benefit of the people; whichconsists in the enjoyment of life and liberty, with the right of acquiring and using property, andgenerally of pursuing and obtaining happiness and safety.

That the people have an indubitable, unalienable, and indefeasible right to reform or change their government, whenever it be found adverse or inadequate to the purposes of its institution.

Secondly. That in article 2nd. section 2, clause 3, these words be struck out, to wit, "Thenumber of representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each state shallhave at least one representative, and until such enumeration shall be made." And that in placethereof be inserted these words, to wit, "After the first actual enumeration, there shall be onerepresentative for every thirty thousand, until the number amount to after which the proportionshall be so regulated by congress, that the number shall never be less than nor more than buteach state shall after the first enumeration, have at least two representatives; and prior thereto."

Thirdly. That in article 2nd, section 6, clause 1, there be added to the end of the first sentence,these words, to wit, "But no law varying the compensation last ascertained shall operate beforethe next ensuing election of representatives."

Fourthly. That in article 2nd, section 9, between clauses 3 and 4, be inserted these clauses, towit,The civil rights of none shall be abridged on account of religious belief or worship, nor shallany national religion be established, nor shall the full and equal rights of conscience by in anymanner, or on any pretext infringed

The people shall not be deprived or abridged of their right to speak, to write, or to publish their sentiments; and the freedom of the press, as one of the great bulwarks of liberty, shall beinviolable.

The people shall not be restrained from peaceably assembling and consulting for their commongood, nor from applying to the legislature by petitions, or remonstrances for redress of their

grievances.

The right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed; a well armed, and wellregulated militia being the best security of a free country: but no person religiously scrupulous of

bearing arms, shall be compelled to render military service in person.
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The powers not delegated by this constitution, nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved tothe States respectively.

Ninthly. That article 7th, be numbered as article 8th. [39]

c. ^ All three states would later ratify the Bill of Rights for sesquicentennial celebrations in 1939. [56]

Citations

1. ^ a b c Lloyd, Gordon. "Introduction to the Constitutional Convention"(htt p://ww w.teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/intro.html). Teaching American History. RetrievedOct o ber 6, 2007.

2. ^ S tewart, p. 473. ^ Beeman, p. 59.4. ^ Beeman, p. 341.5. ^ a b Beeman, p. 343.6. ^ R ak ove, p. 3277. ^ a b Stewart, p. 2268. ^ R ak ove, p. 2889. ^ Beeman, p. 363

10. ^ La bunski, p. 2011. ^ La bunski, p. 6312. ^ "Jef ferson's letter to Madison, March 15, 1789" (http://press-

pub s.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch14s49.html). The Founders' Constitution. Retrieved March9, 2 006.

13. ^ Hamilton et al., p. 43614. ^ Br utus, p. 37615. ^ Br utus, p. 37716. ^ R ak ove, p. 325

17. ^ La bunski, p. 6218. ^ a b c Hamilton, Alexander. Federalist Papers , #84. "On opposition to a Bill of Rights." (http://press-

pub s.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss7.html). The Founders' Constitution. University of Chicago Press. Retrieved February 28, 2006.

19. ^ R ak ove, p. 32320. ^ La bunski, pp. 596021. ^ Beeman, p. 38822. ^ Beeman, pp. 38939023. ^ Beeman, p. 39024. ^ a b Maier, p. 431.

25. ^ La bunksi, pp. 11311526. ^ a b Brookhiser, p. 8027. ^ Maier, p. 430.28. ^ Maier, p. 429.29. ^ Maier, p. 433.30. ^ Br ookhiser, p. 7631. ^ La bunski, pp. 159, 17432. ^ La bunski, p. 16133. ^ La bunski, p. 16234. ^ Br ookhiser, p. 7735. ^ La bunski, p. 18836. ^ La bunski, p. 18737. ^ a b Labunski, p. 19238. ^ a b Labunski, p. 19839. ^ "Text of Madison's speech, at the James Madison Center"

