united states army - mountain operations

8/6/2019 United States Army - Mountain Operations

1/135

FM 3-97.6 90-6

MOUNTAINO PERA TIO NS

NOVEM BER 2000

H EADQ UARTERS D EPARTM ENT O F TH E ARM Y

D ISTR IB UTIO N R EST RIC TIO N: A pproved for public release; distribution is unlim ited.


2/135


3/135

F ie ld M a nu alNo. 3-97.6

Chapter 1

FM 3-97.6Headquarters

D epartm ent of the A rm yWashing to n, D C, 2 8 N ove mber 2 00 0

Mounta in Opera tions

ContentsPage

PREFACE vINTRODUCTION vi

INTELLIGENCE 1-1

Section I - The Phys ical Envi ronment 1-1

Terrain 1-2

W eather 1-5

S ec tio n 11- E ffec ts o n Personnel 1-9

Nutrition 1-10

Altitude 1-11

Cold 1-14Section I II - E ff ec ts o n E q uip m en t 1-15

General Effects 1-15

Small Arm s 1-16

Machine Guns 1-16

Antitank W eapons 1-17

S ec tio n IV - R ec on na is sa nc e an d Surveillance 1-17

Reconnaissance 1-17

Surveillance 1-20

D IS TR IB UT IO N R ES TR IC TIO N: A ppro ved for public release ; distribu tion un lim ited.

*This publication supersedes FM 90-6, 30 June 1980.


4/135

F M 3 -9 7. 6

Chapter 2

C hapter 3

ii

COMM ANDAND CONTROL 2-1

Section 1- Assessment of the Situation 2-3

Mission 2-4Enemy 2-5

Terrain and W eather 2-5

Troops and Support Available 2-8

Time Available 2-9

CivilConsiderations 2-9

Sec tion I I- Leadersh ip 2-10Section III- Communications 2-11

Combat Net Radio 2-11

Mobile Subscriber Equipment 2-13

W ire and Field Phones 2-13

Audio, Visual, and Physical Signals 2-14

Messenger 2-14

Sec tion IV- Tra in ing 2-15InitialTraining Assessment 2-16

Physical Conditioning 2-16

Mountain Living 2-17

Navigation 2-18

W eapons and Equipment 2-18

Camouflage and Concealment 2-18Fortifications 2-19

MilitaryMountaineering 2-19

Driver Training 2-22Army Aviation 2-23

Reconnaissance and Surveillance 2-23

Team Development 2-23

FIREPOW ER AND PROTECTION OF THE FORCE 3-1

Section I - Firepower 3-1

Field Artillery 3-1Mortars 3-5

Air Support 3-6

Electronic W arfare 3-7

Section 11- Protection of the Force 3-7

Air Defense Artillery 3-7


5/135

Mounta in Opera tions

C ha pte r 4

C ha pte r 5

Engineer Operations 3-9

NBC Protection 3-10

MANEUVER ~1

S ec tio n 1 - M ov em en t a nd M ob ility 4-2

Mounted Movement 4-3

Dism ounted M ovement 4-7

Mobility 4-8

Special Purpose Teams 4-1 0

Section II - Offensive Operat ions 4-16

Planning Considerations 4-16

Preparation 4-17

Form s of Maneuver 4-18

Movement to Contact 4-19

Attack 4-20

Exploitation and Pursuit 4-22

Motti Tactics 4-23

Section 111- Defensive Operations 4-25

Planning Considerations 4-25

Preparation 4-26

Organization of the Defense 4-27

Reverse Slope Defense 4-29

Retrograde Operations 4-30Stay-Behind Operations 4-31

L OG IS TIC S A ND C OM B AT S ERVIC ESUPPORT 5-1

S ec tio n 1 - P la nn in g Considerations 5-3

S ec tio n 11- S up ply 5-5

Supply Routes 5-6

Classes of Supply 5-7

Sect ion 111-Transportat ion and Main tenance 5-9

S ec tio n IV - P ers on ne l S up po rt 5-10

Section V - C o mb at H ea lt h S u pp or t 5-11Planning 5-11

Evacuation 5-12

Mountain Evacuation Team s 5-12

Treatm ent 5-13

iii


6/135

FM 3-97.6

Appendix A

Appendix B

iv

M O UN TA IN IL LN ES SE S A ND IN JU RIE S A-1

Chronic Fatigue Energy Depletion A-1

Dehydration A-2

Giardiasis Parasit ical I llness A-2

Hypoxia A-3

A cu te M o un ta in S ic kn es s A M S A -3

H ig h A ltitu de P ulm o na ry E de m a H A PE A -4

H ig h A ltitu de C er eb ra l E de m a H A CE A -4

F OR EC AS TIN G W E AT HE R IN T HE M O UN TA IN S B-1

Indicators of Changing W eather B-1

Applying the Indicators B-4

GLOSSARY Glossary-1

BIBLiOGRAPHY Bibliography-1

INDEX Index-1


7/135

Preface

FM 3-97.6 describes the tactics, techniques, and procedures that the United States (US) Armyuses to fight in mountainous regions. It is directly linked to doctrinal principles found in FM 3-0and FM 3-100.40 and should be used in conjunction with them. It provides key information andconsiderations for com manders and staffs regarding how mountains affect personnel, equipm ent,and operations. It also assists them in planning, preparing, and executing operations, battles,and engagem ents in a mountainous environm ent.

Army units do not routinely train for operations in a mountainous environment. Therefore,commanders and trainers at all levels should use this manual in conjunction with TC 90-6-1,Army Training and Evaluation Program (ARTEP) mission training plans, and the trainingprinciples in FM 7-0 and FM 7-10 when preparing to conduct operations in mountainous terrain.

The proponent of this publication is Headquarters TRADOC. Send comments andrecommendations on DA Form 2028 directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Center

and Fort Leavenworth, ATTN: ATZL-SW W, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027-6900.Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusivelyto m en.

v


8/135

Introduction

The US Army has a global area of responsibility and deploys to accomplish missions in bothviolent and nonviolent environments. The contemporary strategic environment and the scope ofUS commitment dictate that the US Army be prepared for a wide range of contingenciesanywhere in the world, from the deserts of southwest Asia and the jungles of South America andsoutheast Asia to the Korean Peninsula and central and northern Europe. The multiplicity ofpossible missions makes the likelihood of US involvement in mountain operations extremelyhigh. W ith approximately 38 percent of the world s landmass classified as mountains, the Armymust be prepared to deter conflict, resist coercion, and defeat aggression in mountains as in otherareas.

Throughout the course of history, armies have been significantly affected by the requirement tofight in mountains. During the 1982 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) W ar, the first British soldier toset foot on enemy-held territory on the island of South Georgia did so on a glacier. A 3,000-meter(lO,OOO-foot) peak crowns the island, and great glaciers descend from the mountain spine. In

southwest Asia, the borders of Iraq, Iran, and Turkey come together in mountainous terrain withelevations of up to 3,000 meters (10,000 feet).

Mountainous terrain influenced the outcome of many battles during the Iran-Iraq war of the1980s. In the mountains of Kurdistan, small Kurdish formations took advantage of the terrain inan attempt to survive the Iraqi Army s attempt to eliminate them. In the wake of the successfulUnited Nations (UN) coalition effort against Iraq, US forces provided humanitarian assistance toKurdish people suffering from the effects of the harsh mountain clim ate.

Major mountain ranges, which are found in desert regions, jungles, and cold climate zones,present many challenges to military operations. M ountain operations may require specialequipm ent, special training, and acclim atization. Historically, the focus of mountain operationshas been to control the heights or passes. Changes in weaponry, equipment, and technology havenot significantly shifted this focus. Commanders should understand a broad range of differentrequirements imposed by mountain terrain, including two key characteristics addressed in thism anual: (1) the significant im pact of severe environmental conditions on the capabilities of unitsand their equipm ent, and (2) the extreme difficulty of ground m obility in mountainous terrain.

vi


9/135

Chapter 1

Intelligence

~

Before they can understand how to fight in mountainous environment,commanders must analyze the area of operations (AD), understand itsdistinct characteristics, and understand how these characteristics affectpersonnel and equipment. This chapter provides detailed information onterrain and weather necessary to conduct a thorough intelligence prepa-ration of the battlefield (IPB), however, the IPBprocess rem ains unaf-fected by mountains (see FM 2-01.3 for detailed information on how tocon duct IP B).

SECTION I - T H E P H YS IC A LENVIRONMENT

1-1. The requirement toconduct military opera-tions in mountainousregions presents com-manders with chal-lenges distinct fromthose encountered inless rugged environ-ments and demands in-creased perseverance,strength, will, andcourage. Terrain char-acterized by steepslopes, great variationsin local relief, naturalobstacles, and lack of

CONTENTS

Section 1- The Physical Environment 1-1Terrain 1-2W eather 1-5

Section II - Effects on PersonneL 1-9Nutrition 1-10Altitude 1-11Cold 1-14

Section 111-Effects on Equipment 1-15General Effects 1-15Small Arms 1-16Machine Guns 1-16AntitankWeapons 1-17

S ec tio n IV - R ec on na iss an ce a ndSurveilIance 1-17Reconnaissance 1-17SurveilIance 1-20

1-1


10/135

FM 3-97.6

accessible routes restricts mobility, drastically increases movement times,limits the effectiveness of some weapons, and complicates supply operations.The weather, variable with the season and time of day, combined with the

terrain, can greatly affect mobility and tactical operations. Even under non-violent conditions, operations in a mountainous environment may pose sig-nificant risks and dangers.

TERRAIN1-2. Mountains may rise abruptly from the plains to form a giant barrier orascend gradually as a series of parallel ridges extending unbroken for greatdistances. They may consist of varying combinations of isolated peaks,rounded crests, eroded ridges, high plains cut by valleys, gorges, and deep ra-vines. Some mountains, such as those found in desert regions, are dry andbarren, with temperatures ranging from extreme heat in the summer to ex-treme cold in the winter. In tropical regions, lush jungles with heavy seasonal

rains and little temperature variation frequently cover mountains. High,rocky crags with glaciated peaks and year-round snow cover exist in moun-tain ranges at most latitudes along the western portion of the Americas andin Asia. No matter what form mountains take, their common denominator isru gg ed te rr ain .

MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS

1-3. The principal mountain ranges of the world lie along the broad beltsshown in Figure 1-1. Calledcordillera, after the Spanish word for rope, theyencircle the Pacific basin and then lead westward across Eurasia into NorthMrica. Secondary, though less rugged, chains of mountains lie along the At-lantic margins of Am erica and Europe.

Figure 1-1. M ountain Regions of the World

1-2


11/135

Chapter 1

1-4. A broad mountainous region approximately 1,600 kilometers wide domi-nates northwestern North America. It occupies much of Alaska, more than aquarter of Canada and the US, and all but a small portion of M exico and Cen-

tral America. The Rocky Mountain Range includes extensive high plains andbasins. Numerous peaks in this belt rise above 3,000 meters (10,000 feet). Itsclimate varies from arctic cold to tropical heat, with the full range of seasonalan d lo cal ex trem es.

1-5. Farther south, the Andes stretch as a continuous narrow band along thewestern region of South America. Narrower than its counterpart in the north,this range is less than 800 kilometers wide. However, it continuously exceedsan elevation of 3,000 meters (10,000 feet) for a distance of 3,200 kilometers.

1-6. In its western extreme, the Eurasian mountain belt includes the Pyren-ees, Alps, Balkans, and Carpathian ranges of Europe. These loosely linkedsystems are separated by broad low basins and are cut by numerous valleys.The Atlas Mountains of North Mrica are also a part of this belt. Moving

eastward into Asia, this system becomes more complex as it reaches the ex-treme heights of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. Just beyond thePamirKnot on the Russian-Mghan frontier, it begins to fan out across all parts ofeastern Asia. Branches of this belt continue south along the rugged islandchains to New Zealand and northeast through the Bering Sea to Alaska.

M OU NTAIN C HA RA CT ER IST IC S

1-7. M ountain slopes generally vary between 15 and 45 degrees. Cliffs andother rocky precipices may be near vertical, or even overhanging. Aside fromobvious rock formations and other local vegetation characteristics, actualslope surfaces are usually found as some type of relatively firm earth orgrass. Grassy slopes may include grassy clumps known astussocks, short al-

pine grasses, or tundra (the latter more common at higher elevations andlatitudes). Many slopes will be scattered with rocky debris deposited from thehigher peaks and ridges. Extensive rock or boulder fields are known astalus.Slopes covered with smaller rocks, usually fist-sized or smaller, are calledscree fields. Slopes covered in talus often prove to be a relatively easy ascentroute. On the other hand, climbing a scree slope can be extremely difficult, asthe sm all rocks tend to loosen easily and give way. However, this characteris-tic often makes scree fields excellent descent routes. Before attempting to de-scend scree slopes, commanders should carefully analyze the potential forcreating dangerous rockfall and take necessary avoidance m easures.

1-8. In winter, and at higher elevations throughout the year, snow may blan-ket slopes, creating an environment with its own distinct affects. Some snowconditions can aid travel by covering rough terrain with a consistent surface.Deep snow, however, greatly impedes movement and requires soldiers well-trained in using snowshoes, skis, and over-snow vehicles. Steep snow coveredterrain presents the risk of snow avalanches as well. Snow can pose a seriousthreat to soldiers not properly trained and equipped for movement undersuch conditions. Avalanches have taken the lives of more soldiers engaged inmountain warfare than all other terrain hazards combined.

1-9. Commanders operating in arctic and subarctic mountain regions, as wellas the upper elevations of the world s high mountains, may be confronted

1-3


12/135

Level Description

I T he b otto ms o f va lle ys a nd m ainl ines of communica tions

II T he rid ge s, s lo pe s, a nd p as se s th atoverlook valleys

III T he d om in an t te rra in o f th e s um m itregion

F M 3 -9 7.6

with vast areas of glaciation. Valleys in these areas are frequently buried un-der massive glaciers and present additional hazards, such as hidden crevicesand ice and snow avalanches. The mountain slopes of these peaks are often

glaciated and their surfaces are generally composed of varying com binationsof rock, snow, and ice. Although glaciers have their own peculiar hazards re-quiring special training and equipment, movement over valley glaciers is of-ten the safest route through these areas (TC 90-6-1 contains more informa-tion on avalanches and glaciers, and their effects on operations).

M O UN TA IN C LA SS IF IC AT IO NS

1-10. There is no simple system available to classify mountain environments.Soil composition, surface configuration, elevation, latitude, and clim atic pat-terns determine the specific characteristics of each major mountain range.W hen alerted to the potential requirement to conduct mountain operations,commanders must carefully analyze each of these characteristics for the spe-cific mountain region in which their forces will operate. However, m ountainsare generally classified or described according to their local relief; for m ilitarypurposes, they may be classified according to operational terrain levels anddism ounted m obility and skill requirem ents.

L ocal R elief

1-11. Mountains are commonly classified as low or high, depending on theirlocal relief and, to some extent, elevation. Low mountains have a local reliefof 300 to 900 meters (1,000 to 3,000 feet) with summits usually below thetimberline. High mountains have a local relief usually exceeding 900 meters(3,000 feet) and are characterized by barren alpine zones above the timber-line. Glaciers and perennial snow cover are common in high mountains andusually present commanders with more obstacles and hazards to movement

than do low m ountains.

Operational Terrain Levels

1-12. Mountain operations aregenerally carried out at threedifferent operational terrainlevels (see Figure 1-2). Level Iterrain is located at the bottomof valleys and along the mainlines of communications. Atthis level, heavy forces canoperate, but maneuver space is

often restricted. Light andheavy forces are normally combined, since vital lines of communication usu-ally follow the valley highways, roads, and trails.

1-13. Level II terrain lies between valleys and shoulders of mountains. Gen-erally, narrow roads and trails, which serve as secondary lines of comm unica-tion, cross this ridge system. Ground mobility is difficult and light forces willexpend great effort on these ridges, since they can easily influence operationsat LevelL Similarly, enemy positions at the next level can threaten opera-tions on these ridges.

F ig ure 1 -2 . O pera tio na l Terra in L ev els

1-4


13/135

ClassI

TerrainI

M ob ility R e-

I

Skill Level Required*quirements

1 Gentler s lopes / Walk ing techniques Unskilledtrails with some assi stance

2Steeper/rugged

S om e use of handsan d

terrain Basic Mountaineers

3 Easy climbing F ix ed r op es w h er e Basic MountaineersexposedSteep/exposed

w i th a ss is ta nc e fr om a ss au lt4

climbinqFixed ropes required climbers

5 Near vertical Technical cl imbing Assault Climbersrequired* S ee C ha pt er 2 fo r a d is cu ss io n o f m o un ta in ee rin g s kill le ve ls

Chapter 1

1-14. Level III includes the dominant terrain of summit regions. Althoughsummit regions may contain relatively gentle terrain, mobility in Level III isusually the most difficult to achieve and maintain. Level III terrain, however,

can provide opportunities for well-trained units to attack the enemy from theflanks and rear. At this terrain level, acclimatized soldiers with advancedmountaineering training can infiltrate to attack lines of communication, lo-gistics bases, air defense sites, and com mand infrastructures.

Dism ounted M obility C lassification

1-15. W hen conducting mountain operations, commanders must clearly un-derstand the effect the operational terrain level has on dismounted move-ment. Therefore, in addition to the general mobility classification containedin FM 2-01.3 (unrestricted, restricted, severely restricted), m ountainous ter-rain may be categorized into five classes based on the type of individualmovement skill required (see Figure 1-3). Operations conducted in class 1 and2 terrain require little to no mountaineering skills. Operations in class 3, 4,and 5 terrain require a higher level of mountaineering skills for safe and effi-cient movement. Commanders should plan and prepare for mountain opera-tions based, in large part, on this type of terrain analysis.

Figure 1-3. D is m ou nte d M o bilit y C la ss ific atio n

W E T H E R

1-16. In general, mountain climates tend to be cooler, wetter versions of theclimates of the surrounding lowlands. M ost mountainous regions exhibit atleast two different climatic zones - a zone at low elevations and another atelevations nearer the summit regions. In some areas, an almost endless vari-

ety of local climates may exist within a given m ountainous region. Conditionschange markedly with elevation, latitude, and exposure to atmospheric windsand air masses. In addition, the climatic patterns of two ranges located at thesam e latitude m ay differ radically.

1-17. Like most other landforms, oceans influence mountain climates. Moun-tain ranges in close proximity to oceans and other large bodies of water usu-ally exhibit a m aritim e clim ate. M aritime climates generally produce mildertemperatures and much larger amounts of rain and snow. Their relativelymild winters produce heavy snowfalls, while their summer temperatures

1-5


14/135

FM 3-97.6

rarely get excessively hot. Mountains farther inland usually display a morec on tin en ta l c lim a te . W inters in this type climate are often bitterly cold, whilesummers can be extremely hot. Annual rain- and snowfall here is far less

than in a maritime climate and may be quite scarce for long periods. Rela-tively shallow snow-packs are normal during a continental climate s winterseason.