(htt : //web.archive.or /web/20050306125448/htt ://www. mu.edu/madison/center/main a es/madison archiv
http://web.archive.org/web/20050306125448/http://www.jmu.edu/madison/center/main_pages/madison_archives/constit_confed/rights/jmproposal/jmspeech.htmhttp://web.archive.org/web/20050306125448/http://www.jmu.edu/madison/center/main_pages/madison_archives/constit_confed/rights/jmproposal/jmspeech.htmhttp://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss7.htmlhttp://press-pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/print_documents/v1ch14s49.htmlhttp://www.teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/intro.html


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en.wikipedi a.or g/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights 16/1 9

_ _ es/c onstit_confed/rights/jmproposal/jmspeech.htm). Archived from the original(htt p://ww w.jmu.edu/madison/center/main_pages/madison_archives/constit_confed/rights/jmproposal/jmspeech.htm) on March 6, 2005. Retrieved February 28, 2006.

40. ^ Labunski, p. 19941. ^ a b Madison introduced "amendments culled mainly from state constitutions and state ratifying convention

pro posals, especially Virginia's." Levy, p. 3542. ^ Virg inia Declaration of Rights (http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/mason.html). Library of

Con gr ess. Accessed July 12, 2013.

43. ^ Labunski, pp. 2030544. ^ Labunski, p. 21545. ^ Labunski, p. 20146. ^ Br ookhiser, p. 8147. ^ Labunski, p. 21748. ^ Labunski, pp. 2182049. ^ Labunski, p. 23550. ^ Labunski, p. 23751. ^ Labunski, p. 22152. ^ Adamson, Barry (2008). Freedom of Religion, the First Amendment, and the Supreme Court: How the Court

Flu nk ed History (http://books.google.com/books?id=Tgw-rCrNYacC&pg=PA93). Pelican Publishing. p. 93.53. ^ Graham, John Remington (2009). Free, Sovereign, and Independent States: The Intended Meaning of the American Constitution (http://books.google.com/books?id=7fOeMT99m44C&pg=PA193). Foreword by LauraTes h. Footnote 54, pp. 193194.

54. ^ a b Wood, p. 6955. ^ Wood, p. 7156. ^ a b c d Levy, Leonard W. (1986). "Bill of Rights (United States)" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-

342 5000220.html). Encyclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Researc h (subscriptionrequ ire d) . Retrieved July 16, 2013.

57. ^ a b Labunski, p. 24558. ^ Labunski, p. 25559. ^ a b Labunski, p. 27860. ^ Amar, pp. 161761. ^ Bernstein, Richard B. (2000). "Twenty-Seventh Amendment" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-


62. ^ Wood, p. 7263. ^ Labunski, p. 25864. ^ Labunski, pp. 2585965. ^ "Bar ron v. Mayor & City Council of Baltimore - 32 U.S. 243 (1833)"

(htt p://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/32/243/case.html). Justia.com. Retrieved July 11, 2013.

66. ^ Levy, Leonard W. (January 1, 2000). "BARRON v. CITY OF BALTIMORE 7 Peters 243 (1833)"(htt p://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000188.html). Encyclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Research (subs cription required) . Retrieved July 11, 2013.

67. ^ Labunski, p. 25968. ^ Deloria, Vine Jr. (2000). "American Indians and the Constitution" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-


69. ^ a b c d e f g h i j "Bill of Rights Transcript"(htt p://ww w.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html). Archives.gov. Retrieved May 15,201 0.

70. ^ a b c d Cox, Archibald (1986). "First Amendment" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000972.html). Enc yclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Research (subs cription required) . Retrieved July16, 2013.