1-18. Major mountain ranges force air masses and storm systems to drop sig-nificant amounts of rain and snow on the windward side of the range. As airmasses pass over mountains, the leeward slopes receive far less precipitationthan the windward slopes. It is not uncommon for the climate on the wind-ward side of a mountain range to be humid and the climate on the leewardside arid. This phenomenon affects coastal mountains, as well as mountainsfarther inland. The deepest winter snow-packs will almost always be found onthe windward side of mountain ranges. As a result, vegetation and forestcharacteristics may be markedly different between these two areas. Prevail-ing winds and storm patterns normally determine the severity of these ef-fects.

1-19. Mountain weather can be erratic, varying from strong winds to calm,and from extreme cold to relative warmth within a short time or a minor shiftin locality. The severity and variance of the weather require soldiers to beprepared for alternating periods of heat and cold, as well as conditions rang-ing from dry to extremely wet. At higher elevations, noticeable temperaturedifferences may exist between sunny and shady areas or between areas ex-posed to wind and those protected from it. This greatly increases every sol-dier s clothing load and a unit s overall logistical requirements. Figure 1-4summarizes the effects of mountain weather discussed below. FM 2-33.201and FM 3-97.22 contain additional information on how weather affects opera-tions.

TEMPERATURE

1-20. Normally, soldiers encounter a temperature drop of three to five de-grees Fahrenheit per 300-meter (l,OOO-foot) gain in elevation. In an atmos-phere containing considerable water vapor, the temperature drops about onedegree Fahrenheit for every 100-meter (300-foot) increase. In very dry air, itdrops about one degree Fahrenheit for every 50 meters (150 feet). However,on cold, clear, and calm mornings, when a troop movement or climb beginsfrom a valley, soldiers may encounter higher temperatures as they gain ele-vation. This reversal of the normal situation is called temperature inversion.Additionally, during winter months, the temperature is often higher during astorm than during periods of clear weather. However, the dampness of pre-

cipitation and penetration of the wind may still cause soldiers to chill faster.This is compounded by the fact that the cover afforded by vegetation oftendoes not exist above the tree-line. Under these conditions, commanders mustweigh the tactical advantage of retaining positions on high ground againstseeking shelter and warm th at lower elevations with reduced visibility.

1-21. At high elevations, there may be differences of 40 to 50 degrees Fahr-enheit between the temperature in the sun and that in the shade. This issimilar in magnitude to the day-to-night temperature fluctuations experi-enced in some deserts (see FM 3-97.3). Besides permitting rapid heating, the

1-6


15/135

Wea th er C on ditio n I Flat to M od erate Terrain E ffects I A dd ed M ou nta in E ffe cts. In cre as ed ris k o f s un bu rn a nd

. Sunburn snow blindnessSunshine

. S no w b lin dn es s . Severe, unexpec ted tempera-

. Temperature d iffe rences be tween tu re v aria tio ns b etw ee n s un a ndsu n a nd s ha de shade

. Avalanches

. In cre as ed ris k a nd s ev erity o fwindchill

Wind . Windchill . B lo win g d eb ris o r d riv en s no wcaus ing reduced vis ib il ity

. Avalanches

. Landslides. Reduced visibi li tyRain . Flash floods. Cooler temperatures . Avalanches. Cold weather injur ies . In cre as ed ris k a nd s ev erity o f

Snow. Reduced mobili ty and vis ib il ity c om m o n e ff ec ts. Snow blindness Avalanches. BlowinQ snow

. Extended dura tion and intens ity. Rain/snow grea tly affec ting vis ib il ity and

Storms . Reduced visibi li ty mobility. Lightning . E xt re m ely h ig h w in ds

. AvalanchesFog Reduced mobility/visibility

. In cr ea se d fr eq ue n cy a nd d ur a-.tion

Cloudiness. G re at ly d ec re as ed v is ib ility a t. Redu ce d v is ib il it y

hiQher e levations

C ha pte r 1

clear air at high altitudes also results in rapid cooling at night. Consequently,tem peratures rise swiftly after sunrise and drop quickly after sunset. Much ofthe chilled air drains downward so that the differences between day and

night temperatures are greater in valleys than on slopes.

F ig ur e 1 -4 . C om p ar is on o f We at he r E ff ec ts

WIND

1-22. In high mountains, the ridges and passes are seldom calm . By contrast,strong winds in protected valleys are rare. Norm ally, wind velocity increaseswith altitude and is intensified by mountainous terrain. Valley breezes m ov-ing up-slope are m ore com mon in the m orning, while descending m ountainbreezes are m ore comm on in the evening. W ind speed increases when windsare forced over ridges and peaks orographic lifting , or when they funnel

through narrowing m ountain valleys, passes, and canyons Venturi effect .W ind m ay blow with great force on an exposed mountainside or summ it. Aswind speed doubles, its force on an object nearly quadruples.

1-23. Mountain winds cause rapid temperature changes and m ay result inblowing snow, sand, or debris that can impair movem ent and observation.Com manders should routinely consider the combined cooling effect of ambi-ent tem perature and wind windchill experienced by their soldiers see Fig-ure 1-5 on page 1-8 . At higher elevations, air is considerably dryer than airat sea level. Due to this increased dryness, soldiers m ust increase their fluid

1- 7


16/135

WIND SPEED COOLING POWER OF WIND EXPRESSED AS EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE

KNOTS MPH TEMPERATURE (F)

CALM CALM 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 -0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60

E Q UI VA L EN T C HI LL T EM P ER ATU R E

3-6 5 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60 -70

7-10 10 30 20 15 10 5 0 -10 -15 -20 -25 -35 -40 -45 -50 -60 -65 -70 -75 -80 -90 -95

11-15 15 25 15 10 0 -5 -10 -20 -25 -30 -40 -45 -50 -60 -65 -70 -80 -85 -90 -100 -105 -110

16-19 20 20 10 5 0 -10 -15 -25 -30 -35 -45 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -120

20-23 25 15 10 0 -5 -15 -20 -30 -35 -45 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90 -95 -105 -110 -120 -125 -135

~24-2830 10 5 0 -10 -20 -25 -30 -40 -50 -55 -65 -70 -80 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -125 -130 -140

29-32 35 10 5 -5 -10 -20 -30 -35 -40 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90 -100 -105 -115 -120 -130 -135 -145

33-36 40 10 0 -5 -15 -20 -30 -35 -45 -55 -60 -70 -75 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -125 -130 -140 -150

W IN DS A BO VE40 HAVE LITTLE D ANGER INCREASING DANGER GREAT D ANGER

LITTLE F le sh m ay fre ez e w ithin 1 m inu te F les h m ay free ze w ith in 30 se esADDITIONAL

EFFECT

F M 3 -9 7. 6

intake by approximately one-third. However, equipment will not rust asquickly, and organic m atter will decompose m ore slowly.

F ig ure 1 -5 . Win dc hill C ha rt

PRECIPIT TION

1-24. The rapid rise of air masses over mountains creates distinct localweather patterns. Precipitation in mountains increases with elevation andoccurs more often on the windward than on the leeward side of ranges.M aximum cloudiness and precipitation generally occur near 1,800 meters(6,000 feet) elevation in the middle latitudes and at lower levels in the higherlatitudes. Usually, a heavily wooded belt marks the zone of maximum precipi-tation.

Rain and Snow

1-25. Both rain and snow are common in mountainous regions. Rain presentsthe same challenges as at lower elevations, but snow has a more significantinfluence on all operations. Depending on the specific region, snow may occurat anytime during the year at elevations above 1,500 meters (5,000 feet).Heavy snowfall greatly increases avalanche hazards and can force changes to

previously selected movement routes. In certain regions, the intensity ofsnowfall may delay major operations for several months. Dry, flat riverbedsmay initially seem to be excellent locations for assembly areas and supportactivities, however, heavy rains and rapidly thawing snow and ice may createflash floods many miles downstream from the actual location of the rain orsnow.

1-8


17/135

Chapter

T h u n d e r s t o r m s

1-26. Although thunderstorms are local and usually last only a short time,

they can impede mountain operations. Interior ranges with continental cli-mates are more conducive to thunderstorms than coastal ranges with mari-time climates. In alpine zones, driving snow and sudden wind squalls oftenaccompany thunderstorms. Ridges and peaks become focal points for light-ning strikes, and the occurrence of lightning is greater in the summer thanthe winter. Although statistics do not show lightning to be a major mountain-eering hazard, it should not be ignored and soldiers should take normal pre-cautions, such as avoiding summits and ridges, water, and contact with metalobjects.

Traveling Storm s

1-27. Storms resulting from widespread atmospheric disturbances involvestrong winds and heavy precipitation and are the most severe weather condi-tion that occurs in the mountains. If soldiers encounter a traveling storm inalpine zones during winter, they should expect low temperatures, high winds,and blinding snow. These conditions may last several days longer than in thelowlands. Specific conditions vary depending on the path of the storm. How-ever, when colder weather moves in, clearing at high elevations is usuallyslow.

Fo g

1-28. The effects of fog in mountains are much the same as in other terrain.However, because of the topography, fog occurs more frequently in the moun-tains. The high incidence of fog makes it a significant planning considerationas it restricts visibility and observation complicating reconnaissance and sur-

veillance. However, fog m ay help facilitate covert operations such as infiltra-tion. Routes in areas with a high occurrence of fog may need to be markedand charted to facilitate passage.

SECTION II - E FFE CT S O N PE RSO NN EL

1-29. The mountain environment is complex and unforgiving of errors. Sol-diers conducting operations anywhere, even under the best conditions, be-come cold, thirsty, tired, and energy-depleted. In the mountains however,they may become paralyzed by cold and thirst and incapacitated due to utterexhaustion. Conditions such as high elevations, rough terrain, and extrem elyunpredictable weather require leaders and soldiers who have a keen under-standing of environmental threats and what to do about them.

1-30. A variety of individual soldier characteristics and environmental condi-tions influence the type, prevalence, and severity of mountain illnesses andinjuries (see Figure 1-6 on page 1-10). Due to combinations of these charac-teristics and conditions, soldiers often succumb to more than one illness orinjury at a time, increasing the danger to life and limb. Three of the mostcommon, cumulative, and subtle factors affecting soldier ability under thesevariable conditions are nutrition (to include water intake), decreased oxygendue to high altitude, and cold. Preventive measures, early recognition, and

1-9


18/135

F M 3 -9 7. 6

NUTRITION

1-10

rapid treatment helpminimize nonbattlecasualties due to these

conditions (see A ppen-dix A for detailed in-formation on moun-tain-specific illnessesand injur ies) .

AG E

FATIGUE

, J N UT RIT IO N A ND A CT IV IT YRACE AND AREA OF ORIGIN

T RA IN IN G A ND E XP ER IE NC E

1-31. Poor nutritioncontributes to illnessor injury, decreasedperformance, poor mo-ra le , a nd su sc ep tib ility

to cold injuries, andcan severely affectmilitary operations.Influences at high alti-tudes that can affect nutrition include a dulled taste sensation (making foodundesirable), nausea, and lack of energy or motivation to prepare or eatmeals.

U SE O F M ED IC AT IO NS

M ED IC AL H IST OR Y

F ig ure 1 -6 . E nv iro nm en ta l a nd S old ie r C on ditio nsIn flu en cin g M o un ta in In ju rie s a nd Illn esse s

1-32. Caloric requirements increase in the mountains due to both the altitudeand the cold. A diet high in fat and carbohydrates is important in helping thebody fight the effects of these conditions. Fats provide long-term, slow caloricrelease, but are often unpalatable to soldiers operating at higher altitudes.Snacking on high-carbohydrate foods is often the best way to maintain thecalo ries n ece ssary to fu nc tio n.

1-33. Products that can seriously impact soldier performance in mountaino pe ra tio ns in clu de :

. Tobacco. Tobacco smoke interferes with oxygen delivery by reducingthe blood s oxygen-carrying capacity. Tobacco smoke in close, confinedspaces increases the amounts of carbon monoxide. The irritant effect oftobacco smoke may produce a narrowing of airways, interfering withoptim al air m ovement. Smoking can effectively raise the physiologicalaltitude a s m uch as several hundred m eters.

. Alcohol. Alcohol im pairs judgem ent and perception, depresses respira-tion, causes dehydration, and increases susceptibility to cold injury.

.Caffeine. Caffeine may improve physical and mental performance, butit also causes increased urination (leading to dehydration) and, there-fore, should be consum ed in m oderation.

1-34. Significant body water is lost at higher elevations from rapid breathing,perspiration, and urination. Depending upon level of exertion, each soldiershould consume about four to eight quarts of water or other decaffeinatedfluids per day in low mountains and may need ten quarts or more per day inhigh mountains. Thirst is not a good indicator of the amount of water lost,


19/135

Altitude I Meters I Feet I EffectsLo w Sea Level - 1,500 Sea Level - 5,000 None.

Moderate 1,500 - 2,400 5,000 - 8,000M ild , te mp ora ry a ltitu de s ic k-

ness m ay occurA ltitude sickness and de-

High 2,400 - 4,200 8,000 - 14,000 creased perform ance is in-c re as in qlv c om m on

A ltitude sickness and de-Very H igh 4,200 - 5,400 14,000 - 18,000 creased perform ance is the

ruleWit h a cc lim at iz atio n, s old ie rs

Extreme 5,400 - Higher 18,000 - Higher can functio n for short periodsof ti m e

Chapter 1

ALTITUDE

and in cold climates sweat, normally an indicator of loss of fluid, goes unno-ticed. Sweat evaporates so rapidly or is absorbed so thoroughly by clothinglayers that it is not readily apparent. W hen soldiers become thirsty, they

are already dehydrated. Loss of body water also plays a major role incausing altitude sickness and cold injury. Forced drinking in the absence ofthirst, monitoring the deepness of the yellow hue in the urine, and watchingfor behavioral symptoms common to altitude sickness are important factorsfor commanders to consider in assessing the water balance of soldiers oper-ating in the m ountains.

1-35. In the m ountains, as elsewhere, refilling each soldier s water containersas often as possible is mandatory. No matter how pure and clean mountainwater may appear, water from natural sources should always be purified orchem ically sterilized to prevent parasitical illnesses (giardiasis). C om mand-ers should consider requiring the increased use of individual packages ofpowdered drink mixes, fruit, and juices to help encourage the required fluid

intake.

1-36. As soldiers ascend in altitude, the proportion of oxygen in the air de-creases. W ithout proper acclim atization, this decrease in oxygen saturationcan cause altitude sickness and reduced physical and mental performance(see Figure 1-7). Soldiers cannot maintain the same physical performance athigh altitude that they can at low altitude, regardless of their fitness level.

F igu re 1-7. E ffects of A ltitu de

1-37. The mental effects most noticeable at high altitudes include decreasedperception, memory, judgement, and attention. Exposure to altitudes of over3,000 meters (10,000 feet) may also result in changes in senses, mood, andpersonality. W ithin hours of ascent, many soldiers m ay experience euphoria,joy, and excitement that are likely to be accompanied by errors in judgement,leading to mistakes and accidents. Mter a period of about 6 to 12 hours,euphoria decreases, often changing to varying degrees of depression. Soldiersmay become irritable or may appear listless. Using the buddy system duringthis early exposure helps to identify soldiers who may be more severely af-fected. High m orale and esprit instilled before deploym ent and reinforced fre-quently help to minimize the im pact of negative mood changes.

1-11


20/135

FM 3-97.6

1-38. T he ph ysical effect m ost n oticea ble at h ig h altitud es includ es v ision . Vi-sion is generally the sense most affected by altitude exposure and can poten-tially affect military operations at higher elevations. Night vision is signifi-

cantly reduced, affecting soldiers at approximately 2,400 meters (8,000 feet)or higher. Some effects occur early and are temporary, while others may per-sist after acclimatization or even for a period of time after descent. To com-pensate for loss of functional abilities, commanders should make use of tac-tics, techniques, and procedures that trade speed for increased accuracy. Byallowing extra time to accomplish tasks, commanders can minimize errorsand in ju ri es .

HYPOXIA-RELATED ILLNESSES AND EFFECTS

1-39. Hypoxia, a deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues of the body, hasbeen the cause of many mountain illnesses, injuries, and deaths. It affectseveryone, but some soldiers are more vulnerable than others. A soldier maybe affected at one time but not at another. Altitude hypoxia is a killer, but itseldom strikes alone. The combination of improper nutrition, hypoxia, andcold is much more dangerous than any of them alone. The three most signifi-cant altitude-related illnesses and their symptoms, which are essentially aseries of illnesses associated with oxygen deprivation, are:

. Acute Mountain Sickness AMS .Headache, nausea, vom iting, fatigue,irr ita bility, a nd d iz zin ess.

. High Altitude Pulm onary Edema HAPE . C ou gh in g, n oisy b reath in g,wheezing, gurgling in the airway, difficulty breathing, and pink frothysputum (saliva). Ultimately coma and death will occur without treat-ment.

. High Altitude Cerebral Edem a HACE . RACE is the most severe ill-ness associated with high altitudes. Its symptoms often resemble AMS(severe headache, nausea, vomiting), often with m ore dramatic signalssuch as a swaying of the upper body, especially when walking, and anincreasingly deteriorating mental status. Early mental symptoms mayinclude confusion, disorientation, vivid hallucinations, and drow siness.Soldiers may appear to be withdrawn or demonstrate behavior gener-ally associated with fatigue or anxiety. Like RAPE, coma or death willo ccu r w ith ou t tre atm en t.

OTHER MOUNTAIN-RELATED ILLNESSES

1-40. Other illnesses and effects related to the mountain environment andhigher elevations are:

. Subacute mountain sickness. Subacute mountain sickness occurs insom e soldiers during prolonged deploym ents (weeks/m onths) to eleva-tions above 3,600 meters (12,000 feet). Symptoms include sleep distur-bance, loss of appetite, weight loss, and fatigue. This condition reflectsa failure to acclim atize adequately.

. Carbon monoxide poisoning. Carbon monoxide poisoning is caused bythe inefficient fuel combustion resulting from the low oxygen content ofair and higher usage of stoves, combustion heaters, and engines in en-closed, poorly ventilated spaces.

1-12


21/135

Chapter 1

. Sleep d is tu rban ces. High altitude has significant harmful effects onsleep. The most prominent effects are frequent periods of apnea (tem-porary suspension of respiration) and fragmented sleep. Sleep distur-

bances may last for weeks at elevations less than 5,400 meters (18,000feet) and may never stop at higher elevations. These effects have evenbeen reported as low as 1,500 meters (5,000 feet).