71. ^ N ew York Times Co. v. Sullivan , 376 U.S. 254 (http://supreme.justia.com/us/376/254/case.html) (1964)72. ^ N ear v. Minnesota , 283 U.S. 697 (http://supreme.justia.com/us/283/697/case.html) (1931)73. ^ N ew York Times Co. v. United States , 403 U.S. 713 (http://supreme.justia.com/us/403/713/case.html) (1971)
http://www.npr.org/2013/01/07/168834462/the-2nd-amendment-27-words-endless-interpretationshttp://web.archive.org/web/20050306125448/http://www.jmu.edu/madison/center/main_pages/madison_archives/constit_confed/rights/jmproposal/jmspeech.htmhttp://www.npr.org/2013/01/07/168834462/the-2nd-amendment-27-words-endless-interpretationshttp://supreme.justia.com/us/403/713/case.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Reportshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._United_Stateshttp://supreme.justia.com/us/283/697/case.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Reportshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near_v._Minnesotahttp://supreme.justia.com/us/376/254/case.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Reportshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times_Co._v._Sullivanhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HighBeam_Researchhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000972.htmlhttp://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HighBeam_Researchhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000094.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HighBeam_Researchhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000188.htmlhttp://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/32/243/case.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HighBeam_Researchhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425002577.htmlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HighBeam_Researchhttp://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000220.htmlhttp://books.google.com/books?id=7fOeMT99m44C&pg=PA193http://books.google.com/books?id=Tgw-rCrNYacC&pg=PA93http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/mason.htmlhttp://www.jmu.edu/madison/center/main_pages/madison_archives/constit_confed/rights/jmproposal/jmspeech.htmhttp://web.archive.org/web/20050306125448/http://www.jmu.edu/madison/center/main_pages/madison_archives/constit_confed/rights/jmproposal/jmspeech.htm


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74. ^ Weeks, Linton. The Second Amendment: 27 Words, Endless Interpretations(htt p://www.npr.org/2013/01/07/168834462/the-2nd-amendment-27-words-endless-interpretations). NPR.

75. ^ 92 U.S. 542 (http://supreme.justia.com/us/92/542/case.html) (1875)76. ^ 307 U.S. 174 (http://supreme.justia.com/us/307/174/case.html) (1939)77. ^ 554 U.S. 570 (http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/getcase.pl?

nav by=CASE&court=US&vol=554&page=570) (2008)78. ^ 561 U.S. 3025 (https://supreme.justia.com/us/561/08-1521/index.html) (2010)79. ^ Liptak, Adam (June 28, 2010). "Justices Extend Firearm Rights in 5-to-4 Ruling"

(htt p://www.nytimes.com/2010/06/29/us/29scotus.html?src=me). The New York Times . Retrieved December 17, 2012.

80. ^ Mahoney, Dennis J. (1986). "Third Amendment" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425002516.html). Enc yclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Research (subs cription required) . Retrieved July15, 2013.

81. ^ "Th ird Amendment" (http://ww w.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3048900607.html). U*X*L Encyclopedia of U.S. Hist or y. via HighBeam Researc h (subscription required) . January 1, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2013.

82. ^ "Exclusionary rule" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/197828/exclusionary-rule). Encyclopedia Brit an nica . Retrieved July 15, 2013.

83. ^ "Fourth Amendment" (http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/215219/Fourth-Amendment). Enc yclopedia Britannica . Retrieved July 15, 2013.

84. ^ "Fif th Amendment" (http://ww w.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2588700094.html). Gale Encyclopedia of Everyday Law. via HighBeam Research (subscription required) . January 1, 2006. Retrieved July 15, 2013.

85. ^ a b "The Sixth Amendment" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-2639900006.html). Constitutional Amendments: From Freedom of Speech to Flag Burning . via HighBeam Research (subs cription required) .Jan uary 1, 2008. Retrieved July 15, 2013.

86. ^ Mahoney, Dennis J. (1986). "Seventh Amendment" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425002279.html). Enc yclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Research (subs cription required) . Retrieved July15, 2013.

87. ^ Bessler, p. 19488. ^ a b Krantz, Sheldon (1986). "Cruel and Unusual Punishment" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-

342 5000673.html). Encyclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Researc h (subscriptionrequ ire d) . Retrieved July 16, 2013.89. ^ "U*X*L Encyclopedia of U.S. History" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3048900191.html). UXL

Enc yclopedia of American History . January 1, 2009. Retrieved July 15, 2013.90. ^ a b Weisberg, Robert (1986). "Capital Punishment" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-3425000370.html).

Enc yclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Research (subs cription required) . Retrieved July16, 2013.

91. ^ Barnett, Randy E. (2000). "Ninth Amendment (Update)" (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G2-342 5001775.html). Encyclopedia of the American Constitution . via HighBeam Researc h (subscriptionrequ ire d) . Retrieved July 16, 2013.

92. ^ "Te nth Amendment" (http://ww w.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/587611/Tenth-Amendment).