. Poor wound healing. Poor wound healing resulting from lowered im-mune functions may occur at higher elevations. Injuries resulting fromburns, cuts, or other sources may require descent for effective treat-m ent and healing.

ACCLIMATIZATION

1-41. Altitude acclim atization involves physiological changes that permit thebody to adapt to the effects of low oxygen saturation in the air. It allows sol-diers to achieve the maximum physical work performance possible for the al-titude to which they are acclimatized. Once acquired, acclimatization is m ain-tained as long as the soldier remains at that altitude, but is lost upon re-turning to lower elevations. Acclimatization to one altitude does not preventaltitude illnesses from occurring if ascent to higher altitudes is too rapid.

1-42. Getting used to living and working athigher altitudes requires acclim atization.Figure 1-8 shows the four factors that affectacclimatization in mountainous terrain.These factors are similar to those a scubadiver must consider, and the consequences ofan error can be just as severe. In particular, F ig ure 1 -8 . F acto rs A ffectin g

high altitude climbing must be carefully Acclimatization

paced and staged in the same way that divers must pace and stage their as-cent to the surface.

. AltitudeR ate of A scentD uration of S tayL ev el o f E xertio n

.

.

.

1-43. For most soldiers at high to very high altitudes, 70 to 80 percent of therespiratory component of acclimatization occurs in 7 to 10 days, 80 to 90 per-cent of overall acclimatization is generally accomplished by 21 to 30 days, andmaximum acclimatization may take several months to years. However, somesoldiers may acclimatize more rapidly than others, and a few soldiers may notacclimatize at all. There is no absolute way to identify soldiers who cannot ac-clim atize, except by their experience during previous altitude exposures.

1-44. Commanders must be aware that highly fit, motivated individuals maygo too high too fast and become victims of AMS, HAPE, or HACE. Slow andeasy climbing, limited activity, and long rest periods are critical to altitudeacclimatization. Leaves that involve soldiers descending to lower altitudesand then returning should be limited. Acclimatization may be accomplishedby either a staged or graded ascent. A combination of the two is the safestand m ost effective m ethod for prevention of high altitude illnesses.

. S ta ged A scen t. A staged ascent requires soldiers to ascend to a moder-ate altitude and remain there for 3 days or more to acclimatize beforeascending higher (the longer the duration, the more effective and thor-ough the acclimatization to that altitude). W hen possible, soldiers

1-13


22/135

F M 3 -9 7. 6

COLD

1-14

should make several stops for staging during ascent to allow a greaterdeg ree o f acc lima ti za tion .

. G ra ded A sc en t. A graded ascent limits the daily altitude gain to allowpartial acclimatization. The altitude at which soldiers sleep is the criti-cal element in this regard. Having soldiers spend two nights at 2,700meters (9,000 feet) and limiting the sleeping altitude to no more than300 meters per day (1,000 feet) above the previous night s sleeping alti-tude will significantly reduce the incidence of altitude sickness.

1-45. In situations where there is insufficient time for a staged or graded as-cent, commanders may consider using the drug acetazolamide to help accel-erate acclimatization; however, commanders must ensure soldiers are accli-matized before they are committed to combat. W hen used appropriately, itwill prevent symptoms of AMS in nearly all soldiers and reduce symptoms inmost others. It has also been found to improve sleep quality at high altitudes.

However, commanders should consult physicians trained in high-altitude orw ilderness m edicine concerning doses, side effects, and screening of individu-als who may be allergic. As a non-pharm acological m ethod, high carbohydratediets (whole grains, vegetables, peas and beans, potatoes, fruits, honey, andrefined sugar) are effective in aiding acclim atization.

1-46. Mter illnesses related to notbeing acclim atized, cold injuries, bothfreezing and nonfreezing, are gener-ally the greatest threat. Temperatureand humidity decrease with increas-ing altitude. Reviewing cold weatherinjury prevention, training in shelter .construction, dressing in layers, and Figure 1-9. Co~m~n Cold

using the buddy system are critical Weath er In Ju nes

and may preclude large numbers of debilitating injuries. Figure 1-9 lists thecold and snow injuries most common to mountain operations. See FM 3-97.11and FM 4-25.11 for information regarding causes, symptoms, treatment, andprevention.

1-47. Altitude sickness and cold injuries can occur simultaneously, with signsand symptoms being confused with each other. Coughing, stumbling indi-viduals should be immediately evacuated to medical support at lower levels todetermine their medical condition. Likewise, soldiers in extreme pain fromcold injuries who do not respond to normal pain medications, require evacua-tion. W ithout constant vigilance, cold injuries may significantly limit thenumber of deployable troops and drastically reduce combat power. However,with command emphasis and proper equipment, clothing, and training, allco ld -w eath er in ju ries are p rev en tab le.

. Frostbi te ( freez ing)Hypothermia (nonfreez ing)Tre nc h/im m ersio n F oo t(nonfreezing)S now Blin dnes s

.

.

.


23/135

C ha pte r 1

SECTION III - E FFE CTS O N E QU IP ME NT

1-48. No m anual can coverthe effects of terrain andweather on every weaponand item of equipm entwithin the Arm y inventory.Although not all-encom passing, the list atFigure 1-10 c on ta in s fa cto rsthat comm anders shouldtake into account whenconsidering the effect themountainous environm entmay have on their weapons

and equipm ent. Of these,the m ost important factor isthe combined effects of theenvironm ent on the soldierand his subsequent abilityto operate and maintain his weapons and equipm ent. Increasingly sophisti-cated equipment requires soldiers that are m entally alert and physically ca-pable. Failure to consider this important factor often results in severe injury,lowered weapons and equipm ent performance, and mission failure. The in-formation provided within this m anual, com bined with the inform ation foundin weapon-specific field m anuals FMs and technical manuals TM s , pro-vides the information necessary to know how to m odify tactics, techniques,and procedures to win on the mountain battlefield.

GENER L EF FECTS

. Operator /Maintenance PersonnelLine-of-SightRangeThermal Cont rastBall is tics and TrajectoryTarge t Detect ion and Acquis it ionFir st Round Hit Capabi li tyCamouflage and Concealment/NoiseMobilityWe ar a nd M a in te na nc eA er od yn am ic s a nd L if tFunctioning and Reliabil ity

Positioning/Site Selection

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

.

Figure 1-10. Weapons and Equipm entFac to rs A ffected by the E nv iron ment

1-49. In a mountainous environment, the speed and occurrence of wind gen-erally increase with elevation, and the effects of wind increase with range(depending on the speed and direction). Due to these factors, soldiers must betaught the effects of wind on ballistics and how to compensate for them. Incold weather, firing weapons often creates ice fog trails. These ice fog trailsobscure vision and, at the same time, allow the enemy to more easily discernthe location of primary positions and the overall structure of a unit s defense.This situation increases the importance of alternate and supplementary firingpositions.

1-50. Range estimation in mountainous terrain is difficult. Depending uponthe type of terrain in the mountains, soldiers may either over- or underesti-mate range. Soldiers observing over smooth terrain, such as sand, water, orsnow, generally underestimate ranges. This results in attempting to engagetargets beyond the maximum effective ranges of their weapon systems.Looking downhill, targets appear to be farther away and looking uphill, theyappear to be closer. This illusion, com bined with the effects of gravity, causesthe soldier shooting downhill to fire high, while it has the opposite effect onso ld iers sh oo tin g u ph ill.

1-15


24/135

FM 3-97.6

1-51. Higher elevations generally afford increased observation but low-hanging clouds and fog may decrease visibility, and the rugged nature ofmountain terrain may produce significant dead space at mid-ranges. These

effects mean that more observation posts are necessary to cover a givenfrontage in mountainous terrain than in non-mountainous terrain. They alsorequire the routine designation of supplementary firing positions for directfire weapons. Rugged terrain also makes ammunition resupply more difficultand increases the need to enforce strict fire control and discipline. Finally, therugged environment creates compartmented areas that may preclude mutualsupport and reduce supporting distances.

SM ALL ARM S1-52. In rocky mountainous terrain, the effectiveness of small arms fire in-creases by the splintering and ricocheting when a bullet strikes a rock. M203and MK-19 grenade launchers are useful for covering close-in dead space in

mountainous terrain. Hand grenades are also effective. Although it may seemintuitive, soldiers must still be cautioned against throwing grenades uphillwhere they are likely to roll back before detonation. Grenades (as well asother explosive munitions) lose much of their effectiveness when detonatedunder snow, and soldiers should be warned that hand grenades may freeze tow et g lo ve s.

1-53. As elevation increases, air pressure and air density decrease. At higherelevations, a round is more efficient and strikes a target higher, due to re-duced drag. This effect does not significantly influence the marksmanshipperformance of most soldiers, however, designated marksmen and snipersshould re-zero their weapons after ascending to higher elevations. (See FM 3-25.9 and FM 3-23.10 for further information on ballistics and weather effectson sm all arm s.)

MACHINE GUNS1-54. Machine guns pro-vide long-range firewhen visibility is good.However, grazing firecan rarely be achieved inmountains because ofthe radical changes inelevation. W hen grazingfire can be obtained, theranges are normallyshort. More often,plunging fire is the re-sult (see Figure 1-11 andFM 3-21.7). In moun-tainous terrain, situa-tions that prevent indi-rect fire support fromprotecting advancingforces may arise. W hen

1-16

GRAZING

F ig ur e 1 -11. C la ss es o f F ir e w ith R es pe ctto th e G ro un d


25/135

Chapter 1

these occur, the effects of machine-guns and other direct fire weapons mustbe concentrated to provide adequate supporting fires for maneuvering ele-ments. Again, supplementary positions should be routinely prepared to cover

different avenues of approach and dead space.