Enc yclopedia Britannica . Retrieved July 19, 2013.93. ^ F rieden, Terry (March 19, 2003). "FBI recovers original copy of Bill of Rights"

(htt p://ww w.cnn.com/2003/LAW/03/19/bill.of. rights). CNN. Retrieved April 25, 2008.94. ^ "Background on the Bill of Rights and the New York Ratification of the Bill of Rights"

(htt p://www.archives.gov/press/press-releases/2007/nr07-33.html). U.S. National Archives and RecordsAdministration. 2007. Retrieved July 28, 2008.

95. ^ "His tory - History in Custody: The U.S. Marshals Service Takes Possession of North Carolina's Copy of theBill of Rights" (http://ww w.usmarshals.gov/history/north_carolina_bill_of_rights.htm). U.S. Marshals Service.Retrieved June 14, 2013.

96. ^ "Primary Documents in American History: The Bill of Rights"(htt p://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/billofrights.html). The Library of Congress.

97. ^ "His tory of the Bill of Rights" (http://ww w.revolutionary-war-and-beyond.com/history-bill-of-rights.html)Howe ver, the Maryland Archives report that the unknown National Archives copy {pictured above in Wikipediaarticle} is the Maryland Copy}

98. ^ a b "Bill of Rights Returns Home" (http://www.ah.dcr.state.nc.us/archives/news/bill_of_rights1.htm). NorthCar olina Office of Archives and History. 2005. Retrieved April 25, 2008.
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99. ^ "The U.S. Marshals Service Takes Possession of North Carolina's Copy of the Bill of Rights"(htt p://ww w.usmarshals.gov/history/north_carolina_bill_of_rights.htm). U.S. Marshals Service. Retrieved July28, 2008.

100. ^ "Truman's Remarks in the Rotunda, December 1952" (http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/visit/truman_transcript.html). March 14, 2006.

101. ^ Mary Lynn Ritzenthaler and Catherine Nicholson, "A New Era Begins for the Charters of Freedom."(htt p://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_preservation_01.html). March 14,200 6. Prologue , Fall 2003.

102. ^ F or Know-It-Alls (2008). The United States Bill of Rights for Know-It-Alls (http://books.google.com/books?id= 8E_ZKsH47EQC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=President+George+W.+Bush+stated,+%22The+true+%5BAmerica n%5D+revolution+was+not+to+defy+one+earthly+power,+but+to+declare+principles+that+stand+above+ever y+earthly+power%E2%80%94the+equality+of+each+person+before+God,+and+the+responsibility+of+governm ent+to+secure+the+rights+of+all.%22&source=bl&ots=GOYsUPn4ko&sig=MdifJyiMtXs4kuEYiKQHVzUzMVE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uhbgUcPWHqT_4AO53YGIDw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=President%20Geo r ge%20W.%20Bush%20stated%2C%20%22The%20true%20%5BAmerican%5D%20revolution%20was%20no t%20to%20defy%20one%20earthly%20power%2C%20but%20to%20declare%20principles%20that%20stand%20above%20every%20earthly%20power%E2%80%94the%20equality%20of%20each%20person%20befor e%20God%2C%20and%20the%20responsibility%20of%20government%20to%20secure%20the%20rights%20of% 20all.%22&f=false). Filiquarian Publishing, LLC. p. 27. ISBN 1599862255.

103. ^ Gr ier, Peter (December 15, 2009). "Bill of Rights Day: what Obama says about it"(htt p://ww w.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2009/1215/Bill-of-Rights-Day-what-Obama-say s- about-it). Christian Science Monitor . Retrieved July 10, 2013.

104. ^ "Bill of Rights Tour Opens in Kansas City" (http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1908&dat=19910918&id=oxUhAAAAIBAJ&sjid=u9kEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1371,4927894). The Nevada Daily

Mai l . September 18, 1991. Retrieved July 11, 2013.

Bibliograp hy

Am ar, Akhil Reed (1998). The Bill of Rights. Yale University Press.

Beeman, Richard (2009). Plain, Honest Men: The Making of the American Constitution. Random House.Bes sler, John D. (2012). Cruel and Unusual: The American Death Penalty and the Founders' Eighth Amendment. UPNE.Bro okhiser, Richard (2011) James Madison . Basic Books.Bru tus (1787) "To the Citizens of the State of New York". In The Complete Anti-Federalist, Volume 1 (2008).Ed. Herbert J. Storing. University of Chicago Press.Ham ilton, Alexander, Madison, James, and Jay, John (2003) The Federalist: With Letters of Brutus . Ed.Ter ence Ball. Cambridge University Press.Labunski, Richard E. (2006). James Madison and the struggle for the Bill of Rights . Oxford University Press.Levy, Leonard W. (1999). Origins of the Bill of Rights . Yale University Press.Maier, Pauline (2010). Ratif ication: The People Debate the Constitution, 17871788 . Simon and Schuster.

Rak ove, Jack N. (1996). Original Meanings . Alfred A. Knopf.Stew art, David O. (2007). The Summer of 1787 . Simon and Schuster.Wo od, Gordon S. (2009). Empire of Liberty: A History of the Early Republic, 17891815 . Oxford UniversityPre ss .

Furth er reading

Bod enhamer, David J.; James W. Ely (May 2008). The Bill of Rights in modern America(htt p://books.google.com/books?id=YBKAvosk_lcC&pg=PP1). Indiana University Press. ISBN 978-0-253-219 91-6.

Sch wartz, Bernard (January 1, 1992). The great rights of mankind: a history of the American Bill of Rights(htt p://books.google.com/books?id=d52OVwT_6PYC&pg=PP1). Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-945612-28- 5.Smith, Rich (July 2, 2007). The Bill of Rights: Defining Our Freedoms (http://books.google.com/books?id= BqMI9pUbUagC&pg=PP1). ABDO. ISBN 978-1-59928-913-7.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59928-913-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=BqMI9pUbUagC&pg=PP1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-945612-28-5http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=d52OVwT_6PYC&pg=PP1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21991-6http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=YBKAvosk_lcC&pg=PP1http://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=1908&dat=19910918&id=oxUhAAAAIBAJ&sjid=u9kEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1371,4927894http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/DC-Decoder/Decoder-Wire/2009/1215/Bill-of-Rights-Day-what-Obama-says-about-ithttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1599862255http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://books.google.com/books?id=8E_ZKsH47EQC&pg=PA27&lpg=PA27&dq=President+George+W.+Bush+stated,+%22The+true+%5BAmerican%5D+revolution+was+not+to+defy+one+earthly+power,+but+to+declare+principles+that+stand+above+every+earthly+power%E2%80%94the+equality+of+each+person+before+God,+and+the+responsibility+of+government+to+secure+the+rights+of+all.%22&source=bl&ots=GOYsUPn4ko&sig=MdifJyiMtXs4kuEYiKQHVzUzMVE&hl=en&sa=X&ei=uhbgUcPWHqT_4AO53YGIDw&ved=0CC8Q6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=President%20George%20W.%20Bush%20stated%2C%20%22The%20true%20%5BAmerican%5D%20revolution%20was%20not%20to%20defy%20one%20earthly%20power%2C%20but%20to%20declare%20principles%20that%20stand%20above%20every%20earthly%20power%E2%80%94the%20equality%20of%20each%20person%20before%20God%2C%20and%20the%20responsibility%20of%20government%20to%20secure%20the%20rights%20of%20all.%22&f=falsehttp://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/charters_preservation_01.htmlhttp://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/visit/truman_transcript.htmlhttp://www.usmarshals.gov/history/north_carolina_bill_of_rights.htm


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Stair, Nancy L. (January 2003). The Bill of Rights: a primary source investigation into the first tenamendments of the Constitution (http://books.google.com/books?id=V7LnEe0RkCIC&pg=PA53). The RosenPublishing Group. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-8239-3800-1.

External links

National Archives: The full text of the United States Bill of Rights (http://www.archives.gov/national-

archives-experience/charters/bill_of_rights_transcript.html)Footnote.com (partners with the National Archives): Online viewer with High-resolution image of theoriginal document (http://www.footnote.com/viewer.php?image=4346711)Library of Congress: Bill of Rights and related resources(http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/billofrights.html)Alexander Hamilton, Federalist, no. 84, 57581 (http://press-

pubs.uchicago.edu/founders/documents/bill_of_rightss7.html), on opposition to the Bill of RightsTeachingAmericanHistory.org - Bill of Rights (http://teachingamericanhistory.org/bor/)United States Bill of Rights at Project Gutenberg

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