A NTITA NK W EA PO NS1-55. The AT4 is a lightweight antitank weapon ideally suited for the moun-tainous environment and for direct fire against enemy weapon em placem ents.Anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs), such as the Javelin and the tube-launched, optically tracked, wire-guided, heavy antitank missile system(TOW ), tend to hinder dismounted operations because of their bulk andweight. In very restrictive mountainous terrain, the lack of armored avenuesof approach and suitable targets may limit their utility. If an armored ormechanized threat is present, TOW s are best used in long-range, antiarmorambushes, while the shorter-range Javelin, with its fire-and-forget technol-

ogy, is best used from restrictive terrain nearer the kill zone. However, theirguidance systems may operate stiffly and sluggishly in extreme cold weather.

SE CT IO N IV- R EC ON NA ISSA NC E A ND SU RV EIL LA NC E

RECONN ISS NCE

1-56. During operations in a mountainous environment, reconnaissance is asapplicable to the maneuver of armies and corps as it is to tactical operations.Limited routes, adverse terrain, and rapidly changing weather significantlyincrease the importance of reconnaissance operations to focus fires and ma-neuver. Failure to conduct effective reconnaissance will result in units being

asked to achieve the im possible or in missed opportunities for decisive action.1-57. As in all environments, reconnaissance operations in a mountainousarea must be layered and complementary in order to overcome enemy at-tempts to deny critical information to the friendly commander. In order togather critical and timely information required by the commander, the activi-ties of reconnaissance assets must be closely coordinated. Strategic recon-naissance platforms set the stage by identifying key terrain, as well as thegeneral disposition and composition of enemy forces. Operational level com-manders compare the information provided by strategic assets with their ownrequirements and employ reconnaissance assets to fill in the gaps that havenot been answered by strategic systems and achieve the level of detail theyreqUIre.

1-58. At the beginning of a campaign in a mountainous environment, recon-naissance requirements will be answered by aerial or overhead platforms,such as satellites, joint surveillance, target attack radar systems (JSTARSs),U2 aircraft, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In a mountain AO, it mayoften be necessary to commit ground reconnaissance assets in support of stra-tegic and operational information requirements. Conversely, strategic andoperational reconnaissance systems may be employed to identify or confirmthe feasibility of em ploying ground reconnaissance assets. Special reconnais-sance (SR) and long-range surveillance (LRS) teams may be inserted to

1-17


26/135

FM 3-97.6

1-18

gather information that cannot be collected by overhead systems, or to verifydata that has already been collected. In this instance, satellite imagery isused to analyze a specific area for insertion for the team. The potential hide

positions for the teams are identified using imagery and, terrain and weatherpermitting, verified by DAVs. See FM 3-100.55 for detailed information onc om b in ed a rm s re co nn aissa nc e.

1-59. In harsh mountain terrain, ground reconnaissance operations are oftenconducted dismounted. Commanders must assess the slower rate of groundreconnaissance elem ents to determ ine its im pact on the entire reconnaissanceand collection process. They must develop plans that account for this slowerrate and initiate reconnaissance as early as possible to provide additionaltime for movement. Commanders may also need to allocate more forces, in-cluding combat forces, to conduct reconnaissance, reconnaissance in forcemissions, or limited objective attacks to gain needed intelligence. Based uponmission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time

available, civil considerations (METT-TC), commanders may need to priori-tize collection assets, accept risk, and continue with less information fromtheir initial reconnaissance efforts. In these cases, they must use formationsand schemes of maneuver that provide maximum security and flexibility, toinclude robust security formations, and allow for the development of thesituation once in contact.

1-60. Although reconnaissance patrols should normally use the heights to ob-serve the enemy, it may be necessary to send small reconnaissance teams intovalleys or along the low ground to gain suitable vantage points or physicallyexamine routes that will be used by mechanized or motorized forces. Inmountainous environments, reconnaissance elements are often tasked to de-termine:

. The enemy s primary and alternate lines of comm unication.

. Locations and directions from which the enemy can attack or counter-attack.

. Heights that allow the enemy to observe the various sectors of terrain.

. Suitable observation posts for forw ard observers.

. Portions of the route that provide covert movem ent.

. Level of m ountaineering skill required to negotiate routes (dism ountedm obility classification) and sections of the route that require m ountain-eer ing ins ta llat ions.

. Suitability of routes for sustained com bat service support (CSS) opera-tions.

. Trails, routes, and bridges that can support or can be improved by en-gineers in order to move mechanized elements into areas previouslythought to be im passable.

. B yp ass ro ute s.

. Potential airborne and air assault drop/pick-up zones and aircraftlan din g areas.


27/135

Chapter

RECONN ISS NCE IN FORCE

1-61. The compartmented geography and inherent mobility restrictions of

mountainous terrain pose significant risk for reconnaissance in force opera-tions. Since the terrain normally allows enemy units to defend along a muchbroader front with fewer forces, a reconnaissance in force may be conductedas a series of smaller attacks to determine the enemy situation at selectedpoints. Comm anders should carefully consider mobility restrictions that m ayaffect plans for withdrawal or exploitation. Com manders should also positionsmall reconnaissance elements or employ surveillance systems throughoutthe threat area of operations to gauge the enemy s reaction to friendly recon-naissance in force operations and alert the force to possible enem y counterat-tacks. In the mountains, the risk of having at least a portion of the force cutoff and isolated is extremely high. Mobile reserves and preplanned fires mustbe available to reduce the risk, decrease the vulnerability of the force, andexploit any success as it develops.

EN GIN EE R R EC ON NA ISSA NC E

1-62. Engineer reconnaissance assumes greater significance in a mountain-ous environment in order to ensure supporting engineers are properly taskorganized with specialized equipment for quickly overcoming natural andreinforcing obstacles. Engineer reconnaissance teams assess the resources re-quired for clearing obstacles on precipitous slopes, constructing crossing sitesat fast-moving streams and rivers, improving and repairing roads, erectingfortifications, and establishing barriers during the conduct of defensive op-erations. Since the restrictive terrain promotes the widespread employmentof point obstacles, engineer elements should be integrated into all mountainre co nn aissa nc e o pe ra tio ns.

1-63. In some regions, maps may be unsuitable for tactical planning due toinaccuracies, limited detail, and inadequate coverage. In these areas, engi-neer reconnaissance should precede, but not delay operations. Because rug-ged mountain terrain makes ground reconnaissance time-consuming anddangerous, a combination of ground and aerial or overhead platforms shouldbe used for the engineer reconnaissance effort. Data on the terrain, vegeta-tion, and soil composition, combined with aerial photographs and multispec-tral imagery, allows engineer terrain intelligence teams to provide detailedinform ation that may be unavailable from other sources.

AERIAL AND OVERHEAD RECONNAISSANCE

1-64. During all but the most adverse weather conditions, aerial or overhead

reconnaissance may be the best means to gather information and cover largeareas that are difficult for ground units to traverse or observe. Airbornestandoff intelligence collection devices, such as side-looking radar, provideexcellent terrain and target isolation imagery. Missions must be planned toensure that critical areas are not masked by terrain or other environmentalconditions. Additionally, aerial or overhead photographs may compensate forinadequate maps and provide the level of detail needed to plan operations. In-frared imagery and camouflage detection film can be used to determine pre-cise locations of enemy positions, even at night. Furthermore, AH-64an d

1-19


28/135

FM 3-97.6

OH-58D helicopters can provide commanders with critical day or night videoreconnaissance, utilizing television or forw ard-looking infrared.

1-65. Terrain may significantly impact the employment of overhead recon-naissance platforms using radar systems to detect manmade objects. Thesesystems may find themselves adversely impacted by the masking effect thatoccurs when the mountain terrain blocks the radar beam. Thus, the radarcoverage may not extend across the reverse slope of a steep ridge or a valleyfloor. Attempts to reposition the overhead platform to a point where it can see the masked area may merely result in masking occurring elsewhere.This limitation does not preclude using such systems; however, the com-mander should employ manned or unmanned aerial reconnaissance whenavailable, in conjunction with overhead reconnaissance platforms in order tominimize these occurrences. The subsequent use of ground reconnaissanceassets to verify the data that can be gathered by overhead and electro-opticalplatforms will ensure that commanders do not fall prey to deliberate enemydeception efforts that capitalize on the limited capabilities of some types ofoverh ead platform s in this environm ent.

SURVEILL NCE

1-66. In the mountains, surveillance of vulnerable flanks and gaps betweenunits is accomplished primarily through well-positioned observation posts(OPs). These OPs are normally inserted by helicopter and manned by smallelements equipped with sensors, enhanced electro-optical devices, and appro-priate communications. Commanders must develop adequate plans that ad-dress not only their insertion, but their continued support and ultimate ex-traction. The considerations of M ETT-TC may dictate that commanders pro-vide more personnel and assets than other types of terrain to adequately con-duct surveillance missions. Commanders must also ensure that surveillanceoperations are fully integrated with reconnaissance efforts in order to providea3dequate coverage of the AO.

1-67. Long-range surveillance units (LRSUs) and snipers trained in moun-tain operations also contribute to surveillance missions and benefit from therestrictive terrain and excellent line-of-sight. Overhead platforms and aircavalry may also be used for surveillance missions of limited duration. How-ever, weather may impede air operations, decrease visibility for both air andground elements, and reduce the ability of ground surveillance elements toremain hidden for prolonged periods without adequate logistical support. Aswith overhead reconnaissance, terrain may mask overhead surveillance plat-forms.

1-20


29/135

Chapter 2

Comm and and Control

In the mountains, majoraxes of advance are lim itedto accessible valleys andoften separated byrestrictive terrain. Thecompartmented nature ofthe terrain makes itdifficult to switch the effortfrom one axis to another orto offer mutual supportbetween axes. The battle tocontrol the major lines ofcommunications of Level Idevelops on the ridges andheights of Level II. In turn,the occupation of thedominating heights inLevel II may leave a forceassailable from the

restrictive terrain of LevelIII. Each operationalterrain level influences theapplication of tactics,techniques, and proceduresnecessary for successfuloperations.

CONTENTS

Section I - Assessment of the Situation 2-3Mission 2-4Enemy 2-5Terrain and Weather 2-5Troops and Support Available 2-8Time Avai lab Ie. 2-9Civil Considerations 2-9

Section 11- Leadership 2-10Section 111-Communications 2-11

Combat Net Radio 2-11Mobile Subscriber Equipment 2-13W ire and Field Phones 2-13Audio, Visual, and Physical Signals 2-14Messenger 2-14

Section IV- Training 2-15Initial T raining Assessment 2-16Physical Conditioning 2-16Mountain Living 2-17Navigation 2-18W eapons and Equipment 2-18Camouflage and Concealment 2-18Fortifications 2-19Military M ountaineering 2-19Driver Training 2-22Army Aviation 2-23Reconnaissance and Surveillance 2-23Team D evelopment 2-23

2-1


30/135

In mountainous terrain, it is usually difficult to conduct a coordinatedbattle. Engagements tend to be isolated, march columns of even smallelements extremely long, and mutual support difficult to accomplish.

Command and control of all available assets is best achieved if commandposts are well forward. However, the mountainous environment de-creases the commander s mobility. Therefore, commanders must be ableto develop a clear vision of how the battle will unfold, correctly anticipatethe decisive points on the battlefield, and position themselves at thesec ritic al p oin ts.

The success of a unit conducting mountain operations depends on howwell leaders control their units. Control is lim ited largely to a well-thought-out plan and thorough preparation. Boundaries require carefulplanning in mountain operations. Heights overlooking valleys should beincluded in the boundaries of units capable of exerting the most influence

over them. These boundaries may be difficult to determine initially andm ay require subsequent adjustm ent.

During execution, leaders must be able to control direction and speed ofmovement, maintain proper intervals, and rapidly start, stop, or shiftfire. In the mountains, soldiers focus mainly on negotiating difficult ter-rain. Leaders, however, must ensure that their soldiers remain alert for,understand, and follow signals and orders. Although in most instancesaudio, visual, wire, physical signals, and messengers are used to main-tain control, operations may be controlled by time as a secondary means.However, realistic timetables must be based on thorough reconnaissanceand sound practical knowledge of the m ountain battlefield.

Commanders must devote careful consideration to the substantial effectthe mountain environment may have on systems that affect their abilityto collect, process, store, and disseminate information. Computers, com-munications, and other sophisticated electronic equipment are usuallysusceptible to jars, shocks, and rough handling associated with the rug-ged mountain environment. They are also extremely sensitive to the se-vere cold often associated with higher elevations. Increased precipitationand moisture may damage electronic components, and heavy amounts ofrain and snow, combined with strong surface winds, may generate back-ground electronic interference that can reduce the efficiency of inter-cept/direction finding antennas and ground surveillance radars. Localizedstorms with low sustained cloud cover reduce the effectiveness of most

imagery intelligence (IMINT) platforms, to include unmanned aerial ve-hicles (DAVs). The collective effect of mountain weather and terrain di-minishes a commander s ability to achieve shared situational under-standing among his subordinates. However, increased use of human in-telligence (HUM INT), clear orders and intents, and leaders capable of ex-ercising initiative, allow commanders to dominate the harsh environmentof a m ountain area of operations.


31/135

Chapter 2

As in any environment, mountain operations pose both tactical and acci-dent risks. However, since most units do not routinely train for or operatein the mountains, the level of uncertainty, ambiguity, and friction is often

higher than in less rugged environments. Commanders must be able toidentify and assess hazards that may be encountered in executing theirmissions, develop and implement control measures to elim inate unneces-sary risk, and continuously supervise and assess to ensure measures areproperly executed and remain appropriate as the situation changes. Al-though risk decisions are the com manders business, staffs, subordinateleaders, and individual soldiers must also understand the risk manage-ment process and must continuously look for hazards at their level orwithin their area of expertise. Any risks identified (with recommendedrisk reduction measures) must be quickly elevated to the chain of com-mand (see FM 3-100.14).

SECTION I - A SSESSM EN T O F TH E SITU ATIO N

2-1. Although higher-elevation terrain is not always key, the structure of amountain area of operations (AO) often forms a stairway of key terrain fea-tures. Identification and control of dominant terrain at each operational ter-rain level form the basis for successful mountain maneuver. Key terrain fea-tures at higher elevations often take on added significance due to their inac-cessibility and ease of defense. To maintain freedom of maneuver, command-ers must apply combat power so that the terrain at Levels II and III can beexploited in the conduct of operations. Successful application of this conceptrequires commanders to think, plan, and maneuver vertically as well as hori-

zontally.2-2. M ountain operations usually focus on lines of communication, chokepoints, and dominating heights. M aneuver generally attempts to avoidstrengths, envelop the enemy, and limit his ability to effectively use the highground. M ajor difficulties are establishing boundaries, establishing and m ain-taining communications, providing logistics, and evacuating wounded.Throughout the plan, prepare, and execute cycle, commanders must continu-ously assess the vertical impact on the mission, enemy, terrain and weather,troops and support available, tim e available, civil considerations (M ETT-TC ).

H IS TO RIC AL P ER SP EC TIV E

Im portance of C ontrolling K ey Terrain:

M ustafa K em al at G allipoli (A pril 1915)O n 2 5 A pril 1 915 , th e A llie s la un ch ed th eir G allip oli c am pa ig n. H ow ev er, LTCM u sta fa K em a l s u nd ers ta nd in g o f th e d ec is iv e im p or ta nc e o f th e h illy te rra in ,his grasp of the enem y s overall intent, and his ow n resolute leadership pre-served the O ttom an defenses. H is troops seized the initiative from superiorfo rc es a nd p us he d th e A llie d in va sio n fo rc e b ac k to its b rid ge he ad . T he re su ltw as nine m onths of trench w arfare, follow ed by the A llies w ithdraw al fromGallipoli.

2- 3


32/135


33/135

Chapter 2

smaller-scale attacks, utilizing the full height, width, and depth of their areaof operations. Consequently, commanders must always consider the impact ofd ecen tralizatio n o n secu rity.

2-5. One method of maintaining freedom of action is to seize or hold key ter-rain. In the mountains, key terrain is frequently identified as terrain that ishigher than that held by the enemy. Seizing this terrain often depends onlong and difficult envelopments or turning movements. Therefore, the speci-fied and implied tasks associated with mobility and sustainment, as well ascomm and and control, m ust be considered in terms of their vertical difficulty.

ENEMY2-6. An enemy will nor-mally position forces indepth and height alonglikely avenues of approach.Mountain terrain facili-tates wide dispersal, al-lowing relatively smallunits to hold dominant ter-rain in a connected systemof strong points. To pre-vent bypassing and envel- . .opment attempts the en- Figure 2 1. Factors A ffecting Assessm ent of

emy may adopt a many- th e E ne my S itu atio n

tiered, perimeter defense. Aside from the relative size of forces, the type ofenemy units and their equipment must be compared with those of friendlyforces, to include a comparison of the suitability of forces, tactics, and train-ing. W hen considering the enemy s ability to operate in mountainous terrain,commanders should consider how well the enemy can accomplish the tasksand actions listed in Figure 2-1. Again, in analyzing both enemy and friendlyfactors during mountain operations, the vertical, as well as the horizontal,perspective should be fully integrated into all aspects of the assessm ent.

. Utilize the environm ent to hisadvantageC on du ct a ir o pe ra tio ns

C on du ct d ec en tra liz ed o pe ra tio nsUtilize the terrain in Levels II and IIIEm ploy obstacles or barriers tores tr ic t maneuverab il ityC on du ct lim ite d-v is ib ility o pe ra tio nsS ustain h is m an euver elem ents

.

..

.

.

.

TERRAIN AND W EATHER2-7. As in all military operations, terrain analysis involves observation andfields of fire, cover and concealment, obstacles, key terrain, and avenues ofapproach (OCOKA). Terrain often influences the conduct of operations morein the mountains than on flatter terrain. The mountains form the nonlinearand vertical structure of the battlefield, and the influences of geography andclimate dictate the extent to which commanders modify tactics. Examples ofthese difficulties are often encountered in the concentration of forces, as wellas in the maintenance of command and control.

2-8. In the mountains, as elsewhere, surprise is easier to achieve for the forcethat knows the terrain better and has the skills and equipment necessary toachieve greater mobility. The appropriate use of vertical terrain improves theelement of surprise if the terrain has been analyzed properly to determine thebest means to counter the enemy s reactions. Once the commander decides

2-5


34/135

on a preliminary course of action, he should immediately initiate a detailedt er ra in reconna is sance.

2-9. In a mountainous environment, the terrain normally favors the defenderand necessitates the conduct of limited visibility operations. Highly trainedunits can achieve significant tactical gains and decisive victories by exploitinglimited visibility. However, limited visibility operations in mountainous ter-rain require precise planning, careful daylight reconnaissance, exceptionallygood command and control, and a high degree of training. Imaginative andbold limited visibility operations can minimize the advantage of terrain forthe defender and shift the balance of combat power to the side that can bestcope w ith or exploit lim ited visibility.

OBSERVATION AND FIELDS OF FIRE

2-10. Although moun-tainous terrain generally

permits excellent long-range observation andfields of fire, steep slopesand rugged terrain affecta soldier s ability to accu-rately estimate range Figure 2-2. F ac to rs A ffe ctin g O b se rv atio nand frequently cause and Fields of Firelarge areas to be hidden from observation. The existence of sharp relief anddead space facilitates covert approaches, m aking surveillance difficult despitesuch long-range observation. Four factors that influence what can be seenand hit in mountainous terrain are listed in Figure 2-2.

1. The ability to observe and identify targets in conditions of bright sunlight

2. The ability to estim ate range in clear air3. T he ability to apply wind correct ions4. The ability to shoot accurately up and

d ow n v er tic al s lo pe s

C OV ER A ND C ON CE AL ME NT

2-11. The identification and proper use of the cover and concealm ent providedby mountainous terrain are fundamental to all aspects of mountain opera-tions. The ridge systems found in Level II may provide covert approachesthrough many areas that are hidden from observation by the vegetation andrelief. The difficulties a force encounters in finding available cover and con-cealment along ridges are fewer than those on the peaks, especially above thetimberline. Uncovered portions of an approach leave a force exposed to obser-vation and fire for long periods. The enemy can easily detect movement inthis region, leaving commanders with three primary options to improve coverand concealment:

1. Identify and exploit avenues of approach the enemy would considerunlikely, due to their difficult ascent or descent.

2. Negotiate routes during periods oflim ited visibility.

3. Provide overwhelming route security.

OBSTACLES

2-12. O bvious natural obstacles include deep defiles, cliffs, rivers, landslides,avalanches, crevices, and scree slopes, as well as the physical terrain of themountains themselves. Obstacles vary in their effect on different forces.Commanders must evaluate the terrain from both the enemy and friendly


35/135

Chapter 2

force perspective. They must look specifically at the degree to which obstaclesrestrict operations, and at the ability of each force to exploit the tactical op-portunities that exist when obstacles are em ployed. M an-made obstacles used

in conjunction with restrictive terrain are extremely effective in the moun-tains; however, their construction is very costly in terms of time, materiel,transportation assets, and labor. Commanders must know the location, ex-tent, and strength of obstacles so that they can be incorporated into theirsch em e o f m an eu ver.

K EY TE RR AIN

2-13. Key terrain generally increases in importance with an increase in ele-vation and a decrease in accessibility. In the mountains, however, terrainthat is higher than that held by the opposing force is often key, but only if theforce is capable of fighting there. A well-prepared force capable of maneuverin rugged terrain can gain an even greater advantage over an ill-preparedenem y at higher elevation levels.

2-14. The vast majority of operations in the mountains requires that thecommander designate decisive terrain in his concept of operations to commu-nicate its importance to his staff and subordinate commanders. In operationsover mountainous terrain, the analysis of key and decisive terrain is based onthe identification of these features at each of the three operational terrainlevels. There are few truly impassable areas in the mountains. The com-mander must recognize that what may be key terrain to one force may be anobstacle to another force. He must also recognize that properly trained com-batants can use high obstructing terrain as a means to achieve decisive victo-ries w ith com paratively sm all-sized com bat elem ents.

AV EN UES OF AP PR OAC H

2-15. In mountainous terrain, there are few easily accessible avenues of ap-proach, and they usually run along valleys, defiles, or the crests and spurs ofridges. This type of geography allows the defender to economize in difficultterrain and to concentrate on dangerous avenues of approach. A typical offen-sive tactic is to conduct a coordinated assault with the main effort along ac-cessible avenues of approach, and supporting efforts by one or more maneu-ver elements on difficult and unexpected avenues of approach. Normally,high rates of advance and heavy concentration of forces are difficult or impos-sible to achieve along mountainous avenues of approach. Relief features maycreate large areas of dead space that facilitate covert movement. Units mayuse difficult and unlikely avenues of approach to achieve surprise; however,these are extremely high-risk operations and are prone to failure unless

forces are well trained and experienced in mountaineering techniques. Inmountainous terrain, the analysis of avenues of approach should be based ona thorough reconnaissance and evaluated in terms of the factors listed inFigure 2-3 on page2 8

WEATHER

2-16. As discussed in Chapter 1 weather and visibility conditions in themountainous regions of the world may create unprecedented advantages anddisadvantages for combatants. To fight effectively, comm anders must acquire

2-7


36/135

~ccurate weat~er inform a- . Abil ity to achieve surpr isetI~n about thel~ AO. Ter- . Vulnerab il ity to a ttack f romram has a dOI~.mant effect s urro un din g h eig hts

on local clImate. and. A bility to provide m utual support tow eathe~ patterns m. the forces on other avenues of approachmountams. Mountamous . E ffect on rates of advanceareas are subject to fre- . E ffect o n com m an d a nd con tro lquent and r.apid c~anges of . P otent ia l t o a ccomm o da te decep tio nweather,. mcluding fog, operationsstrong W Inds, extrem e .heat . Abil ityto suppor t necessa ry es andand cold, and heavy ram or ess operationssnow. T hus, m any forecasts. Access to secure rest and halt sitesthat describe weathe.r over. Potential to fix the enem y and reducelarge areas of terram are the ossibilit of retreatinherently inaccurate.Commanders must be able Figure 2-3. F acto rs A ffectin g A na ly sis

to develop local, terrain- of Avenues of Approachbased forecasts by com bining available forecasts with field observations (localtemperature, wind, precipitation, cloud patterns, barometric pressure, andsurrounding terrain). Forecasting mountain weather from the field improvesaccuracy and enhances the ability to exploit opportunities offered by theweather, while m inimizing its adverse effects (see Appendix B).

TROOPS AND SUPPORT AVA ILA BLE2-17. Commanders must assess the operational and tactical implications ofthe restrictive environment on m obility, protection, firepower, and logistics.The complex task of arranging activities in time, space, and purpose requirescommanders to fully understand the impact of elevation, weather, and visi-

bility on the capabilities of his subordinate elements and relative combatpower. Mountainous terrain and weather can greatly enhance the relativecombat power of defending forces and, conversely, it can drastically reducethose of the attacking forces. For example, an infantry battalion may be in-adequate to defeat a defending infantry company in the mountains. Instead,an infantry battalion may only be capable of defeating a well-positioned in-fantry platoon. However, commanders must carefully consider each uniquesituation and weigh all tangible and intangible aspects of combat power (ma-neuver, firepower, leadership, protection, and inform ation) when com paringstrengths and determ ining the forces necessary to accom plish the mission.

2-18. Commanders must also assess the proper mix of heavy and light forcesthat capitalizes on the unique strengths that each type of force can bring to

mountain operations while minimizing their limitations. W hile generallycomplicating command and control, an appropriate mix allows commandersmore flexibility in the synchronization of their operations. Additionally, thedifficulty providing com bat support and combat service support for m ountainoperations must be evaluated to determine if the proportion of support troopsto com bat troops is sufficient.

2-19. Prior to and throughout an operation, commanders must continuallyassess the effect that the rugged mountain environment and sustained com-bat operations has on the ability of their soldiers to accomplish the mission.


37/135

Chapter 2

Commanders may need to slow the pace of their operation, transition to thedefense for short periods, or rotate units to ensure that their soldiers arephysically capable of striking effectively at decisive times and locations. Too

often, commanders consider only the operational readiness (OR) rate ofequipment and logistics levels when determining their overall ability to con-tinue offensive actions. Failure to consider this intangible human aspect mayresult in increased loss of lives and m ission failure.

2-20. Vertical operations are an integral part of mountain operations and areone means to improve the success of decisive engagements. Commandersmust review the state of training of their units to ensure they are adequatelyprepared to maneuver and fight at various elevations. Increased require-ments for aviation support require aviation units to be capable of operating inthe specific mountain environment. Units must also have sufficient numbersof pathfinders and trained air assault personnel to select and mark landingzones (LZs) and prepare sling loads.

TIM E AVA IL AB LE2-21. In the mountains, proper tim-ing is fundamental to creating oppor-tunities to fight the enemy on favor-able terms. Restrictive terrain,weather, the accumulation of chanceerrors, unexpected difficulties, andthe confusion of battle increase thetime necessary to assemble, deploy,move, converge, and mass combatpower, effectively decreasing theamount of time available to plan andprepare. To optimize the time avail-able, com manders m ust continuouslyevaluate the impact of reduced mo-bility caused by the weather and ter-rain. At times, commanders may need to conduct a tactical pause to facilitatethe concentration of combat power at a decisive point. However, they mustconsider time with respect to the enemy as time available is always related tothe enemy s ability to execute his own plan, prepare, and execute cycle. Fig-ure 2-4 summarizes the time considerations that are different from or greaterthan those encountered on flatter terrain.

. A daptability of plans to theterra in a nd v ary in g w ea th erIncreased tim e needed toconduc t r econnai ssancee xe cu te m o ve m en ts a ndsynchronize events on thebattlefieldS ign ifican t varian ce in thenumber of hours ofvisibility w ith season and

elevation

.

.

F ig ure 2 4 . F acto rs A ffectin gTime Avail ab le

united states army - mountain operations

Documents